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TITLE
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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Preface
Acknowledgement
Subject Matter

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER 2: PRE-COLONIAL PERIOD

Synopsis
Reaction
Proaction

CHAPTER 3: SPANISH-COLONIAL PERIOD

Synopsis
Reaction
Proaction

CHAPTER 4: JAPANESE-COLONIAL PERIOD

Synopsis
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Reaction
Proaction

CHAPTER 5: AMERICAN-COLONIAL PERIOD

Synopsis
Reaction
Proaction

CHAPTER 6: MARTIAL LAW

Synopsis
Reaction
Proaction

CHAPTER 7: EDSA REVOLUTION

Synopsis
Reaction
Proaction

CHAPTER 8: PHILIPPINE GOVERNMENT

Synopsis
Reaction
Proaction

Preface
Readings in Philippine history may have an import of a “ Pahiwatig “ a sign

that applies to something which provides objective evidence that the event

happened are can reasonably be expected. It can also apply to something

which is regarded as extra ordinary and as a promise of something good. It

contains historical messages which are manifested or transmitted to be

noticed,headed and valued.

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History sends signs through its writers words or organized documents. These

documents may be coming from primary,secondary or tertiary

sources.Readings in Philippine History require two-way processes : 1.) The

examination of the authenticity or originality of the message sent by the writer

of a document are 2.) The access of the reader to such original document in

order to understand its real content and context with bearing on culture and

tradition in the past which may help in the present guest for truth towards

national destiny.

The Government of the Republic of the Philippines is its political organization

which consists of three branches : the executive headed by the president, the

legislative by the congress and the judiciary by the supreme court. Government

of a state is important and necessary because : 1.) it mountains peace and order ;

2.) it promotes and dispenses social justice ; 3.) it ensures socioeconomic culture

and a political development ; 4.) it safe guards the state sovereignty and 5.) it

maintains diplomatic relations with other countries.

Sovereignty is the full right and power of a governing body over itself, without

any interference from outside sources or bodies. In political

theory, sovereignty is a substantive term designating supreme authority over

some polity.
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Acknowledgement
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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
A sound grasp of history is fundamental when seeking to understand the

contemporary world. It teaches us about our heritage, enlightens and informs

us about past struggles, and can help shed light on current events. Indeed, by

studying and reflecting on the actions of historical groups or individuals, we

may be able to gain knowledge about what course of action to pursue in the

present.

“We study the past to understand the present; we understand the

present to guide the future.” — William Lund

People are often surprised when the look back in history: more often than not

they find that the battles they are fighting today have been fought by

successive generations in the past. Indeed, a cursory glance through the

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history books will reveal that the struggle against social inequality in all of its

various manifestations has been a recurring theme throughout history.

This also applies to the problems that people have sought to address such as

the inequalities that come with capitalism and this is where the study of history

can reveal long-term trends. For example, some of the more insidious effects of

living within a capitalist social system are that surface appearances can be

deceptive and misleading. In particular, capitalist social relations can appear

egalitarian and equitable when, in fact, they are based on fundamental

discrepancies of wealth and power. However, by having a firm grasp of history

these exploitative relations are rendered visible and consequently, their very

visibility makes them politically malleable.

History also allows us to understand the present through the past, as it places

our struggles and problems into a wider historical context. This shows us that

history is a dynamic force that builds on the past to create the future in positive

(and often negative) ways. Many contemporary social movements have been

inspired by or built upon examples of the past.

It is the common people that make history: they are the driving force of history.

Churchill may have been important in the Second World War, but the common
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people of all countries fought against fascism at a huge cost to themselves,

playing a not insignificant part in that particular struggle.

CHAPTER 2
The Rarely Told Story of Pre-Colonial Philippines

The Philippines were ruled by Western powers - first the Spanish and later the

United States, for some 350 years. Except for a few religious minorities, the

Philippines has also become thoroughly Christianized and boasts of being the

only country in Southeast Asia with a Christian majority. This leaves few traces of

its pre-colonial history, in which the culture of the archipelago was influenced

by India, China, and Southeast Asian civilizations. The pre-colonial Philippines

was also influenced by spiritual traditions from indigenous animism, Islam,

Buddhism, and Hinduism.

The Earliest Humans in the Philippines

In 2018, evidence was found suggesting that early humans may have reached

the islands as far back as 700,000 years ago. Skeletal remains of an extinct

rhinoceros dating to the mid-Pleistocene have been found at an archaeological

site on the island of Luzon.

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The bones show evidence of having been cut with stone tools. Stone tools were

also found adjacent to the bones. This is a definite indication that a tool-using

species was present on the island at that date.

Based on archaeological knowledge of the technological capabilities of Homo

Erectus , it is considered unlikely that these early humans arrived there by

intentional navigation. They more likely reached it by way of a natural raft,

expelled into the open ocean by a typhoon, that happened to wash up on the

island. Nonetheless, it is still a remarkable find that humans may have been

present in the Philippines for almost a million years because they were

previously believed to have only inhabited the islands within the last 100,000

years.

The earliest evidence of a regular human presence in the Philippines dates to

about 50,000 BP. By the 2nd Millennium BC, agriculture and sedentary living

had been introduced to the archipelago and at least some of the indigenous

inhabitants of the islands were living in settled villages, making pottery, and

cultivating rice.

Religion in the Pre-Colonial Philippines

Religion has often been an important part of defining the identity of the

inhabitants of the Philippines. Before the arrival of foreign religions from the

West, such as Christianity and Islam, the predominant religious system in the

Philippine archipelago was a type of animism.

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The ancient inhabitants of the Philippines, as well as some modern Filipinos who

still practice the old religion, believed that gods and spirits guarded natural

features such as mountains, rivers, and forests. Sacrifices would regularly be

offered to these entities to appease them.

Every village or town had shamans and priests who were believed to wield

power over the supernatural world. While foreign religions largely replaced

indigenous animism, many elements of the old religion were carried over into

the new.

Buddhist and Hindu Influences in the Philippines’ History

The first foreign religions to make a mark on the archipelago may have been

Buddhism and Hinduism. Around 900 AD, several of the island polities were

vassal states of the Empire of Srivijaya. Srivijaya was a city-state on the island of

Sumatra and a center of Buddhist learning that flourished roughly from 700 to

1100 AD

It is possible that Buddhist missionaries may have gone out from this center to

bring their faith to the islands of the Philippines. Although there are no

historical records that describe a significant Buddhist presence on the islands

before the colonial period, there is evidence of Buddhist as well as Hindu

influence from the use of a lunar calendar that developed in an originally Hindu

and Buddhist context.

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Islam in the Philippines

By the 14th century AD, Islam had spread to islands of Mindanao and Sulu. Not

long afterwards, powerful sultanates grew on these islands and Islam became

entrenched so strongly that areas on these islands still remain Islamic today, in

the otherwise Christian Philippines. But it is unclear how Islam first spread to the

Philippines.

It has been suggested that it might have been spread by merchants from

Indonesia and India. It has also been proposed that some Filipino rulers

converted to Islam to strengthen political ties with powerful Islamic trading

partners in Southeast Asia. Others have suggested that Sufi scholars and other

Muslim teachers went to the islands to intentionally spread Islam.

Whether Islam spread primarily by trade, politics, or by deliberate proselytizing,

Islam had a significant influence on the culture of the Philippines. The Islamic

polities that developed on the southern islands were centralized and influential.

It is possible that, had the Spanish not arrived, it would not have been long

before the Philippines became predominantly Islamic.

These alien religions did not, however, completely replace indigenous traditions.

Indigenous Muslims were able to incorporate their native beliefs and practices

into Islam just as easily as indigenous Christians have done with Catholic

Christianity.

Legacy
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The islands of the Philippines have a varied and diverse human history possibly

going back 700,000 years and involving multiple cultures and even species

( Homo Erectus and Homo Sapiens ).

 The Laguna Copperplate Inscription: An Ancient Text That Changed the

Perception of the History of the Philippines

 Fire Mummies - The Smoked Human Remains of the Kabayan Caves

 The Unique Hanging Coffins of Sagada, Philippines

The culture of the Philippines has been influenced by many civilizations, such as

China, India, and Srivijaya. It has also been influenced by many religious

traditions, such as Hinduism, Buddhism, Islam, and Christianity.

Nonetheless, the indigenous people of the Philippines have remained

distinctive. Even those who converted to Islam or Christianity incorporated

their cultural individuality into their adopted faith and made it their own. This

pattern will likely continue as the people of the Philippines continue to fuse all

that is authentically Filipino with new ideas and cultural influences.

Ancient Interactions Between the Philippines and Southeast Asia

Beginning in the first millennium AD, indigenous chiefdoms emerged on the

islands and had regular trade contact with Southeast Asia and China.

Archaeological evidence shows that the chiefdoms could support craft

specialists such as metalsmiths and textile workers. Chieftains also distributed

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long distance trade goods and plunder from war raids to both their elite and

non-elite servants. Over time, these chiefdoms became full-fledged kingdoms.

Writing was also prevalent in the Philippines during this time. The scripts used

on the islands were influenced by writing systems from India and Indonesia.

Unfortunately, very few texts survive from that period, although there is one

known precolonial Philippines artifact that contains writing, the Laguna

Copperplate , from about 900 AD.

This plate bears what appears to be an official inscription written in a script used

across Maritime Southeast Asia at the time. This script was ultimately derived

from an Indian script. It also references a date using a lunar calendar that was

common across Southeast Asia. The Laguna Copperplate demonstrates that the

islands were not isolated and suggests that they had significant contact with the

rest of Southeast Asia as early as the 10th century AD, if not earlier.

CHAPTER 3
Spanish colonialism in The Philippines Portugese explorer Ferdinand Magellan

successfully led the European expedition to Philippines in the service of the King

of Spain. On 31 March 1521 at Limasawa Island, Southern Leyte, as stated in

Pigafetta's Primo Viaggio Intorno El Mondo (First Voyage Around the World),

Magellan solemnly planted a cross on the summit of a hill overlooking the sea

and claimed for the king of Spain possession of the islands he had seen, naming

them Archipelago of Saint Lazarus. The invasion of Philippines by foreign

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powers however didn’t begin in earnest until 1564. After Magellan's voyage,

subsequent expeditions were dispatched to the islands.

Four expeditions were sent: Loaisa (1525), Cabot (1526), Saavedra (1527),

Villalobos (1542), and Legazpi (1564) by Spain. The Legazpi expedition was the

most successful as it resulted in the discovery of the tornaviaje or return trip to

Mexico across the Pacific by Andrés de Urdaneta. This discovery started the

Manila galleon trade1 , which lasted two and a half centuries. In 1570, Martín de

Goiti having been dispatched by Legazpi to Luzon2 , conquered the Kingdom

of Maynila (now Manila). Legazpi then made Maynila the capital of the

Philippines and simplified its spelling to Manila. His expedition also renamed

Luzon Nueva Castilla. Legazpi became the country's first governor-general. The

archipelago was Spain's outpost in the orient and Manila became the capital of

the entire Spanish East Indies. The colony was administered through the

Viceroyalty of New Spain (now Mexico) until 1821 when Mexico achieved

independence from Spain. After 1821, the colony was governed directly from

Spain.

Spain had three objectives in its policy toward the Philippines, its only colony in

Asia: to acquire a share in the spice trade, to develop contacts with China and

Japan in order to further Christian missionary efforts there, and to convert the

Filipinos to Christianity. Only the third objective was eventually realized, though
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not completely because of the active resistance of both the Muslims in the

south and the Igorot, the upland tribal peoples in the north. Philip II, king of

Spain explicitly ordered that pacification of the Philippines be bloodless, to

avoid a repetition of 1 Galleon refers to Spanish ships which were used for

warfare and later for trade. 2 Luzon is the largest and most populous island of

Philippines. Spain's sanguinary conquests in the Americas. Occupation of the

islands was accomplished with relatively little bloodshed, partly because most of

the population (except the Muslims) offered little armed resistance initially.

However there have been several incidents of atrocities committed by the

Spanish authorities, one of the most incredible acts of heinous torture took

place in the Fortress of Sebastian Intra Mores in Manila where there was a

dungeon known as the Black Hole. The prison had only two small apertures,

one three feet square in the ceiling, the other a little gated hole in the floor

through which the sea could be seen washing underneath. The Spanish

authorities used to confine state prisoners in the hole to the brimful without

food and water and just sufficient air to prevent them from dying immediately.

Physical torture was meted out to the unmanageable prisoners.

During most of the Spanish colonial period, the Philippine economy depended

on the Galleon Trade which was inaugurated in 1565 between Manila and

Acapulco, Mexico. Trade between Spain and the Philippines was via the Pacific

Ocean to Mexico (Manila to Acapulco), and then across the Caribbean Sea and
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Atlantic Ocean to Spain (Veracruz to Cádiz). Manila became the most important

center of trade in Asia between the 17th and 18th centuries. All sorts of products

from China, Japan, Brunei, the Moluccas and even India were sent to Manila to

be sold for silver 8-real coins3 which came aboard the galleons (Spanish ships)

from Acapulco (city in Mexico). These goods, including silk, porcelain, spices,

lacquer ware and textile products were then sent to Acapulco and from there to

other parts of New Spain, Peru and Europe. The European population in the

archipelago steadily grew although natives remained the majority. They

depended on the Galleon Trade for a living. In the later years of the 18th century,

GovernorGeneral Basco introduced economic reforms that gave the colony its

first significant internal source income from the production of tobacco and

other agricultural exports. In this later period, agriculture was finally opened to

the European population, which before was reserved only for the natives.

During Spain’s 333 year rule in the Philippines, the colonists had to fight off the

Chinese pirates (who lay siege to Manila, the most famous of which was

Limahong in 1574), Dutch forces, Portuguese forces, and indigenous revolts.

Moros from western Mindanao and the Sulu Archipelago also raided the coastal

Christian areas of Luzon and the Visayas and occasionally 3 Silver 8-real coin

was the silver coin minted by the Spanish empire after 1598. captured men and

women to be sold as slaves. On April 25, 1898, the Spanish–American War

began with declarations of war. On May 1, 1898, the Spanish navy was decisively
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defeated in the Battle of Manila Bay by the Asiatic Squadron of the U.S. Navy

led by Commodore George Dewey aboard the USS Olympia. Thereafter Spain

lost the ability to defend Manila and therefore the Philippines.

The Filipino movement against Spanish authorities had both violent and

non-violent proponents. Jose Rizal was the most prominent face of the

moderate opposition to the Spanish rule who advocated political reforms of

The Philippines under Spain. Jose Rizal was a man of incredible intellectual

power, with amazing artistic talent as well. He excelled at anything that he put

his mind to - medicine, poetry, sketching, architecture, sociology. In 1882, he

traveled to Spain to complete his medical degree. While in Europe, José Rizal

became part of the Propaganda Movement, connecting with other Filipinos

who wanted reform. He also wrote his first novel, Noli Me Tangere (Touch Me

Not/The Social Cancer), a work that detailed the dark aspects of Spain's colonial

rule in the Philippines, with particular focus on the role of Catholic friars. The

book was banned in the Philippines, though copies were smuggled in. Rizal

returned to the Philippines in 1892. Although the reform society he founded, the

Liga Filipino (Philippine League), supported non-violent action, Rizal was still

exiled to Dapitan, on the island of Mindanao. In August 1896, Katipunan, a

nationalist Filipino society founded by Andres Bonifacio, revolted. Though Rizal

had no ties to the group, and disapproved of its violent methods, Rizal was

arrested shortly thereafter. After a show trial, Rizal was convicted of sedition and
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sentenced to death by firing squad. Rizal's public execution was carried out in

Manila on December 30, 1896, when he was 35 years old. His execution created

more opposition to Spanish rule.

On May 19 1898, Filipino radical revolutionary Emilio Aguinaldo returned to the

Philippines from self exile in Hong Kong aboard an American naval ship and on

May 24 took command of Filipino forces. Filipino forces had liberated much of

the country from the Spanish. On June 12, 1898 Aguinaldo issued the Philippine

Declaration of Independence declaring independence from Spain and later

established the First Philippine Republic. Filipino forces then laid siege to Manila,

as had American forces. The Americans entered into a pact with the Spanish

governorgeneral in which they agreed to fight a mock battle before

surrendering Manila to the Americans.

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The Battle of Manila took place on August 13 and Americans took control of the

city. In the Treaty of Paris (1898) ending the Spanish–American War, the Spanish

agreed to sell the Philippines to the United States for $20 million which was

subsequently narrowly ratified by the U.S. Senate. With this action, Spanish rule

in the Philippines formally ended. However the sovereignty status of The

Philippines remained unchanged till 1946, as the void left by Spain was

immediately filled with the U.S.A. The Philippines was illegally ceded to the

United States at the Treaty of Paris for US$20 million, together with Cuba and

Puerto Rico. A Filipino-American War broke out as the United States attempted

to establish control over the islands. The war lasted for more than 10 years,

resulting in the death of more than 600,000 Filipinos. The little-known war has

been described by historians as the "first Vietnam", where US troops first used

tactics such as strategic hamleting and scorched-earth policy to "pacify" the

natives.

The United States established an economic system giving the colonizers full

rights to the country's resources. The Spanish feudal system was not dismantled;

in fact, through the system of land registration that favored the upper Filipino

classes, tenancy became more widespread during the US occupation. Native

elites, including physicians trained in the United States, were groomed to

manage the economic and political system of the country. The U.S. also
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introduced western models of educational and health-care systems which

reinforced elitism and a colonial mentality that persists to this day, mixed with

the Spanish feudal patron-client relationship. Eventually after the second world

war, where Filipino forced fought alongside U.S.A to thwart the Japanese force,

Philippine independence came on July 4, 1946, with the signing of the Treaty of

Manila between the governments of the United States and the Philippines. The

treaty provided for the recognition of the independence of the Republic of the

Philippines and the relinquishment of American sovereignty over the Philippine

Islands.

CHAPTER 4
Japanese Occupation of the Philippines
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On December 8, 1941, Japan invaded the Philippines. Clark Air Base in

Pampanga was first attacked and also Nichols Field outside Manila was attacked,

then on December 22, The Japanese forces landed at the Lingayen Gulf and

continued on to Manila. General Douglas MacArthur declared Manila an open

city on the advice of commonwealth President Manuel L. Quezon to avoid its

destruction. Manila was occupied by the Japanese on January 2, 1942.

MacArthur retreated with his troops to Bataan while the commonwealth

government withdrew to Corregidor island before proceeding to the United

States. The joint American and Filipino soldiers in Bataan finally surrendered on

April 9, 1942. MacArthur escaped to Corregidor then proceeded to Australia.

The 76,000 captured soldiers were forced to embark on the infamous "Death

March" to a prison camp more than 100 kilometers north. An estimated 10,000

prisoners died due to thirst, hunger and exhaustion.

The Huks

In the midst of fear and chaos, some farmers of Pampanga banded together

and created local brigades for their protection. Luis Taruc, Juan Feleo, Castro

Alejandrino, and other leaders of organized farmers held a meeting in February

1942 in Cabiao, Nueva Ecija. In that meeting, they agreed to fight the Japanese

as a unified guerrilla army. Another meeting was held the following month,

where in representatives from Tarlac, Pampanga and Nueva Ecija threshed out
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various details regarding their organization, which they agreed to call "Hukbo

ng Bayan Laban sa mga Hapon" or HUKBALAHAP. Taruc was chosen to be the

Leader of the group, with Alejandrino as his right hand man. The members were

simply known as Huks!

The Philippine Executive Commission

In accordance the instructions of President Manuel Quezon to Jorge Vargas,

the Filipino officials in Manila were told to enter into agreements and

compromises with the Japanese to mitigate the sufferings of the people under

the iron-clad rule of the Japanese. On January 23, 1942 the Philippine Executive

Commission was established, with Vargas as chairman. the following

was appointed as department heads: Benigno Aquino, Sr., interior; Antonio de

las Alas, finance; Jose P. Laurel, justice; Claro M. Recto, education, health, and

public welfare; and Quintin Paredes, public works and communication; Jose

Yulo was named Chief Justice of the Supreme court.

The following month, an election was held for members of The Preparatory

Commission for Philippine Independence (PCPI). The purpose of PCPI is to draw

up a constitution for a free Philippines. Jose Laurel became its head. Against the

will of the PCPI delegates the new Constitution was finalized on July 10, 1943.

Two months later it was ratified by the KALIBAPI, which was the only political
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party allowed to exist at that time. KALIBAPI is the acronym for "Kapisanan sa

Paglilingkod sa Bagong Pilipinas".

The new constitution, which noticeably lacked a bill of rights contained 12

articles lifted from the 1935 constitution that fitted the wishes of the Japanese. It

was meant to be in effect only temporarily, while the Philippines still in chaos.

After the war, a new constitution would again be drafted for the new Philippine

Republic.

The Second Republic

On September 20 1943, the KALIBAPI- under the leadership of its director

general, Benigno Aquino Sr. held a party convention to elect 54 members of

the National Assembly. The Assembly was actually made up of 108 members;

but half of this number was composed of incumbent governors and city mayors.

Jose P. Laurel was elected as president of the second republic (the first

republic was Aguinldo's Malolos Republic) and both Benigno Aquino Sr. &

Ramon Avancena as a vice-presidents. The new republic was inaugurated on

October 14 1943 on the front steps of the legislative building in Manila. The

Philippine flag was hoisted as the national anthem was played. Meanwhile, the

Japanese started using propaganda to gain the trust and confidence

of Filipinos who refused to cooperate with them. They hung giant posters and
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distribute their materials that contains such slogans as "the Philippines belong

to the Filipinos." they also used newspapers, movies, and others to publicize the

same idea. Promoting Japanese propaganda was one of the main objectives of

the KALIBAPI, but still Japanese failed to gain the trust of the Filipinos.

Gen. Douglas MacArthur Returns

From Australia, Allied forces slowly advanced toward the Philippines, bombing

several Japanese strongholds until they regained control of areas previously

occupied by the enemy. The bombings began on September 21 1944, and

barely a month later, on October 20, 1944, the Americans landed triumphantly

in Leyte. Once a shore, General Douglas MacArthur said; "I have Returned."

Sergio Osmeña was Part of MacArthur’s group. He had taken over Manuel L.

Quezon as president after the latter past way at Saranac Lake, New York on

August 1944. From October 23 to October 26, 1944 the Americans engaged

Japanese forces in the Battle of Leyte Gulf. Consider as the biggest naval battle

in World History, this historic encounter almost destroyed the entire Japanese

fleet and rendered in incapable of further attack. The US victory in the battle of

Leyte Gulf is said to have signaled the beginning of Philippine liberation from

the Japanese.
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By mid-December, the American soldiers had reached Mindoro. The Japanese,

meanwhile, secured other area where their thought other American units would

land. Nevertheless, US liberation forces successfully docked at Lingayen Gulf on

January 9, 1945. The news alarmed the Japanese. Lt. Gen. Tomoyuki Yamashita,

supreme commander of the Japanese troops in Manila, mobilize his kamikazes

(Japanese suicide pilots); but they failed to stop Americans. The Japanese also

deployed MAKAPILI units to defend Manila but neither succeeds.

On December 8, 1944, President Laurel and his cabinet moved to Baguio upon

orders of Yamashita, who is also known as the tiger of Malaya. The Japanese

forces retreated to Yamashita line a jungle battlefront stretching along the

Sierra Madre Mountains from Antipolo, Rizal to Appari Cagayan.

The Japanese in Manila would not give up easily. In fact, it took 3 weeks of

intense fighting before they finally surrendered on February 23. Gen. MacArthur

continued to liberate other parts of the country. And finally proclaim general

freedom from the Japanese on July 4, 1945. Continue to Philippine

Independence from the Americans.

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CHAPTER 5
The United States exercised formal colonial rule over the Philippines, its largest

overseas colony, between 1899 and 1946. American economic and strategic

interests in Asia and the Pacific were increasing in the late 1890s in the wake of

an industrial depression and in the face of global, interimperial competition.

Spanish colonialism was simultaneously being weakened by revolts in Cuba and

the Philippines, its largest remaining colonies.

The Philippine Revolution of 1896 to 1897 destabilized Spanish colonialism but

failed to remove Spanish colonial rule. The leaders of the revolution were exiled

to Hong Kong. When the United States invaded Cuba and Puerto Rico in 1898

to shore up its hegemony in the Caribbean, the U.S. Pacific Squadron was sent

to the Philippines to advance U.S. power in the region, and it easily defeated the

Spanish navy. Filipino revolutionaries hoped the United States would recognize

and assist it. Although American commanders and diplomats helped return

revolutionary leader Emilio Aguinaldo (1869— 1964) to the Philippine Islands,

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they sought to use him and they avoided recognition of the independent

Philippine Republic that Aguinaldo declared in June 1898.

In August 1898 U.S. forces occupied Manila and denied the Republic’s troops

entry into the city. That fall, Spain and the United States negotiated the

Philippines’ status at Paris without Filipino consultation. The U.S. Senate and the

American public debated the Treaty of Paris, which granted the United States

“ sovereignty ” over the Philippine Islands for $20 million. The discussion

emphasized the economic costs and benefits of imperialism to the United

States and the political and racial repercussions of colonial conquest.

When U.S. troops fired on Philippine troops in February 1899, the

Philippine-American War erupted. The U.S. Senate narrowly passed the Treaty

of Paris, and the U.S. military enforced its provisions over the next three years

through a bloody, racialized war of aggression. Following ten months of failed

conventional combat, Philippine troops adopted guerrilla tactics, which

American forces ultimately defeated only through the devastation of civilian

property, the “reconcentration” of rural populations, and the torture and killing

of prisoners, combined with a policy of “attraction” aimed at Filipino elites.

While Filipino revolutionaries sought freedom and independent nationhood, a

U.S.-based “anti-imperialist” movement challenged the invasion as immoral in

both ends and means.

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Carried out in the name of promoting “self-government” over an indefinite but

calibrated timetable, U.S. colonial rule in the Philippines was characterized

politically by authoritarian bureaucracy and one-party state-building with the

collaboration of Filipino elites at its core. The colonial state was inaugurated

with a Sedition Act that banned expressions in support of Philippine

independence, a Banditry Act that criminalized ongoing resistance, and a

Reconcentration Act that authorized the mass relocation of rural populations.

In the interests of “pacification,” American civilian proconsuls in the Philippine

Commission, initially led by William Howard Taft (1857-1930), sponsored the

Federalista Party under influential Manila-based elites. The party developed into

a functioning patronage network and political monopoly in support of

“Americanization” and, initially, U.S. statehood for the Philippines. When the

suppression of independence politics ended in 1905, it gave rise to new political

voices and organizations that consolidated by 1907 into the Nationalista Party,

whose members were younger than those of the Federalista Party and rooted in

the provinces. When the Federalista Party alienated its American patrons and its

statehood platform failed to win mass support, U.S. proconsuls abandoned it

for the Nationalista Party, which over the remainder of the colonial period

developed into a vast, second party-state, under the leadership of Manuel

Quezon (18781944) and Sergio Osmena (1878-1961).

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American Soldiers in the Philippines, 1899. American soldiers ftre their rifles

from behind a makeshift barricade at the West Beach Outpost in San Roque

during the Philippine insurrection that followed the 1898 Spanish-American

War.

Following provincial and municipal elections, “national” elections were held in

1907 for a Philippine Assembly to serve under the commission as the lower

house of a legislature. The 3 percent of the country’s population that was given

the right to vote swept the Nationalistas to power. The Nationalistas clashed

with U.S. proconsuls over jurisdiction and policy priorities, although both sides

also manipulated and advertised these conflicts to secure their respective

constituencies, masking what were in fact functioning colonial collaborations.

Democratic Party dominance in the United States between 1912 and 1920

facilitated the consolidation of the Nationalista party-state in the Philippines.

When Woodrow Wilson (1856-1924), a Democrat, was elected president in 1912,

he appointed as governor-general Francis Burton Harrison (1873-1957), who,

working closely with the Nationalistas, accelerated the “Filipinization” of the

bureaucracy and allowed the Philippine Assembly to assume additional

executive power. When Democrats passed the Jones Act in 1916, which replaced

the commission with a Philippine senate and committed the United States to

“eventual independence” for the Philippines, Quezon claimed credit for these
 Page 32 of 52

victories and, despite his own ambivalence about Philippine independence,

translated them into greater power. During the 1920s, Quezon dominated the

Nationalista Party, using clashes with Republican governor-general Leonard

Wood (1860-1927) to secure his inde-pendista credentials.

Under pressure from protectionists, nativists, and military officials fearful of

Japanese imperialism, the U.S. Congress passed the Tydings-McDuffie Act in

1934. The act inaugurated a ten-year ”Philippine Commonwealth” government

transitional to ” independence. ” While serving as president of the

commonwealth in the years prior to the 1941 Japanese invasion of the Philippine

Islands, Quezon consolidated dictatorial power. Colonial political structures,

constructed where the ambitions and fears of the Filipino elite connected with

the American imperial need for collaborators, had successfully preserved the

power of provincial, landed elites, while institutionalizing this power in a

countrywide ”nationalist” politics.

In economic terms, American colonial rule in the Philippines promoted an

intensely dependent, export economy based on cash-crop agriculture and

extractive industries like mining. American capital had initially regarded the

Philippines as merely a ”stepping stone” to the fabled China market, and

American trade with the Philippine Islands was initially inhibited by reciprocity

treaties that preserved Spanish trade rights. When these rights ended, U.S.
 Page 33 of 52

capital divided politically over the question of free trade. American

manufacturers supported free trade, hoping to secure in the Philippines both

inexpensive raw materials and markets for finished goods, whereas sugar and

tobacco producers opposed free trade because they feared Philippine

competition. The Payne-Aldrich Tariff of 1909 established ”free trade,” with the

exception of rice, and set yearly quota limits for Philippine exports to the United

States.

American trade with the Philippine Islands, which had grown since the war,

boomed after 1909, and during the decades that followed, the United States

became by far the Philippines’ dominant trading partner. American goods

comprised only 7 percent of Philippine imports in 1899, but had grown to 66

percent by 1934. These goods included farm machinery, cigarettes, meat and

dairy products, and cotton cloth. The Philippines sold 26 percent of its total

exports to the United States in 1899, and 84 percent in 1934. Most of these

exports were hemp, sugar, tobacco, and coconut products.

Free trade promoted U.S. investment, and American companies came to

dominate Philippine factories, mills, and refineries. When a post-World War I

economic boom brought increased production and exports, Filipino nationalists

feared economic and political dependence on the United States, as well as the

overspecialization of the Philippine economy around primary products,

 Page 34 of 52

overreliance on U.S. markets, and the political enlistment of American

businesses in the indefinite colonial retention of the Philippine Islands.

Meanwhile, rural workers subject to the harsh terms of export-oriented

development challenged the power of hacienda owners in popular mass

movements. While some interested American companies did lobby against

Philippine independence, during the Great Depression powerful U.S.

agricultural producers—especially of sugar and oils—supported U.S. separation

from the Philippines as a protectionist measure to exclude competing Philippine

goods. The commonwealth period and formal Philippine independence would

be characterized by rising tariffs and the exclusion of Philippine goods from the

U.S. markets upon which Philippine producers had come to depend.

Philippine-American colonialism also transformed both the Philippines and the

United States in cultural terms. In the Philippines, the colonial state introduced a

secular, free public school system that emphasized the English language

(believed by U. S. officials to be the inherent medium of ”free” institutions),

along with industrial and manual training to facilitate capitalist economic

development. While the Filipino elite retained and developed Spanish as a

language of literature, politics, and prestige into the 1920s—often contrasted

with ”vulgar” Americanism—Filipinos increasingly learned and transformed

English and used it to their own purposes. Filipinos also reworked forms and
 Page 35 of 52

elements from American popular culture, especially in film, fashion, and

literature. In addition, this period saw the development of popular and literary

culture in other Philippine languages. With the advent of the commonwealth,

Tagalog was declared the unifying ”national” language.

The struggle for Philippine independence fundamentally shaped emerging

Filipino modes of self-identification, as Filipinos sought to prove their ”capacity”

for ” self-government. ” Where the U.S. colonial state administered ”

non-Christian” regions inhabited by animists and Muslims through separate,

American-dominated political and military controls (insulating them from

emerging ”national” politics), Filipino nationalists sought to integrate these

regions and peoples into the ”nation” by arguing for their rights to administer

them undemocratically on the basis of the ” civilizational ” superiority of

Christian Filipinos.

American culture would also be transformed culturally by Philippine-American

colonialism. Beginning in the 1920s, mass Filipino labor migration to Hawaii and

the American West would alter both region’s culture and demography, bridging

the Philippine and U.S. cultural and social worlds. At the same time, official

justifications of conquest and colonial administration helped accommodate

Americans more generally to the notion that overseas empire was compatible

with a ” republic. ” American colonial rule in the Philippines was held up

 Page 36 of 52

domestically and internationally as symbolic of the United States ’ own

exceptional democracy and foreign policy. American policy toward the

Philippines following World War II — characterized by Cold War

anticommunism—suggested continuities with the colonial period.

 Page 37 of 52

CHAPTER 6
Proclamation of Martial Law:

On September 21, 1972, President Ferdinand E. Marcos placed the Philippines

under Martial Law. The declaration issued under Proclamation 1081 suspended

the civil rights and imposed military authority in the country. Marcos defended

the declaration stressing the need for extra powers to quell the rising wave of

violence allegedly caused by communists. The emergency rule was also

intended to eradicate the roots of rebellion and promote a rapid trend for

national development. The autocrat assured the country of the legality of

Martial Law emphasizing the need for control over civil disobedience that

displays lawlessness. Marcos explained citing the provisions from the Philippine

Constitution that Martial Law is a strategic approach to legally defend

the Constitution and protect the welfare of the Filipino people from the

dangerous threats posed by Muslim rebel groups and Christian vigilantes that

places national security at risk during the time. Marcos explained that

martial law was not a military takeover but was then the only option to resolve
 Page 38 of 52

the country’s dilemma on rebellion that stages national chaos threatening the

peace and order of the country. The emergency rule, according to Marcos’s

plan, was to lead the country into what he calls a “New Society”.

Martial law refers to the replacement of civil rule by military rule. This may be

characterized by curfews, the dispensation of military tribunal rulings on

civilians, and the suspension of the privilege of the writ of habeas corpus. The

writ of habeas corpus, which in Latin refers to “having the body”, is a citizen’s

protection against unlawful imprisonment. This is suspended in times of crisis to

expedite justice.

In the Philippine Constitution, the President may exercise his role as

Commander-in-Chief of all Philippine armed forces and act accordingly to

protect the safety of the Filipino people. In cases of lawless violence, invasion,

and rebellion, he may suspend the privilege of the writ of habeas corpus or

declare martial law in any part of the nation. To declare martial law is thus a

legal course of action the Chief Executive may take. Such a power is granted

unto the President for cases where it becomes truly necessary, when the people’

s lives are being threatened and these powers facilitate the process of securing

their safety.
 Page 39 of 52

However, given the immense power that martial law can give the President, the

Constitution ensures the implementation of appropriate checks and balances.

Power is normally spread across various institutions so that functions can be

discharged efficiently and authority is not concentrated in a single entity. In the

wrong hands, the declaration of martial law and the suspension of the writ of

habeas corpus open up the real possibility of the abuse of civil rights. The

balance of power is thus only disrupted under the gravest of circumstances,

only as a last resort.

The legislative and judicial branches of government play a central role in

protecting against such abuses. By limiting the terms under which martial law

may be called for, implemented, and extended, they are mandated to prevent

the President from using his powers for anything other than the good of the

Filipino people.

Marcos used several events to justify martial law. Threat to the country ’s

security was intensifying following the re-establishment of the Communist Party

of the Philippines (CPP) in 1968. Supporters of CPP’s military arm, the New

People’s Army, also grew in numbers in Tarlac and other parts of the country.

The alleged attempt to the life of then Minister of Defense Juan Ponce

Enrile gave Marcos a window to declare Martial Law. Marcos announced the
 Page 40 of 52

emergency rule the day after the shooting incident. Marcos also declared

insurgency in the south caused by the clash between Muslims and Christians,

which Marcos considered as a threat to national security. The Muslims were

defending their ancestral land against the control of Christians who migrated in

the area. The minority group organized the Moro National Liberation Front

(MNLF) in Malaysia and pushed for the autonomy of Mindanao from the

national government.

The move was initially supported by most Filipinos and was viewed by some

critics as a change that solved the massive corruption in the country.

Martial law ceased the clash between the executive and legislative branches of

the government and a bureaucracy characterized by special interest. Marcos

started to implement reforms on social and political values that hindered

effective modernization. To match the accomplishments of its Asian neighbors,

Marcos imposed the need for self-sacrifice for the attainment of national

welfare. His reforms targeted his rivals within the elite depriving them of their

power and patronage but did not affect their supporters (US Library of

Congress, Martial Law and the Aftermath).

Thirty-thousand opposition figures including Senator Benigno Aquino,

 Page 41 of 52

journalists, student and labor activists were detained at military compounds

under the President ’ s command (Proclamation 1081 and Martial Law).

The army and the Philippine Constabulary seized weapons and disbanded

private armies controlled by prominent politicians and other influential figures

(Proclamation 1081 and Martial Law). Marcos took control of the legislature and

closed the Philippine Congress (Proclamation 1081 and Martial Law). Numerous

media outfits were either closed down or operated under tight control

(Proclamation 1081 and Martial Law). Marcos also allegedly funnelled millions of

the country’s money by placing some of his trusted supporters in strategic

economic positions to channel resources to him. Experts call this the “crony

capitalism.”

The deterioration of the political and economic condition in the Philippines

triggered the decline of support on Marcos’ plans. More and more Filipinos

took arms to dislodge the regime. Urban poor communities in the country’s

capital were organized by the Philippine Ecumenical Council for Community

and were soon conducting protest masses and prayer rallies. These efforts

including the exposure of numerous human rights violations pushed Marcos to

hold an election in 1978 and 1981 in an aim to stabilize the country’s chaotic

condition. Marcos, in both events, won the election; however, his extended term

as President of the Republic of the Philippines elicited an extensive opposition

against his regime. Social unrest reached its height after former Senator
 Page 42 of 52

Benigno Aquino was murdered. The incident sent thousands of Filipinos to the

streets calling for Marcos’ removal from post. Turning again to his electoral

strategy, Marcos held a snap election in 1986 but what he hoped will satisfy the

masses only increased their determination to end his rule that seated

Corazon Aquino, widow of Benigno Aquino, as President of the

Philippines ousting Marcos from Malacañang Palace and ending the

twenty-one years of tyrant rule.

CHAPTER 7
The Philippines was praised worldwide in 1986, when the so-called bloodless

revolution erupted, called EDSA People Power’s Revolution. February 25, 1986

marked a significant national event that has been engraved in the hearts and

minds of every Filipino. This part of Philippine history gives us a strong sense of

pride especially that other nations had attempted to emulate what we have
 Page 43 of 52

shown the world of the true power of democracy. The true empowerment of

democracy was exhibited in EDSA by its successful efforts to oust a tyrant by a

demonstration without tolerance for violence and bloodshed. Prayers and

rosaries strengthened by faith were the only weapons that the Filipinos used to

recover their freedom from President Ferdinand Marcos’s iron hands. The

Epifanio de los Santos Avenue (EDSA) stretches 54 kilometers, where the

peaceful demonstration was held on that fateful day. It was a day that gathered

all Filipinos in unity with courage and faith to prevail democracy in the country.

It was the power of the people, who assembled in EDSA, that restored the

democratic Philippines, ending the oppressive Marcos regime. Hence, it came

to be known as the EDSA People Power’s Revolution.

The revolution was a result of the long oppressed freedom and the life

threatening abuses executed by the Marcos government to cite several events

like human rights violation since the tyrannical Martial Law Proclamation in

1972.

In the years that followed Martial Law started the suppressive and abusive

years–incidents of assassination were rampant, particularly those who opposed

the government, individuals and companies alike were subdued. The Filipinos

reached the height of their patience when former Senator Benigno "Ninoy"

Aquino, Sr. was shot and killed at the airport in August 21, 1983, upon his return
 Page 44 of 52

to the Philippines from exile in the United States. Aquino’s death marked the

day that Filipinos learned to fight. His grieving wife, Corazon

Cojuangco-Aquino showed the Filipinos and the world the strength and

courage to claim back the democracy that Ferdinand Marcos arrested for his

personal caprice. Considering the depressing economy of the country, Ninoy’s

death further intensified the contained resentment of the Filipinos. In the efforts

to win back his popularity among the people, Marcos held a snap presidential

election in February 7, 1986, where he was confronted with a strong and potent

opposition, Corazon Aquino. It was the most corrupt and deceitful election held

in the Philippine history. There was an evident trace of electoral fraud as the

tally of votes were declared with discrepancy between the official count by the

COMELEC (Commission on Elections) and the count of NAMFREL (National

Movement for Free Elections). Such blatant corruption in that election was the

final straw of tolerance by the Filipinos of the Marcos regime.

The demonstration started to break in the cry for democracy and the demand

to oust Marcos from his seat at Malacañang Palace. The revolt commenced

when Marcos' Defense Minister Juan Ponce Enrile and the Armed

Forces Vice-Chief of Staff command of Fidel V. Ramos, both withdrew their

support from the government and called upon the resignation of then

President Marcos. They responsibly barricaded Camp Crame and Camp

Aguinaldo and had their troops ready to combat against possible armed attack
 Page 45 of 52

organized by Marcos and his troops. The Catholic Church represented by

Archbishop Jaime Cardinal Sin along with the priests and nuns called for the

support of all Filipinos who believed in democracy. Radyo Veritas aired the

message of Cardinal Sin that summoned thousands of Filipinos to march the

street of EDSA. It was an empowering demonstration that aimed to succeed

peacefully with the intervention of faith. Nuns kneeled in front of tanks with

rosaries in their hands and uttering their prayers.

With the power of prayers, the armed marine troops under the command of

Marcos withdrew from the site. Celebrities expressed their support putting up a

presentation to showcase the injustices and the anomalies carried out by the

Marcos administration. Finally, in the morning of February 25, 1986, Corazon

Aquino took the presidential oath of office, administered by the Supreme

Court Associate Justice Claudio Teehankee at Club Filipino located in San Juan.

Aquino was proclaimed as the 11th President of the Republic of the Philippines.

She was the first lady president of the country. People rejoiced over their victory

proving the success of the EDSA People ’ s Power Revolution, the historic

peaceful demonstration. Although in 2001, there was an attempt to revive

People Power in the efforts to oust then President Joseph Estrada, it was not as

strong as the glorifying demonstration in 1986. The bloodless, People Power

Revolution in EDSA renewed the power of the people, strengthened the

 Page 46 of 52

meaning of democracy and restored the democratic institutions of

government. Continue to the 5th Republic (1986) up to the Present Time.

CHAPTER 8
The Philippines is a republic with a presidential form of government wherein

power is equally divided among its three branches: executive, legislative, and

judicial. The government seeks to act in the best interests of its citizens through

this system of check and balance.

One basic corollary in a presidential system of government is the principle of

separation of powers wherein legislation belongs to Congress, execution to the

Executive, and settlement of legal controversies to the Judiciary.

The Legislative branch is authorized to make laws, alter, and repeal them

through the power vested in the Philippine Congress. This institution is divided

into the Senate and the House of Representatives.

 Page 47 of 52

The Legislative Branch enacts legislation, confirms or rejects Presidential

appointments, and has the authority to declare war. This branch includes

Congress (the Senate and House of Representatives) and several agencies that

provide support services to Congress.

The Senate is composed of 24 Senators who are elected at large by the

qualified voters of the Philippines.

The House of Representatives is composed of about 250 members elected from

legislative districts in the provinces, cities, and municipalities, and

representatives elected through a party-list system of registered national,

regional, and sectoral parties or organizations.

The party-list representatives shall constitute twenty per cent of the total

number of representatives including those under the party list. For three

consecutive terms after the ratification of this Constitution, one-half of the seats

allocated to party-list representatives shall be filled, as provided by law, by

selection or election from the labor, peasant, urban poor, indigenous cultural

communities, women, youth, and such other sectors as may be provided by law,

except the religious sector.

The Executive branch is composed of the President and the Vice President who

are elected by direct popular vote and serve a term of six years. The

Constitution grants the President authority to appoint his Cabinet. These

departments form a large portion of the country’s bureaucracy.

 Page 48 of 52

The executive branch carries out and enforces laws. It includes

the President, Vice President, the Cabinet, executive departments, independent

agencies, boards, commissions, and committees.

The President leads the country. He or she is the head of state, leader of the

national government, and Commander-in-Chief of all armed forces of the

Philippines. The President serves a six-year term and cannot be re-elected.

The Vice President supports the President. If the President is unable to serve,

the Vice President becomes President. He or she also serves a six-year term.

Cabinet members serve as advisors to the President. They include the Vice

President and the heads of executive departments. Cabinet members are

nominated by the President and must be confirmed by the Commission of

Appointments.

The Judicial branch holds the power to settle controversies involving rights that

are legally demandable and enforceable. This branch determines whether or

not there has been a grave abuse of discretion amounting to lack or excess of

jurisdiction on the part and instrumentality of the government. It is made up of

a Supreme Court and lower courts.

The judicial branch interprets the meaning of laws, applies laws to individual

cases, and decides if laws violate the Constitution. The judicial power shall be
 Page 49 of 52

vested in one Supreme Court and in such lower courts as may be established by

law.

The Philippine : HISTORY

Historians believe the Philippines dates back to the Paleolithic age. Based on

the archeological artifacts recovered, Filipino society and culture were fairly

developed prior to contacts with other countries. Filipinos had commercial

relations early on with China, Indo-China, Malaysia, India, and the Arab

countries. Chinese silk, porcelain, jars, gold, ivory, and beads were traded for

wax, bird's nest, teakwood, rattan, pearls, precious stones, and other marine

and forest products.

Ferdinand Magellan came to the Philippines on March 16, 1521 and claimed the

country for the Spanish Crown. A colonial government was established in

Manila in 1571. Spain introduced changes in the political, social, and cultural life

of the people. One of these is Christianity. In 1896, the Filipinos staged the first

nationalistic revolution in Asia against the Spaniards. The 1896 Revolution was

the culmination of a succession of revolts against Spanish oppression. The

death by musketry of Dr. Jose Rizal, who led the reform movement, fueled the

fires of revolution.

On June 12, 1898, leaders of the revolution declared the country's sovereign

state and proclaimed the first Republic of the Philippines, the first constitutional
 Page 50 of 52

democracy in Asia. Meanwhile, Spain declared war against the United States

over Cuba and was defeated. As an offshoot, the Philippines was ceded to

America by Spain through the Treaty of Paris.

Under American rule, agriculture, commerce, and trade developed. Among the

changes they introduced were: the modernization of transportation and

communication, the improvement of banking and currency, and a system of

public education.

At the outbreak of the Second World War, Japan occupied the country. In 1945,

the Americans under MacArthur liberated the country and granted it

independence in 1946.

The Republic of the Philippines was proclaimed on July 4, 1946, with Manuel

Roxas as President. Massive rehabilitation and rebuilding out of the devastation

brought about by the war was started. In 1972, Martial Law was declared by

then President Ferdinand Marcos. Political repression and economic

deterioration during the Martial Law Years resulted in the historic "People

Power" Revolution of February 25, 1986. This led to the proclamation of

Corazon C. Aquino as President of the Philippines.

President Aquino restored the democratic institutions in the country. A

Constitution, ratified on February 2, 1987, provided for a tripartite system: the

Executive, the Legislative, and the Judiciary. This was the type of government
 Page 51 of 52

before Marcos declared Martial Law and adopted a modified parliamentary

government. Aquino also restored the freedoms of speech, press, and of

assembly.

On June 30, 1992, Fidel V. Ramos became the 12th President of the Philippine

Republic. President Ramos, a hero of the 1986 EDSA uprising, anchored his

government on twin themes of "people empowerment" and "global excellence"

as the engines of economic growth and social equity.

On the 100th anniversary year of the Proclamation of Philippine Independence,

Joseph Ejercito Estrada became the 13th President of the Philippines.

On 20 January 2001, Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo, through another popular

uprising called "People Power 2", unseated then President Joseph Ejercito

Estrada. The daughter of former President Diosdado Macapagal, President

Arroyo's vision of a "Strong Republic" is governed on four pillars: poverty

alleviation, good governance, new politics of party programs and leadership by

example.
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