GE1711

Communication Processes, Principles, and Ethics

I. Definition of Communication
• According to Axley (1984) cited in Dainton & Zelley (2015), communication is the flow of information
from one (1) person to another. Deetz (1994) viewed it as one (1) activity among many others, such
as planning, controlling, and managing.
• It is a complex process associated with sending, receiving, and interpreting messages.
• It is the art and process if creating and sharing ideas (McPheat, 2010).

II. Communication Principles (Adler & Elmhorst, 2012)

A. Communication is unavoidable
It is impossible for a person not to communicate. Our facial expression, posture, gesture, clothing,
etc. offer cues about our attitude. Interestingly, even absence has a power to imply a message.
Because of this principle, it is important to consider the unintentional message you send.
B. Communication operates on two levels
There are two (2) kinds of messages that is sent every time people communicate. First are the
content messages or the information about the topic under discussion. Second, is the relational
messages or signals that indicates how a person feels about one (1) another.
There are three types of relational message: (1) affinity, which refers to the degree to which a
communicator likes the other person or a particular message that is being sent; (2) control, or
the amount of influence in that situation; and lastly (3) respect for other person.
C. Communication is irreversible
You could not take back words you regretted uttering because our words and deeds are recorded
in others’ memories. The more you try to erase an act, the more it stands out.
D. Communication is a process
You should not view communication as if sending and receiving a message were an isolated event.
Rather, ever communication event needs to be examined as part of its communication context.
E. Communication is not a panacea
Though it can smooth out bumps in relationships, communication is not a remedy for all ills or
difficulties. Misunderstandings and ill feelings can increase when people communicate badly.

III. Elements and Models of Communication

A. Elements
1. Sender
The communication process begins with the sender, who can also be called as source. The
sender has some kind of information that s/he wants to share with others and has the
responsibility to encode it in a form that can be understood.
2. Receiver
The person whom a message is directed is called a receiver. S/he decodes or interprets
the message that was received.
3. Message
It is the information that the sender wants to relay to the receiver.
4. Medium
Also called the channel, it is the means by which a message is transmitted.
5. Feedback
It is the response that is given after the message has been successfully transmitted,
received, and understood. Feedback indicates comprehension and can be done through
written or verbal response or in a form of action.
6. Noise
It is the interference that affects the message being sent, received, or understood. A static
over a phone line, misinterpreting a local custom, or language differences are examples of
noise.
7. Context
It is the setting and situation in which communication takes place.

01 Handout 1 *Property of STI

 student.feedback@sti.edu Page 1 of 7
 GE1711

B. Models
1. Aristotle’s Model

Source: https://goo.gl/images/wYD4Eb

It is a speaker-centered model that has five (5) primary elements: speaker, speech,
occasion, audience, and effect. This model shows communication process as one-way,
from speaker to receiver. This process of communication can be used to develop public
speaking skills and create a propaganda. The speaker’s words should influence in
audience mind and persuade their thoughts towards him.

Example:
During a meeting, the President orders the Coast Guard to capture, not to kill poachers
venturing in local waters.

Speaker: the President

Speech: about his order regarding poachers
Occasion: meeting
Audience: members of the Coast Guard
Effect: capture the poachers instead of killing them

2. Berlo’s Model

Source: https://goo.gl/images/LsFIQ5

Adapted from Shannon and Weaver’s Model (1949), this model focuses on encoding and
decoding which happens before the sender sends the message and before receiver
receives the message. Each of the four (4) main components of this model is affected by
five (5) factors.

01 Handout 1 *Property of STI

 student.feedback@sti.edu Page 2 of 7
 GE1711

3. Lasswell’s Model

Source: https://goo.gl/images/rPs7n5

According to Harold Lasswell, a convenient way to describe an act of communication is to

answer the following questions: “Who?” “Says what?” “In which channel?” “To Whom?” and
“With what effect?”
Example:
XYZ News Network – Storm signals were lifted as Tropical Depression Ramil traversed
the West Philippine Sea, a PAGASA weather bureau forecaster said on Thursday.

Who: a PAGASA weather bureau forecaster

What: storm signals were lifted as “Ramil” traversed the West Philippine Sea
Channel: XYZ News Network
Whom: Public
Effect: the people can now resume their day-to-day tasks as the storm signals were
lifted in the archipelago

4. Shannon and Weaver’s Model

Source: https://goo.gl/images/5vhZUq

Also known as “Mathematical Theory of Communication,” this model was created by the
American mathematician Claude Elwood Shannon and scientist Warren Weaver. This
model deals with various concepts like information source, transmitter, channel, noise,
information destination, encoder, and decoder.

Example:
Mr. Lim phoned his assistant and said, “Come in the office, I want to see you.”
Unfortunately, due to the noise of his colleagues, his assistant only heard the phrase “I
want.” Then, the assistant replied, “What do you want Mr. Lim?”

Sender: Mr. Lim

Message: “Come in the office, I want to see you.”
Encoder: Mr. Lim
Channel: Telephone and Cable
Noise: Noise of the assistant’s colleagues
Receiver: Assistant
Message received: “I want.”
Feedback: “What do you want Mr. Lim?”

01 Handout 1 *Property of STI

 student.feedback@sti.edu Page 3 of 7
 GE1711

5. Dance’s Helical Model

Source: https://goo.gl/images/0BnRT4

Helical model gives geometrical testimony of communication. The model is linear as well
as circular combined and disagrees the concept of linearity and circularity individually.
This model introduces the concept of time where continuousness of the communication
process and relational interactions are very important. Communication is taken as a
dynamic process in helical model of communication and it progresses with age as our
experience and vocabulary increases. At first, helical spring is small at the bottom and
grows bigger as the communication progresses. The same effect can be seen with
communication of humans, where you know nothing about a person at first and the
knowledge grows steadily as you know the person better. It considers all the activities of
the person, from the past and present.

6. Schramm’s Interactive Model

Source: https://goo.gl/images/PF0WYL

According to Wilbur Schramm, the communication is a two-way process where both sender
and receiver take turns to send and receive a message.

IV. Types of Communication

A. Verbal Communication
It refers to the sharing of information between individuals by using speech. It employs readily
understood spoken words and ensures appropriate enunciation, stress, and tone of voice.

B. Nonverbal Communication
It refers to messages expressed by other than linguistic means (Adler & Elmhorst, 2012).
1. Nonverbal cues
Body language, eye contact, facial expressions, and space convey a lot of meaning. In
United States, looking someone in the eye is considered a sign of trustworthiness. A firm
handshake, given with a warm, dry hand, is a great way to establish trust.

01 Handout 1 *Property of STI

 student.feedback@sti.edu Page 4 of 7
 GE1711

Source: Adler,. R., & Elmhorst, J., (2012). Communicating at work: principles
and practices for business and the professions. New York: McGraw Hill.

Proxemics or the different kinds of distance that occur between people also gives meaning.
Standing too far away or too close from a colleague can affect the effectiveness of a verbal
communication.

2. Written Communication
It refers to printed messages such as memos, proposals, emails, letters, training manuals,
operating policies, etc. They may be printed on paper, handwritten, or appear on the
screen. In contrast with verbal communication which takes place in real time, written
communication can be constructed over a longer period of time (open.lib.umn.edu).

C. When is it best to use written or verbal communication?

Written Communication
Use this when:
• conveying facts
• the message needs to become part of a
permanent file
• there is little time urgency
• you do not need immediate feedback
• the ideas are complicated
Verbal Communication
Use this when:
• conveying emotions and feelings
• the message does not need to be
permanent
• there is time urgency
• you need immediate feedback
• the ideas are simple or can be made
simple with explanations

V. Etiquette and Ethics in Communication

A. Communication Etiquette (Giang, 2013)
• Phone
1. Be aware of your speaking volume.
Speak calmly. You don’t want to sound as if you are shouting to the person on the
other side of the line.
2. Don’t answer your phone or place your phone on the table when meeting with others.
If you answer a call, you’re basically telling the person you’re meeting that someone
else is more deserving of your time than they are. Placing your phone on the table
signals the person you are with that you’re ready to drop them and connect with
someone else.
3. Let the other person know when you have them on speakerphone.
As a sign of courtesy, ask the permission of the person you are talking with if you will
put him/her on speakerphone. There might be things that s/he wants to say that is
only for you.

01 Handout 1 *Property of STI

 student.feedback@sti.edu Page 5 of 7
 GE1711

• E-mail
1. Use a professional email address.
Never use email addresses that are not appropriate for workplace such as
“bHosxzmh4ph4gm4h4l@gmail.com” or mr_pogi@yahoo.com.
2. Use exclamation points sparingly.
If you choose to use an exclamation point, use only one (1) to convey excitement.
3. Think twice before hitting “reply all.”
No one (1) wants to read emails that have nothing to do with them.
4. Be cautious with humor.
What may be funny when said out loud can come across differently when written.
• Texting and Instant Messaging (IM)
1. You should know the person.
If you know the person through social media but never actually met them, you
shouldn’t IM them.
2. Keep the conversation short.
If the message will require the receiver to take time to think about their response, you
might want to send an email or call them instead.
3. Never send bad news via IM.
IM is too casual as a medium to have an important conversation, particularly one (1)
that’s negative.
4. Be careful with abbreviations.
Shortcuts are more common today, but make sure it’s appropriate for you to be that
informal.
• Video chat
1. Look at the camera.
Looking at the computer screen will make it seem like you are looking down, but
when you look directly at the camera, you will appear to be looking your contact in
the eye.
2. Don’t gesture too much.
Although such expressiveness may be acceptable in person, it may be too much
when you fit it all in one (1) window.
3. Dress appropriately.
Potential clients, your boss, or other professionals you are dealing with don’t want to
see you in a sloppy shirt, yoga pants, and slippers while you are in a video
conference.
Unless you know the person on the other end of your video chat very well, you should
always be decent before starting your chat session.
4. Skip the crowds.
Just because your local pub or coffee shop has free Wi-Fi, doesn’t mean it’s a good
place to talk to your chat partner. Keep in mind that it is annoying when someone
calls you from a loud, noisy place.

B. Characteristics of an Ethical Communicator (McLean, 2012)

A communicator should have a good character and reputation for doing what is right; practicing the
golden rule of treating the audience the way s/he would want to be treated.
• An Ethical Communicator is Egalitarian
To be egalitarian is to believe in basic equality. An egalitarian communicator seeks to unify
the audience by using ideas and language that are appropriate for all the message’s
readers or listeners.
• An Ethical Communicator is Respectful
Losing temper and being abusive are generally regarded as showing lack of
professionalism. It is important to express your sentiments respectfully even though you
disagree with an idea or concept.
• An Ethical Communicator is Trustworthy
Trust is a key component in communication. Do not intentionally omit, delete, or take
information out of context just to prove your points.

01 Handout 1 *Property of STI

 student.feedback@sti.edu Page 6 of 7
 GE1711

REFERENCES:
Adler,. R., & Elmhorst, J., (2012). Communicating at work: principles and practices for business and the professions. New
York: McGraw Hill.
Aristotle’s communication model, (n.d.). Retrieved from http://communicationtheory.org/aristotle%E2%80%99s-
communication-model/ on November 10, 2017.
Different types of communication. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://open.lib.umn.edu/principlesmanagement/chapter/12-5-
different-types-of-communication/.
Giang, V., (2013). 15 Communication etiquette rules every professional needs to know. Retrieved from
http://www.businessinsider.com/professional-communication-etiquette-rules-2013-12.
McLean, S., (2012). Business communication for success. Retrieved from
https://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/communication-for-business-success/s05-04-your-responsibilities-as-a-
com.html.
McPheat, S. (2010). Effective communication skills. London: MTD Training & Ventus Publishing.
Mishra, S. (n.d.). Models of communication. Retrieved from https://www.businesstopia.net/communication
Nordquist, R. (18 September, 2017). The basic elements of the communication process. Retrieved from
https://www.thoughtco.com/what-is-communication-process-1689767
Eliis, K., (2012). Online etiquette for video chat. Retrieved from
http://www.sheknows.com/parenting/articles/1072031/online-etiquette-for-video-chat.
verbal communication. BusinessDictionary.com. Retrieved October 29, 2017, from BusinessDictionary.com website:
http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/verbal-communication.html

01 Handout 1 *Property of STI

 student.feedback@sti.edu Page 7 of 7