c
, one of the most important material removal methods, is a collection of material-working

processes in which power-driven machine tools, such as lathes, milling machines, and drill presses, are used
with a sharp cutting tool to mechanically cut the material to achieve the desired geometry. Machining is a
part of the manufacture of almost all metal products, and it is common for other materials, such as wood and
plastic, to be machined. A person who specializes in machining is called a c
. A room, building, or
company where machining is done is called a c
 
. Much of modern day machining is controlled
by computers using computer numerical control (CNC) machining. Machining can be a business, a hobby,
or both.


    

The Centre Lathe is used to manufacture cylindrical shapes from a range of materials including; steels and
plastics. Many of the components that go together to make an engine work have been manufactured using
lathes. These may be lathes operated directly by people (manual lathes) or computer controlled lathes (CNC
machines) that have been programmed to carry out a particular task. A basic manual centre lathe is shown
below. This type of lathe is controlled by a person turning the various handles on the top slide and cross
slide in order to make a product / part.

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This is a small manually operated drill press designed for drilling small holes, usually less
than 1/2 inch in diameter. The name 'sensitive' is used because the machinist can 'feel' the
 action of the drill point as it goes into the work. This drill operates at much higher speeds
then the upright drilling machine and should only be used with small drills. The travel of the
spindle is also limited so the table must be adjusted so parts are relatively close to the drill.
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The most common form of drilling machine is the bench drill. As the name implies this machine is normally
bolted down to a bench. The workpiece can be clamped onto the worktable or onto the base. Tee slots are
normally provided for this function. The worktable can be moved up and down the vertical column. The
worktable can be clamped at the selected height. The drill is normally located in a three jaw chuck which is
rotated by the drive system. The figure below shows a belt drive. Modern bench drills are driven by more
sophisticated arrangements. The chuck is moved up and down by a feed handle which drives rotating
spindle via a rack and pinion mechanism.

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A Radial Drilling machine is a large gear headed drill press in which the head moves along the arm that
radiates from the column of the machine. The arm of the machine can swing in relation to the base of the
machine. This swing operation helps the drill head to move out of the way so a large crane can place the
heavy work piece on the base of the radial drilling machine. Also this helps in drilling holes at different
locations of the work piece without actually moving the work piece.

Radial drilling machines can drill holes with diameter upto 100 mm and also radial drilling machines with
much larger capacity than this are available today.

The radial drilling machine is the most versatile drilling machine in the machine shop. One of the reasons is
that this machine is so versatile and has the ability to move its drill head to the work using the radial arm.
The physical size of the machine also adds to its versatility. The size of the radial arm drill press is
determined by the size of the column and the distance from the center of the spindle to the edge of the
column. Use Figure 1 below to acquaint yourself with the main parts of the radial drilling machine.

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The pillar drill has the same features as the bench drill. This drill is however free standing and is of a far
heavier construction able to take larger drills. The larger drills normally have taper shanks which are
located within a taper bore in the spindle end. These tapers are standardised as morse tapers.V
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 The slotting machine is a reciprocating machine tool in which, the ram holding the tool
reciprocates in a vertical axis and the cutting action of the tool is only during the downward stroke.
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Angles can be machined by removing the headstock alignment key and rotating the milling head to the
appropriate angle to the work or by holding the work at an angle to the spindle. (Note: Lighter than normal
cuts should be taken when the alignment key is not in place.) The latter method must be used for drilling to
keep the drill movement parallel with the machine slide. All machine slides have an adjustable gib to
compensate for any "play" that may develop. (See section on adjusting gibs in the "Adjustments" section of
the setup instructions.)
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A hydraulic braking system transmits brake-pedal force to the wheel brakes through pressurized fluid,
converting the fluid pressure into useful work of braking at the wheels. A simple, single-line hydraulic
layout used to operate a drum and disc brake system is illustrated in Fig. 28.36. The brake pedal relays the
driver's foot effort to the master-cylinder piston, which compresses the brake fluid. This fluid pressure is
equally transmitted throughout the fluid to the front disc-caliper pistons and to the rear wheel-cylinder
pistons. As per the regulations a separate mechanical parking brake must be incorporated with at least two
wheels. This provision also allows the driver to stop the vehicle in the event of failure of the hydraulic brake
system
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In a hydraulic braking system the braking force is directly proportional to the ratio of the master-cylinder
cross-sectional area to the disc or drum-brake wheel-cylinder cross-sectional areas. Therefore these
cylinder diameters are appropriately chosen to produce the desired braking effect. The wheel-cylinder
cross-sectional areas of the front and rear disc-and drum-brakes respectively may be chosen to produce the
best front-to-rear braking ratio. Hydraulic fluid is incompressible provided there is no trapped air in the
system. If air is present in the braking circuit, the foot-brake movement becomes spongy. In a hydraulic
system the internal
friction exists only between the cylinder pistons and seals. The friction is caused by the fluid pressure
squeezing the seal lips against the cylinder walls as the piston moves along its stroke. A hydraulic braking
system is suitable only for intermittent braking applications, and a separate mechanical linkage must be
incorporated for parking brakes.
The hydraulic system offers the following advantages over the mechanical layout, (a) This provides equal
braking effort on all wheels. (6) This requires relatively less braking effort to deliver the same output.
(c) This is a fully compensated system so that each brake receives its full share of the pedal effort.
(d) The efficiency of the hydraulic system is greater than that of the mechanical layout.
(e) This system is suitable for vehicles having independent suspension.
(/) It is easy to alter thrust on shoe because the force exerted on a piston depends on the piston area. The
larger the area, the greater the thrust on the trailing shoe, so a larger piston can be used.
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Various components and their functions in a hydraulic braking system are as follows.
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These are steel pipes which form part of the fluid circuit between the master-cylinder and the
wheel-cylinders. These pipes transfer the fluid along the body structure and rigid axle members. Flexible
hoses connect the sprung body pipes to the unsprung axle wheel-brake units, to allow for movement (Fig.
28.36).
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This converts foot-pedal force to hydraulic pressure within the fluid system by means of the cylinder and
piston (Fig. 28.36).

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This comprises of a disc bolted to the wheel hub. This is sandwiched between two pistons and friction pads.
The friction pads are supported in a caliper fixed to the stub-axle (Fig. 28.36). When the brakes are applied,
the pistons clamp the friction pads against the two side faces to the disc.
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This uses two brake-shoes and linings supported on a back-plate. The back-plate is bolted to the
axle-casing. These shoes pivot at one end on anchor pins or abutments attached to the back-plate (Fig.
28.36). The other free ends of the both shoes are forced apart when the brakes are applied. The shoes expand
radially against a brake-drum positioned concentrically on the wheel hub.
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As the hydraulic line pressure acts on the cross-sectional area of the disc and drum cylinder pistons (Fig.
28.36) in wheel cylinders, the hydraulic pressure is converted into braking effort. This braking effort either
presses the friction pads against the side faces of the disc or forces the shoe friction linings against the inside
of the drum.

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The boiler is more complex than a forced air furnace in that it has more parts, valves and controls. However
gas-fired boilers are fairly reliable and most problems, when they do occur, usually relate to the expansion
tank or water circulator pump(s).
Let's take a quick look at the major components of the boiler for a forced-water (hydronic) system:

 .  ½ ½ /   - The thermostat that regulates the boiler's temperature   ,  
G - Combustion assembly that heats the water chamber 
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$ - Monitors water temperature and pressure .  £ ,  - Controls water flow to
boiler - 
 ,  - Automatically maintains correct water pressure at about 12-15 psi 
, - Automatically purges unwanted air from hydronic system 1 
  ! - Critical component
that allows expansion of water as it heats. There are two types of expansion tanks, the older larger style
horizontal steel expansion tank and the newer smaller style diaphragm expansion tank. £
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,  - Regulates flow of hot water to system -  ,  - Relieves high water pressure

 .   ½

 
 - Electric pump that circulates water through the system   ,  - Valve that opens to
allow draining the boiler.
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Using the Sun for energy is a concept that has been in existence for a long time. The first successful, modern
day experiments in creating solar electricity were conducted during the 1950s. Your own calculator may
have a small solar cell that enables the machine to work without batteries. As conventional energy prices
continue to rise and resources dwindle, more people are looking into harnessing solar energy by installing
solar panels in their homes.

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 Basically, they convert energy from the sun into electricity. On any bright,
cloud-free day, the sun projects some 1,000 watts of energy on a square meter basis onto the earth¶s surface.
Although converting sunlight into electricity sounds like a simple concept, solar panels work in a specific
and rather complex way.
The solar cells that are installed in devices ranging from calculators to street lamps and even your garden
lights are called photovoltaic (PV) cells. They are composed of semiconductors like silicon. Silicon plates
are composed of millions of atoms. However, they cannot generate electricity on their own, because they do
not carry positive or negative charges. To initiate the process of electricity, both positive and negative solar
plates must be created. The chemical combination of silicon and phosphorus results in a negative charge.
Similarly, with the chemical addition of boron to a silicon plate, the plate will carry a positive charge. When
light hits a PV cell, the semiconductor absorbs a certain amount of that light. When negative solar plates are
appropriately angled to the sun, the sun bombards the silicon and phosphorus atoms on the solar panel with
photons. When this happens, certain electrons are set loose, permitting them to flow.
The negative solar plate is ³sandwiched´ with the positive plate, and the plates are attached to wires that
then lead out and connect to a battery
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system or
appliance. The electrons released by the negative plate are attracted to the outer band of the positive plate.
The electrons that are not used are essentially brought back to the silicon/boron negative plate, and the
process of generating electricity restarts.
When this activity is conducted on a large scale, with plates positioned to attract maximum sunlight
throughout the day, there can be sufficient electricity to run many types of electronic devices. Typically,
smaller scale projects will store that eletricity in a battery bank until needed. This is true for solar garden
lights and even the large panels mounted on residential rooftops.
Stay tuned for Part II of this solar series!V
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Are you considering installing solar panels for your home or business? Solar panels can
be a great investment that not only saves you money and increases the value of your
property, but also helps the environment while it's helping your wallet and bank account.V
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Leaf-like solar panels garb houseplant gadget

Rob Beschizza at 6:43 AM Wednesday, Jun 4, 2008

A team of Japanese boffins has invented leaf-thin solar panels that turn the idea of a "power plant" into a
literal proposition. From Nikkei's Tech-On supplement:
A leaf-like module featuring bright green solar cells was developed by National Institute of
Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), Mitsubishi Corp and Tokki Corp. The
organic thin-film solar cell consists of a plastic substrate, phthalocyanine layer, fullerene layer and
so forth. And eight 7.5cm2 solar cells connected in series constitute about 60cm2 solar cell module.
At some point in our lifetimes, we will witness the creation of a 1km high wind turbine in the shape of a
palm tree.
Making Cheap, Inexpensive DIY Solar Panels at Home Mike Davis is an astronomer. To practice his hobby
away from the light-pollution of cities, he bought some land in a remote part of Arizona. But there was a
problem: No electricity. But heƍs a resourceful fellow. He built some home-made solar panels using
inexpensive blemished and damaged solar cells from eBay! That might be even cooler, though less
romantic, than the couple who got their solar panels via their wedding registry.

Read on for more photos and some technical details to give you an idea of how he did it
I bought a couple of bricks of 3 X 6 mono-crystalline solar cells. It takes a total of 36 of these type solar
cells wired in series to make a panel. Each cell produces about 1/2 Volt. 36 in series would give about 18
volts which would be good for charging 12 volt batteries. (Yes, you really need that high a Voltage to
effectively charge 12 Volt batteries) This type of solar cell is as thin as paper and as brittle and fragile as
glass.
A solar panel is really just a shallow box. So I started out by building myself a shallow box. I made the box
shallow so the sides wouldnƍt shade the solar cells when the sun comes at an angle from the sides.

Next I cut two pieces of masonite peg-board to fit inside the wells. These pieces of peg-board will be the
substrates that each sub-panel will be built on. To protect the solar cells from the weather, the panel will
have a plexiglass front.
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I laid out the cells on that grid pattern upside-down so I could solder them together. All 18 cells on each half
panel need to be soldered together in series, then both half panels need to be connected in series to get the
desired voltage.

I used a low-Wattage soldering iron and fine rosen-core solder. I also used a rosen pen on the solder points
on the back of the cells before soldering. Use a real light touch with the soldering iron. The cells are thin and
delicate. If you push too hard, you will break the cells.
Hereƍs what it looks like from the front.
Here I am testing first half panel outside in the sun. In weak sun through clouds the half panel is producing
9.31 Volts. YAHOO! It works! Now all I had to do is build another one just like it.
I drilled a hole in the back of the panel near the top for the wires to exit. Each solar panel in a solar power
system needs a blocking diode in series with it to prevent the panel from discharging your batteries at night
or during cloudy weather. I added a polarized two-pin jones plug to the end of the panel wires

Here is the finished product, producing 18.8 volts and 3.05 Amps in the sun.

How much did it cost?

Not bad, though of course thereƍs a lot of labor needed to actually build the thing, and you need the skills in
the first place. Not a project for everybody, but those with the courage will certainly have a lot of fun.

This is just a quick overview of the project. If you want more, please visit Markƍs website linked below.
Thereƍs a lot more details and more photos about how he built his inexpensive solar panels.
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