2018

RESEARCH
METHODOLOGY

TALVIR SINGH DHIMAN

 Research Aptitude
Search for knowledge
Voyage from known to the unknown
Research follows the following steps
1. Identification and formulation of research problem
2. Review of literature
3. Formulation of hypothesis
4. Preparation of research design
5. Sampling design
6. Collection of data
7. Analysis of data
8. Testing of hypothesis for generalisation
9. Findings and inferences
10. Report writing
Research methodology = Research + method + logic
Research is the 3rd pillar of modern education

UNICEF motto 2009

Modem education =- teaching + learning + research
Teaching - Done by teacher
Learning- done by student itself
- Notification of behaviour by student them self through assignment, seminar
-Permanent charge in character or behaviour of a person is the learning
Research- main aim-economic and social growth
• 2nd GDP in the world-china
• India-6th position in GDP after overtaking Britain in 2016
• 6th largest economy
HDI- human Development index
• It is compiled by UNDP (United Nations Development Project)
• First country-Norway HDI
• India-130th position
• It is compiled considering 3 factors –
Living standard (per capital income is user to measure it
Life expectancy or longitivity (how long you are living . it is 67 in India.
Because of population, resource deficiency, health problems etc.
Literacy -education
3 Should be part of higher education
Knowledge
Skill-practical education should be provided
Wisdom-not intelligence. Wisdom is created by you through practical knowledge/sense
Intelligence is through knowledge

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 Research requirements
I. Planning
- Definition and Classification or purpose and scope of operations
- Analysis to determine the meaning of facts
- Planning helps in bringing a good result in the conclusion
ii. Guidance
- Helps researcher concentrate on problems
- Concerned with the selection of problems
iii. Experts
- Knowledge in the area being studied
- Must be able to guide properly and formulate a well planned project for research
iv. Training
- They know how to plan, organize and maximize educational output
v. Finance
- Problems taken for study require financial help from the state
vi. References
- Well planned project
- Preliminary work done helps while investigating the problem
vii. Library
- Provides materials through books which enhances the quality and quantity of the
research
viii. Research Journals
- Provides studies and research done nationally and internationally

Characteristics of Research
i. It is a scientific investigation. Research (research) means to "search again". It Connotes patient
study and scientific investigation.
ii. It develops concepts and the theories. One reason for conducting research is to develop and
evaluate concepts and the theories.
iii. It expands the limits of knowledge. The basic or pure research attempts to expand the limits
of knowledge. It is conducted to verify the acceptability of a given theory or to know more about
a certain concept.
iv. It cannot be implemented immediately. It does not directly involve the solution to a particular
problem; Its findings generally cannot be implemented immediately.
v. It is an essential tool for good decision making. The task of educational research is to make the
information used in decision making more accurate.
vi. Educational research is a managerial tool that provides information essential for good
decision making. Research in teaching, training, organizing, or management areas of an
institution are within the scope of training research.
vii. Educational research reduces the risk of making wrong decisions. It is an aid to management
judgment, not a substitute for it.

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 Aims and Objectives of Research

Its main aim is to find out the truth which is hidden and which has not been discovered as yet.
Though each research study has its own specific purpose, research objectives may fall into a
number of following broad groupings:

i. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it. (Exploratory or
formulating research studies)

ii. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group.

(Descriptive research studies)

iii. To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated with
something else. (Diagnostic research studies)

iv. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (Hypothesis testing research
studies)
Objective of review of literature-
Aim is to identify research gap
Research gap means the study/ gap between what is already done and what is to be done

2 types of Literature-
Theoretical or conceptual literature – relating to the theories and concepts. It means
explanation of theory behind the concept. We explain the underlying theories about the topic.

Empirical literature / research seeking evidence through empirical studies in the relevant area. It
consists of studies made earlier which is similar to the proposed study.
Relates to previous empirical studies happened in the area.eg. Consumer behavior in durable
area
We show the findings of the studies

Formulation of Hypothesis
• Hypothesis are tentative statements the validity of which is to be tested on
• Hypothesis are valid assumptions which are to be proved/unproved
• They are presumptive statement constructed for testing its validity
• Hypothesis are framed or generated only after a preliminary study i.e, review
of literature
• Formulative research or explorative research – research carried out to
formulate hypothesis
• Formulation of hypothesis can be also done by broad literature review
• Hypothesis should show the relationship among the different variables of
study
• Helps to focus attention on more important aspects of the research problem
• Sharpens thinking process

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 Preparation of research design
The logical framework within which the entire research activities has to be carries out
4 components
Sampling design- It will tell you 3 aspects
What s your sample
What should be the size of the sample?
What type of sampling we use?
Observation design- under what condition you want to observe
Observation can do in any way- indirect, direct, using camera etc.
Disguise observation – observing through participation

Statistical design- What statistical methodology you should perform. Which techniques are used
for analysis? Design for statistical tools and technique

Operation design
How do you execute the project?
-Time required for each and every steps
-Budget about time, cost etc.

Specific only the parameters of the probability density function.

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 Types of Research
1. Pure/Applied/Action Research
2. Exploratory and hypothesis testing research
3. Descriptive v/s analytical research
4. Empirical Quantitative v/s quantitative research
5. Experimental v/s field setting or survey research
6. Historical and exposit facto research
7. Diagnostic research
8. Motivational research
9. One time v/s Longitudinal research
10. Time series v/s cross sectional research/conceptual research

1. Pure / Basic / fundamental / theoretical research

• Aim is development of theories and expanding new principles
• Attainment of knowledge and truth
• Not concerned with solving of any practical problem
• Development of theory means pure research. It verifies old established laws and principles
• It tries to find out cause and effect relationship in social phenomena.
• Research related to pure mathematics, natural phenomena, human behaviour
• Physics is a pure research
• Results are seen only in the long run
• Aims at existence of knowledge
• Lays foundation for applied research

2. Applied Research
• Application of theories in practice means making new inventions and discovery
• Conducted to test the basic assumptions and the validity of theory under a given situation
• Electronics is a applied research
• Marketing research is an applied research
• Edison is the founder of general electrical company
• Jackwelch his autobiography straight from the gut
• GE is the 7th largest company. An American
• Conglomerate-means a company having al lot of unrelated business
Sweden
-EU member – 28 countries, Britain went out of EU. On June 2016, it is in process
HDI-10th
Not a member in European Monitory Union means it is not a member in EURO ZONE
Sweden has its own currency- Swedish crown
Oldest central bank started in 1668. Bank of Sweden.

3. Action Research
It is a part of applied research

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 Research intends to find out immediate solutions for a problem that the society is actually
experiencing.
Conducted on the basis of application of theories or models for finding a solution for an
immediate problem faced by the society.

4. Exploratory Research/ Formulative Research

To gain familiarity with a phenomenon which we are not familiar at present.
To generate new ideas.
Aim is formulation of hypothesis but does not attempt to test hypothesis helps to decide whether
it is feasible to attempt the study.
-Preliminary study of a new problem about which the researcher has little or no knowledge.
-In this study data is analysed to explore the possibility of obtaining as many relationship as
possible between different variable without knowing the end application.

Types
1. Literature survey-review of whole sale price index, periodic stock exchange reports

2. Expenses survey-informal interviews with experienced persons

3. Study of insight stimulating cases - case oriented study.

4. An intensive study of selected cases is conducted in an unexplored area helps to get

stimulating insight about the topic

5. Hypothesis Testing Research

We have to test or check the validity of hypothesis formulated through exploratory research

Types of Hypothesis
1. Research hypothesis-It reflects the actual research
It is not a statistical hypothesis.
It specifies what actually the research intends to do.
E.g. How MGNREGS and rural empowerment in Kerala.
Hypothesis: MGNREGS has significant impact on rural development

2. Statistical hypothesis-
It is a statement about statistical population. It is quantitative in nature
Hypothesis formulated for testing statistical validity.
It is logically drawn assumptions
It can be null hypothesis or alternative hypothesis.

* Null hypothesis: statistical hypothesis which is stated for the purpose of possible
acceptance. The base hypothesis which we actually test in statistical process.
No significance difference or no impact
E.g. MGNREGS has no impact on rural empowerment.

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 *Alternative hypothesis: When the null hypothesis is rejected we accept the other hypothesis
called alternative hypothesis. Denoted by H1

3. Simple hypothesis
It is in a simple statement form.
E.g. rural empowerment in Kerala is high

4. Casual hypothesis
The existence of or change in one variable causes or leads to an effect on another variable.
First variable is called independent variable and second is called dependent variable.
E.g.: MGNREGS has impact on rural empowerment.
Cause is MGNREGS and effect is rural empowerment.

5. Relational hypothesis
Propositions which describe the relationship between two variables.
E.g. rural development in Kerala is relatively higher compared to Tamilnadu.
E.g. labour productivity decreases as working duration increases
.
6. Parametric hypothesis:
Specifies only the parameters of the probability density function.
E.g. “mean of the population is 25”

7. Non-Parametric hypothesis:
If the population specifies only the form of the density function in the population.
E.g. “population is normal”

8. Working hypothesis:
At the initial stage of research, the researcher fixes a hypothesis, which may not be very
specific. These hypothesis is called working hypothesis.
These hypotheses are subject to modification when research is in progress.

6. Descriptive Research
We describe or portray accurately the basic characteristics of a phenomenon or group
We uses simple statistical tools like averages, percentages etc
Social science research is mainly descriptive or exploratory in nature.
E.g. immigrants labor in Kerala
Employability of immigrants of Kerala
We study skill, gender, education etc
Here we just study the characters basic features of people who are immigrants
such study is called descriptive research
• Fact finding investigation, designed to gather descriptive information
• Does not deal with testing of hypothesis or propositions
• Data are collected through observation, interview and mailed questionnaire
• Information’s obtained through this research can be used for
Predicting about areas of social life
For planning social action programmes

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7. Analytical Research
We analyse the relations among variable included in our research problem.
Used in business and other fields where quantitative numerical data are produced
We analyse about a cause variable. I.e. studying about the reasons
• Information or data are analysed and critical evaluations are made to solve problems
• Concerned with testing of hypotheses and specifying and interpreting relation
• Analyse data in depth and examines relationship from various angles
• Mathematical tools and statistical techniques are used

8. Quantitative Research
o Research based on quantitative data
o Financial researches are quantitative research
o variable will be quantifiable
o Concerned with quantitative phenomena

9. Qualitative research
• Based on behavioral data.
• HR research, OR research, consumer research, motivationl research, attitude and opinion
research
• E.g. study relating to stress in BPO
• Aims to discover the underlying motives of human behavior.

10. Empirical research

Research searching or seeking evidences by focusing on a specific context/setting. Data based
research.
It relies on experience or observation alone
Searching evidence based on some assumptions, findings will be always supported by evidence
Researcher should provide a working hypothesis or guess as to the possible results. Then he
collects necessary data to prove or disprove it
E.g. CAPM is working in Indian economy. – Here we are looking for evidence.

10. Conceptual Research

Aims to synthesis new ideals and often based on abstract ideas and do not provide any evidence
for the findings.
There will be no evidence; here aim is only to develop a new concept.

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All philosophical research is conceptual research because we cannot provide evidence.
E.g. Buddha philosophy
Tool of conceptual research – phenomenology

11. Experimental Research

Research based on experiments. It means facts and findings are reached through experiments.
Experiment is an action that can be repeated under same conditions many times.
Aims at determining whether and in what manner variables are related to each other.
Concerned with cause and effect relations

3 principles of experiment research:

1. Principle of Replication
• Experiment should be repeated many times

2. Principle of Randomisation
-subjects are assigned to experiment on random basis
-Two groups are there – test group and control group (special treatment). Allocations should
be randomised.

3. Principle of local control

We should control or minimize the impact of the extraneous variable.

Variable in Experimental research:

1. Dependent or endogenous variable of effect variable
-variable which depends on another variable
2. Independent or exogenous or cause variable
Which does not depend on other factors?
3. Moderating variable
There are certain variable which are not directly influencing directly but through some other
variable
E.g. service quality index

Extraneous variable
There are certain variable/ factors which are influencing the dependent variable but are
outside the scope of study
E.g. coaching and exam performance
Knowledge base and IQ are the extraneous variables

4. Confounded Relationships
If dependent variable is not free from the influence of extraneous variable then the
relationship between dependent and independent variable is said to be confounded by
extraneous variable.
E.g. the relationship between coaching and exam performance is confounded by IQ and other
factors of students.

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5. Latent variable
Tangibility refers to the good ambience of the bank

6. Test Group and control group

The process of minimizing the influences of extraneous various is called control (principle of
local control)
Test group: group which are exposed to special treatment. E.g. providing extra care i.e. group
which is provided with medicine and yoga and meditation?

Control group: group which is exposed to normal treatment. E.g. medicine alone.
Study: yoga and meditation brings significant changes in sugar level.

12. Field research / Survey research

We should conduct survey and collect data from respondents.

13. Desk research:

Linguistic research literatures are desk research. Primly uses secondary data.

14. Historic research:

Based on past data includes both primary and secondary data.
Aims to find out explanations and generalizations from past trends in order to understand the present and
to foresee the future.
Success depends upon the relevance, completeness, reliability, ingenuity and adequacy of collected data

15. Ex post facto research:

Expost facto means ‘form after the fact’
We trace an effect after the event has occurred e.g. postmortem report.
Occurs when data are available that could not be generated by experimental research.
Researcher should eliminate all possible causes.

16. Expository research :

Based purely on existing information
Results in review type reports.
E.g. an analysis of works of a prominent author
Comparison of tax structures in developed and developing countries.

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17. Ex post prediction / research :
Based on past data. 2 models are followed.
‘Z square model’ – to check whether the company becomes bankrupt
Altman Toffler: - scores which predict bankruptcy
If score is below 1.9 – it is highly risky to bankruptcy
Here after bankruptcy the study will be conducted

18. Ex- ante research :

Future is predicted
It studies before the occurrence of bankruptcy

19. Diagnostic research

To diagnose the frequency with which the event occurs. We are searching for the causes.
Directs towards discovering what is happening and what can be done about.
Aims to identify the causes of a problem and finds possible solutions for solving the problem
Similar to descriptive research
E.g. disease should be treated not the symptoms.

20. Motivational research :

It is a part of psychological research. Ultimate aim is to find out the underlying desires , urge , motives for
doing something by the individuals.
Mental, operant and classical conditioning
Classical conditioning:
Evan Pavlov concept
Stimulus leads to consequences.
All animal training is based on it.
Operant conditioning:
B skinner
Reverse of classical conditioning
E.g. if you complete homework go and play.

One time v/s longitudinal research:

A research covers a single timing period that is called one time research.
A research covering several time periods is called longitudinal research

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Cross sectional and time series research
Cross sectional research means research that covers a group of samples at a particular point of time.
Most of the survey research is of this type. Here we compare behavior of different small group combined
in the group.
Time series is a research using time series data, data collection is easy but analysis is difficult.
Time series data is the data arranged in chronological order and is available at regular intervals.
E.g. monthly, yearly etc

Panel research
Research that uses panel / polled data
Polled data is the combination of time series and cross sectional research E.g. FDI and economic growth;
we have data for a period of 1990 – 2012

Others
Longitudinal research:
o Research carried over several time periods

Field Setting Research or Laboratory Research:

o Depending on the environment

Clinical or Diagnostic Research:

o Goes deep into the causes of events or things

Exploratory or Formalized:
o Development of hypothesis/ Testing hypothesis

Historical:
o Uses historical resources to study events or ideas of the past

Problem oriented research:

o To look for solutions to the problem

Decision oriented:
o Done for the need of the decision maker.

Operational:
o Example of decision-making research.
o Provides a quantitative basis for taking up a decision

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 Sampling Design
Sampling is the process of selecting a representative part of the population collecting data
there from and then making generalization about the population based on the sampling
information.
Main problem of a social services research arises due to the selection of sampling design.
Steps in sampling design
1. Define the population or universe
2. State the sampling frame
3. Identify the sampling unit
4. State sampling method
5. Determine the sample size
6. Spell out the sampling plan
7. Select the sample

Principle of sampling design

1. Law of statistical regulatory
Relating large sample randomly selected from a population shall possess almost all
characteristics of the population.
Derived from mathematical theory of probability

2. Law of Inertia of large numbers:

Large samples are more consistent than smaller ones.
Large samples are more stable than small samples.
Large groups of data show a higher degree of stability than smaller ones.

Standard Error
• It means S.D of a sampling distribution
• When SD is lower it means it is reliable. Because it includes larger samples
• To reduce standard error we should increase the no of samples

Central limit theorem:

The theorem hides the principles of a Sample Design
Central limit theorem: Assumptions
1. Any sample which is taken from a normal population shall hold the properties/features of a
normal distribution.
2. Large sample taken from a population approximately normal even though population is not
normal.

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 Types of sampling
Probability / random sampling Non probability / non – random sampling

1. Simple random sampling Convenience sampling

Lottery method Judgement sampling
Table of random numbers Purposive sampling
2. Restricted random sampling Snow ball sampling
Systematic sampling Quota sampling
Stratified sampling Eventual sampling
Cluster sampling Sequential sampling
Multi stage sampling
Random route sampling

RANDOM SAMPLING
Population should be invite then only we can use this method.
Each and every units of the population has a chance of being selected.
Sampling error can be calculated and minimized

Simple Random, Sampling

If the change is equal, then it is called simple Random, sampling i.e., each and every sample
has equal chances of being selected. Practically it cannot be used.

1. Lottery method
Blind fold selection
All the items of universe is represented in small chits of paper
2. Random number method
We random number tables to select samples from the universe.
Most popular - Tippet’s table of Random number’s

Restricted Random Sampling

• No equal chance of being selected
• We bring complexity here
• Time consuming process
• Involves cost and money

1. Systematic Random Sampling

• When population is finite and homogeneous. We use this method
• E.g. Problems and prospects of Khadhi units of Kerala

• MSME 2005 Act says below 25 lakh – Micro

25 lakh -5 cr – small

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 5cr and above - Medium
* Geographical base list is taken and then sampled are collected From each area.

2. Stratified Random Sampling

-When population is finite but heterogeneous

Heterogeneity among population. Homogeneity within strata
E.g.” Savings habit of bank employees in Kerala.”
Heterogeneity is there govt, pvt, last grade etc....
We should convert heterogeneous in to homogeneous. We divide it into multiple income group
(high, low, medium)
We divide the population in to sub group called strata

3. Cluster Random Sampling

Happens in area where adequate population list are lacking

Used when there is no satisfactory sampling frame available and list has to be constructed.
Cluster means all objects in cluster are similar but objects between clusters are different.
E.g. Taking all fisherman in a particular panchayath.
i.e., there will be difference between the samples selected from different panchayath
PSU – primary sampling unit, sample clusters are selected using unrestricted sampling method.

4. Multi stage random sampling

Infinite population
Widely used in social science research
• E.g. Living condition of fishermen in Kerala
• We know fisherman live in coastal area
• Kerala divided into southern : middle and northern
• We can take decision based on judgement, purposive or probability. Take panchayath of coastal
area - ward - select people.
•
Angles Curve
When income increases (expenditure increases) money will be deployed over diversified activity.

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 NON – PROBABILITY SAMPLING
Sample selection is based on convenience of enquiry
Purpose of enquiry
Personal judgement
•
*Probability is not a factor
Used when sample frame is not available
Often used in exploratory research / studies
E.g. for generating hypothesis

1. Convenience/Chunk Sampling
*convenience of the investigator

2. Judgment Sampling

-Based on personal judgment of investigator

E.g. Demonetization bought digital banking
-Here the investigator decided whom to answer his question.
I.e., when he has to survey is depends on his personnel judgment.
Advantage – possible to get a targeted sample together very quickly and cheaply.

3. Purpose/deliberate Sampling

E.g. Exit pool agency

• Investigators manipulate / modify/ condition the things is way favourite to them.

4. Snowball sampling

-When a snowball started falling from the top of mountain it was small, but when reached valley
it became a big snow ball
- We have to select people
E.g. Study regarding people using Audi car in Kerala
We may not know everybody. We approach those we know initially. Then we ask them for
reference.
• Initial sample is taken specific number of people and further samples are selected based on the
reference given by initial ones.

5. Quota Sampling
E.g. Survey of Chitty
• Data collections are called enumerators-
• In order to collect data through enumerators after providing a quota. Quota is the fixed number
of persons who he need to survey

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• Bias of enumerator effects the shady.
• A type of judgement sampling often used in market research.

6. Event Sampling

E.g. Festival tourism-trissur pooram

• When an event happens we select samples for survey
• Sampling should be done during/when the event is happening or close to the happening of event
may be before/after an event
• Sample should be collected from people who are directly/indirectly contacting with the event.

7. Sequential Sampling

-Pre determined sample size will be there, we sequentially carries on the sampling until the
completion i.e., until the sample size / final size is acquired.
- Sampling is done sequentially until we reach the sample size.

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 COLLECTION OF DATA
Primary data through survey technique
Observation
Projective techniques

Protective Techniques / Indirect methods

1. Word Association Test
• We spell a word and asks the respondent to comment
• Depending on the response, we can analysis the respondents mentality

2. Sentence completion Test

A sentence will be given and asks to response

3. Rorschach test
Clinical psychology is used based on an respondents response about the picture on the card.
- used in behavior studies

4. Rosenzweig Test
Something pictures and bubbles ( i.e., black) are given on cash picture. Respondent are asked to
fill the columns

5. Semantic differential scale

• Semantic means how you understand the things
• Seminar error happens when we use confusing words, words with different meaning, putting of
commas
• A list of items are given in bipolar statement
• A bipolar statement is given asking the respondent to response on any point coming in the scale.
• May be about character, attributes etc.

6. Cryptography
• - picture are given and participant is asked to explain the tag line
“Finger linking good – so good” – KFC

7. Ink plot test

-Ink dipped in a thread used to make some image ask people how they feel

8. Likert scale
= Reins likert developed this
He was a behaviour thinker
Father of behaviour approach –
Book of liker – “New patters of management”
E.g. strongly agree, agree.....

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 DATA ANALYSIS
It is of two types:
1. Descriptive :
First we should say about samples i.e. identify properties and features of sample should
be studied.
Uni-variate analysis is carried out.
2. Inferential :
We draw inferences about the population parameter based on sampling information /
statistics.
In descriptive analysis, we have clear picture about the sample. Sample should be free
from errors.

ERRORS
1. Sampling error:
Difference between actual and estimated value of distribution is called sampling error. It occurs
due to inadequate size of the sample. I.e. It is inadequate to make inferences. It is called
sampling error. It can be removed by increasing number of samples

2. Non Sampling error.

Wrong choice of statistical methodology or wrong way of questions’ lead to this error-
It is inherent and such error cannot be eliminated
It is due to the incorrect collection of samples

DATA AND STRUCTURE

Basically data is classified into qualitative and normal but actual classification of data
Is based on properties of classification.

Properties of classifications. - 1.Order 2. Distance 3. Origin

1. Order
Data should be capable of ordering either ascending or in descanting order

2. Distance
We are able to find out the differences between the data

3. Origin
There should be presence of absolute or real zero

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 CLASSIFICATION OF DATA

Nominal Ordinal interval ratio

No property is Fulfils the property of Fulfils the principle of All properties are
followed order order and distance, fulfilled
E.g. gender, employed E.g. ranks, preference but does not fulfil
/ unemployed data origin.

NOMINAL DATA
• No sophiscated statistical methodology is possible. No more complexity
• Frequencies are used
• Analysis is subject to count and percentage only

ORDINAL DATA
• There is no distance of origin
• Ordinal data means ranks preference data
• Here we can say the order, we cannot find out the differences
• For analysis - We can apply non parametric test is possible e.g. χˆ2 , binomial etc
• best average is median

INTERVAL DATA
• Data have the status of order and distances but no origin
• Temperature scale like Kelvin scale etc. Here we cannot provide nullity of temperature in zero
Even in zero, there is a temperature.
• We have order (10˚ – 20˚) but we cannot say that temperature at 40˚ is double the temperature in
20˚

E.g. Class I - 1 2 11 12 21 22 31 32 41 42
Class II - 8 9 18 19 28 29 38 39 48 49
Class internal 0-10 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50
2 2 2 2 2
Here both cases will be same. But in reality it is not.
Here there is no clear origin hence we cannot reflect the difference in

Analysis computed mathematical averages are possible both parametric and non parametric data
is used for analysis.

RATIO
• It is true data

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• If fulfils all properties
• Sales, cost, height, weight etc. will never be –ve. It will only reach zero
• Analysis : As in the interval

Reliability v/s validity

-When we get data we should measure its reliability and validity
Reliability is the ability of data to produce consistent result
Validity is the efficiency of the survey instrument to provide valued results.
-If the data is valid then it will be reliable also
Validity also means reliability
But reliability does not means valid

CROANBACH ALPHA
-to measure the reliability of data
Data is reliable if it has a value is minimum of 0.7
It is a correlation
3 aspects:
1. Concept
2. Construct
3. Variable
• Concephralisation should be there
• Measure the concept - construct
• Variable should be measured - variables are part of / constitute to construct
• There are 24 statements in the 5 components of survival
• Questionnaire should not be opposing
How far the responses to the statement are related to each other is called croanbach alpha

VALIDITY
Efficiency of the instrument / construct to produce valid results
Measurement of validity
1. Content validity
2. Construct validity
3. Criterion validity
4. Concurrent validity

1. Content Validity
• Data instrument covers all the aspects that you actually intends to measure
• E.g. We are studying “investment behaviour”
Investors are of three types:
Risk lovers – he goes to any level of risk provides his ventures provide a good return.
Risk averters: - he is often controlled by risk. He prefers to take sure shot. He needs lower risk.
Risk neutral – he assumes / acquires a risk to a level if he gets return for it

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 2 .Construct Validity
• To what extend it agrees with underlying theory base on which the concept is formed
• All researchers basic / underlying theory-how much it is sup portly the theories

3. Criterian Validity
• Criterion validity measures how well one measure / predicts an outcome for another measure
• It has two components-
Predictive validity
If a measure accurately predicts, what it is supposed to predict it is predictive validity.
E.g. regression. It should be able to predict future.
If we use a test today, we should able to measure in future too ie, predictive validity

Concurrent validity
Means it will produce the same result when one technique / test replaces another test.
E.g. correlation usually says chance.

4. Concurrent Validity
• It we are trying to measure , we should be correct in same way
• We cannot use parametric in non parametric
• But we can use non parametric test in parametric data
• In quantitative data - we can use both parametric and non parametric tools
• In qualitative data - non parametric only

Investors in market
• Pig – will not be sufficient
• Chicken- we will sell off and ran away when some risk appears
• Bull- they take shares which are at bottom, then rise it up and then sell it away
• Bear- It is a hitter
Shares at high price-is hit into reach at bottom
Secondary data Research
• Should be free from all types of errors
• Today most research are based on secondary data

Seven Threats to Validity

1. History- events that take place between the pretest and post test that may be a partial or total
explanation for the differences-control group will help
2. Maturation-refers to physiological and biological development that takes place over time.

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3. Regression-occurs due to the imperfect relationship between the pretest and the posttest
scores. Ex: lack of sleep, illness
4. Instrumentation-changes occurring in the instruments and observation procedures
5. Pre-testing-effect pretest has on subsequent tests- may serve as learning instrument
6. Mortality-loss of subjects during an experiment
7. Selection-the procedure used to choose subject who participate

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 REPORT WRITING
Ethics should be there as there are legal and moral obligations
There should not be any semantic error
Technical papers
-you have sufficiency knowledge to understand

Conceptualization

He should have basic knowledge

Oral report
Verbal report

Reporting is done in three stages

1. Preliminary pages
2. Main body
Important content
Introduction - findings and conclusion
3. End matter
Bibliography - references
- References indicate the work of others which are sited in the text which comes in the
chapter
A name came in reference should also be shown / sited in main test
Bibliography is the list of all material sources which you have accessed for preparation of
the report or content of your study all sources should be sited. It means it includes the
references to
It covers wide area of material or media which referred for conducting the study
It comes at the end of the report
While writing journals we should use reference and not bibliography

Reference Style
1. APA style
American psychological Association
Normally last name first
2. MLA style
Modern language association
3. HBR style
Haward Business Review
4. CMA style
Chicago Manual style

Analysis Software
• Cross-sectional studies - SPSS

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• Time service studies
• Stata
• Openstat
• M-stat
• SAS
• R ( means regression)
• RATS
• LIseral
• Amoos
• EVUS
• GRETE
• EVIEWS
• TISEA-Time series analysis
• MATLAB-for mathematical lab
• OXPC GIVE

Seminar-
On a specific theme normally last 2-3 days.
People having academic and practical knowledge
Debate and discussions are possible.
Resource person from different background come and lead the topics covered under the theme.
Participants are normally restricted to 40 – 50

Workshop-
Organised for developing a skill on a particular are in a academics and actually done / made by
learning process
Resource person shows how to do things.
Learning by doing
We have a training experience.
Participants are normally restricted to 40 – 50

Conference symposium-Large no. of participation

Conferences-
Spans 3 or more days and larger audiences are participating there.
There are different themes most often presented in the form of panel discussions involving
people having differing viewpoints delivers / present debate and discuss on a specific theme
given to them.
It usually has practioner session along with academic debate.

Symposium-
More often like conferences participating large audiences and their presentations by participants
are more in number instead of academic deliberations by the resource persons. Usually the

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sessions will be lead by a moderator and there are possibilities for debate and discussion by the
participants.

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