The Nature of Leadership

We usually attribute the success or failure of an

organization to its leaders. When a company or an
athletic team is successful, for example, it is the
president or coach who receives much of the credit.
These individuals are also subject to criticism if the
company does not meet its goals or the team has a
losing season.
 Leadership
The process of providing general
direction and influencing individuals or
groups to achieve goals.
 Warren Bennis, who has studied
leadership for a number of years,
suggests that effective leaders are
concerned with “doing the right things”
rather than “doing things right.”
 The right things, according to Bennis, include the
following:
• Creating and communicating a vision of what the
organization should be
• Communicating with and gaining the support of multiple
constituencies
• Persisting in the desired direction even under bad
conditions
• Creating the appropriate culture and obtaining the desired
results
TRAIT THEORY OF LEADERSHIP

At one time, it was thought that some people

were born with certain traits that made them
effective leaders, whereas others were born without
leadership traits.
 Traits Associated with
Leadership

Energy, Intelligence,
Achievement, Aggressiveness,
Drive, Integrity,
Initiative, Interpersonal
Sense of humor skill

Judgment,
Enthusiasm
Appearance, Persistence,
Adaptability, Prestige, Verbal
Insightfulness, fluency,
Tolerance for Extraversion,
stress Self-confidence,
Tact
 Nevertheless, the notion of leadership traits has
been revived in recent years. Research has demonstrated
that leaders usually are different from other people. It is
now believed, however, that many of the traits (or
characteristics) that are possessed by leaders can be
learned or developed.
IMPORTANT LEADERSHIP TRAITS CAN BE
CATEGORIZED AS:
 DRIVE
It refers to the amount of ambition,
persistence, tenacity, and initiative that people
possess. Leaders must have the energy and will to
continue to act during turbulent and stressful times.
Drive and ambition are also important to a leader’s
ability to create a vision and engage in behavior to
achieve the vision.
 LEADERSHIP MOTIVATION
Leadership motivation refers to a person’s desire
to lead, influence others, assume responsibility, and gain
power. We must distinguish here between two types of
motives. Leaders can have a socialized power motive,
whereby they use power to achieve goals that are in the
organization’s best interests or in the best interests of
followers. In contrast, a leader with a personalized
power motive desires power solely for the sake of having
power over others.
 INTEGRITY
Leaders with honesty are truthful and maintain
consistency between what they say and what they
do. Followers and others in the organization are not
likely to trust a leader who does not have these
characteristics.
 SELF-CONFIDENCE
Leaders must be confident in their actions
and show that confidence to others. People who
are high in self-confidence are also able to learn
from their mistakes, react positively to stress,
and remain even- tempered and display
appropriate emotions.
 COGNITIVE ABILITY
Leaders who possess a high degree of
intelligence are better able to process
complex information, solve problems, and
deal with changing environments.
 KNOWLEDGE OF THE DOMAIN
Knowledge of the domain in which they are
engaged allows leaders to make better decisions,
anticipate future problems, and understand the
implications of their actions.
 OPENNESS TO NEW
EXPERIENCES
Being open to new ideas and approaches is
associated with flexibility, which can be very
important in today’s dynamic world.
 EXTRAVERSION
Leaders who enjoy being around people, prefer
to maintain a vigorous pace, and seek excitement are
more likely to be proactive in engaging both problems
and opportunities.
 CHARISMA

It is usually defined by the effect it has on

followers. Charismatic leaders inspire their followers
to change their needs and values, follow visionary
quests, and sacrifice their own personal interests for
the good of the cause.
BEHAVIORAL THEORIES OF
LEADERSHIP
 JOB-CENTERED LEADERSHIP STYLE

A behavioral leadership style that emphasizes

employee tasks and the methods used to accomplish them.
A job-centered leader supervises individuals closely
(provides instructions, checks frequently on performance)
and sometimes behaves in a punitive manner
toward them.
 EMPLOYEE-CENTERED LEADERSHIP
STYLE
A behavioral leadership style that emphasizes
employees’ personal needs and the development of
interpersonal relationships.
 INITIATING STRUCTURE
A behavioral leadership style demonstrated by
leaders who establish well-defined patterns of
organization and communication, define procedures,
and delineate their relationships with those being led.
 CONSIDERATION
A behavioral leadership style demonstrated by
leaders who express friendship, develop mutual trust
and respect, and have strong interpersonal
relationships with those being led.
CONTINGENCY THEORIES OF
LEADERSHIP
 CONTINGENCY THEORY OF
LEADERSHIP EFFECTIVENESS

A theory of leadership that suggests that the

effectiveness of a leader depends on the interaction of his
style of behavior with certain characteristics of the
situation.
 LEADER STYLE
Different leaders may, of course, exhibit
different styles of behavior. Fiedler explains that
leaders’ behavior is based on their motivational
needs. The most important needs of leaders,
according to Fiedler, are interpersonal-relationship
needs and task-achievement needs.
 SITUATIONAL
CHARACTERISTICS
In some situations, leaders have more control over the
work environment. In the context of Fiedler’s contingency theory,
this means that leaders can influence events in a straightforward
way and work systematically toward desired outcomes.
Important situational characteristics that determine a
leader’s level of control include leader–member relations, task
structure, and position power.
 LEADER–MEMBER RELATIONS

The degree to which a leader is respected, is

accepted as a leader, and has friendly interpersonal
relations.
 TASK STRUCTURE

The degree to which tasks

can be broken down into easily
understood steps or parts.
 POSITION POWER
The degree to which a leader can reward,
punish, promote, or demote individuals in the
unit or organization.
 SITUATIONAL FAVORABLENESS

The amount of control a leader has determines

the favorableness of the situation. In the most
favorable situations, leader–member relations are
good, the tasks are highly structured, and the leader
has strong position power. In the least favorable
situations, leader–member relations are poor, tasks
are unstructured, and leader position power is weak.
LEADERSHIP EFFECTIVENESS

The leader’s effectiveness is determined by the

interaction of the leader’s style of behavior and the
favorableness of the situational characteristics. The
leader’s effectiveness is judged
by the performance of the group being led.
 THE PATH–GOAL LEADERSHIP
THEORY
Emphasizes a leader’s
effects on subordinates’ goals
and the paths used to achieve
those goals. It provides a bridge
to the modern study of
leadership.
 A theory of leadership based on expectancy
concepts from the study of motivation, which suggests
that leader effectiveness depends on the degree to
which a leader enhances the performance
expectancies and valences of her subordinates.
 LEADERSHIP CAN AFFECT EMPLOYEES’
EXPECTANCIES AND VALENCES IN SEVERAL
WAYS:

• Facilitating employees’ efforts to achieve task goals

(effort : performance expectancy). Effective leaders help
employees (through encouragement, training,
and technical direction, for example) believe that their
efforts on a task will lead to goal attainment. As part of
this, leaders address any barriers perceived by a given
employee.
• Tying extrinsic rewards (pay raise, recognition,
promotion) to accomplishment of task goals
(performance : reward instrumentality).
• Linking individuals to tasks for which goal
attainment is personally valuable (valence). In other
words, leaders can assign individuals to tasks that
they will find rewarding.
 LEADER BEHAVIOR AND
SITUATIONAL FACTORS
The path–goal leadership theory focuses on several
types of leader behavior and situational
factors. The main types of leader behavior are as
follows:
 DIRECTIVE LEADERSHIP
BEHAVIOR
Characterized by implementing guidelines,
providing information on what is expected, setting
definite performance standards, and ensuring that
individuals follow the rules.
SUPPORTIVE LEADERSHIP
BEHAVIOR

Characterized by being
friendly and showing concern for
well-being, welfare, and needs.
 ACHIEVEMENT-ORIENTED
LEADERSHIP
Behavior is characterized by setting challenging
goals and seeking to improve performance.
 PARTICIPATIVE LEADERSHIP
BEHAVIOR
Characterized by sharing information,
consulting with those who are led, and emphasizing
group decision making.
 INTERACTION OF LEADER BEHAVIOR
AND SITUATIONAL FACTORS

Path–goal theory specifies a number of

interactions between leader behavior and situational
factors, with these interactions influencing outcomes.
Researchers, however, have provided only mixed
support for the theory, with some studies supporting
it and others failing to support it. Relationships that
appear to be valid are listed below:
 Associates with an internal locus of control
(who believe outcomes are a function of their own
behavior) are likely to be more satisfied with a
participative leader.
Individuals with an external locus of control
(who believe outcomes are a function of chance or
luck) are more likely to be effective with directive
leaders.
 Associates who have a high need for affiliation
are likely to be more satisfied with a supportive
leader. Supportive leaders fulfill their needs for close
personal relationships.
 Associates with a high need for security
probably will be more satisfied with a directive leader
who reduces uncertainty by providing clear rules and
procedures.
 Supportive and participative leaders are more
likely to increase satisfaction on highly structured
tasks. Because the tasks are routine, little direction
is necessary. Directive leaders are more likely to
increase satisfaction on unstructured tasks, where
individuals (particularly those with less experience
and ability) often need help in clarifying an
ambiguous task situation.
 Directive leadership is often more effective on
unstructured tasks because it can increase an
employee’s expectation that effort will lead to task-
goal accomplishment (particularly when employees
have less experience and/or ability). Supportive
leadership is often more effective on structured tasks
because it can increase a person’s expectation that
accomplishing goals will lead to extrinsic rewards.
 Associates with a high need for growth who are
working on a complex task probably perform better
with a participative or achievement-oriented leader.

Because they are intrinsically motivated, they

appreciate information and difficult goals that help in
achievement. Individuals with a low growth need
strength working on a complex task perform better
with directive leaders.
 TRANSACTIONAL LEADERSHIP
This type of leadership focuses primarily on
leaders’ extrinsic exchange relationships with
followers— that is, the degree to which leaders
provide what followers want in response to good
performance.
 TRANSACTIONAL LEADERS HAVE THE
FOLLOWING FOUR SPECIFIC
CHARACTERISTICS:
1. They understand what followers want from their work,
and they attempt to deliver these rewards if deserved.
2. They clarify the links between performance and
rewards.
3. They exchange rewards and promises of rewards for
specified performance.
4. They respond to interests of followers only if
performance is satisfactory.
 TRANSFORMATIONAL
LEADERSHIP
Involves motivating followers to do more than
expected, to continuously develop and grow, to
increase their level of self-confidence, and to place
the interests of the unit or organization before their
own.
 TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERS DO
THE FOLLOWING THREE THINGS:
1. They increase followers’ awareness of the importance of
pursuing a vision or mission and the strategy required.
2. They encourage followers to place the interests of the
unit, organization, or larger collective before their own
personal interests.
3. They raise followers’ aspirations so that they
continuously try to develop and improve themselves while
striving for higher levels of accomplishment.
 THREE CHARACTERISTICS HAVE BEEN
IDENTIFIED WITH TRANSFORMATIONAL
LEADERS:

Charisma, Intellectual Stimulation, and

Individual Consideration
 CHARISMA

Refers specifically to the

leader’s ability to inspire emotion
and passion in his followers and to
cause them to identify with the
leader.
 INTELLECTUAL STIMULATION

The leader’s ability to increase the followers’

focus on problems and to develop new ways of
addressing them.
 Leaders showing INDIVIDUAL
CONSIDERATION provide individualized
attention to followers, focus on followers’ strengths,
and act as teachers and coaches.
 THE LIST OF COMMON BEHAVIORS OF
TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERS:
1) Transformational leaders articulate a clear and
appealing vision, which is beneficial to the followers.
2) They communicate the vision through personal action,
emotional appeals, and
3) symbolic forms of communication (such as metaphors
and dramatic staged events).
4)They delegate signifi cant authority and responsibility.
5) They eliminate unnecessary bureaucratic constraints.
6) They provide coaching, training, and other
developmental experiences to followers.
7) They encourage open sharing of ideas and concerns.
8) They encourage participative decision making.
9) They promote cooperation and teamwork.
10) They modify organization structure (such as resource
allocation systems) and policies (such as selection
and promotion criteria) to promote key values and
objectives.
 The proactive and energetic nature of
transformational leadership hints at an opposite
approach, called LAISSEZ-FAIRE or
PASSIVE-AVOIDANT LEADERSHIP.
Leaders displaying a laissezfaire style are not
proactive, react only to failures or chronic problems,
avoid making decisions, and are often absent or
uninvolved in followers’ activities.
 LEADER–MEMBER EXCHANGE

A model of leadership focused on leaders

developing more positive relationships with some
individuals and having more positive exchanges with
these individuals (and likely the opposite with the
other members).
 SERVANT LEADERSHIP
Similar to authentic leadership, servant leadership
overlaps with the transformational tradition. It includes elements
such as valuing individuals, developing people, building
community, conceptualizing, exhibiting foresight, and displaying
wisdom. Its distinctive focus, however, lies with an emphasis on
serving others, both inside and outside the organization.
 GENDER EFFECTS ON LEADERSHIP
STRUCTURAL–CULTURAL MODEL
A model holding that because women often
experience lack of power, lack of respect, and certain
stereotypical expectations, they develop leadership
styles different from those
of the men.
 SOCIALIZATION MODEL

A model proposing that all leaders in a

particular Organization will display similar leadership
styles, because all have been selected and socialized
by the same organization.
GLOBAL DIFFERENCES IN
LEADERSHIP
1. ANGLO CLUSTER (Australia, Canada,
England, Ireland, New Zealand, South Africa [white
sample], and United States): The ideal leader
demonstrates charismatic influence and inspiration while
encouraging participation. Ideal leaders are viewed as
being diplomatic, delegating authority, and allowing
everyone to have their say.
2. ARABIC CLUSTER (Egypt, Morocco,
Kuwait, and Qatar, with Turkey also being included
with these Arabic countries): Ideal leaders need to
balance a paradoxical set of expectations. On one
hand, they are expected to be charismatic and
powerful, but on the other, they are expected not to
differentiate themselves from others and to have
modest styles. Leaders are also expected to have a
great deal of power and to direct most decisions and
actions.
3. GERMANIC CLUSTER
(Austria, Germany, the Netherlands, and
Switzerland): The ideal leader is one who is
charismatic and participative, and who conceptualizes
her relationships in a team-like fashion.
4. SOUTHERN ASIA CLUSTER
(India, Indonesia, Iran, Malaysia, Philippines,
and Thailand): The ideal leader is humane,
participative, and charismatic. Leaders are expected
to be benevolent while maintaining a strong position
of authority.