Fluid Flow

Velocity H e a d ............................................................... 3
F u l l Plant Piping ......................................................... 4
P a r t i a l l y F u l l H o r i z o n t a l P i p e s .................................. 5
Equivalent Length ....................................................... 6
R e c o m m e n d e d Velocities ............................................ 7
T w o - p h a s e F l o w ........................................................... 9
C o m p r e s s i b l e F l o w - - S h o r t ( P l a n t ) L i n e s ................. 12
C o m p r e s s i b l e F l o w - - L o n g P i p e l i n e s ........................ 18
Sonic Velocity ............................................................... 21
Metering ....................................................................... 21
C o n t r o l Valves ............................................................. 22
S a f e t y R e l i e f Valves ..................................................... 25
 Fluid Flow 3

Velocity Head
Two of the most useful and basic equations are Sonic Velocity

U2 For the situations covered here, compressible fluids

/~h ~ (1) might reach sonic velocity. When this happens, further
2g
decreases in downstream pressure do not produce addi-
Au 2 tional flow. Sonic velocity occurs at an upstream to down-
AP(V)+~+ZKZ+E =0 (2) stream absolute pressure ratio of about 2 : 1 . This is
2g
shown by the formula for sonic velocity across a nozzle
or orifice.
where
critical pressure r a t i o - P2/P~ - [ 2 / ( K + 1)] K//K-~)
Ah = Head loss in feet of flowing fluid
when K - 1.4, r a t i o - 0.528, so P~/P2 - 1.89
u= Velocity in ft/sec
g= 32.2 ft/sec 2
To determine sonic velocity, use
P = Pressure in lb/ft 2
V = Specific volume in ft3/lb Vs - (KgRT) ~
Z- Elevation in feet
E = Head loss due to friction in feet of flowing fluid
where

Applications Vs = Sonic velocity, ft/sec

K = Cp/Cv, the ratio of specific heats at constant pres-
In Equation 1 Ah is called the "velocity head." This sure to constant volume
expression has a wide range of utility not appreciated by g = 32.2 ft]sec 2
many. It is used "as is" for R = 1,544/mol.wt.
T = Absolute temperature, ~
1. Sizing the holes in a sparger P1, P2 = Inlet, outlet pressures, psia
2. Calculating leakage through a small hole
3. Sizing a restriction orifice Critical flow due to sonic velocity has practically no
4. Calculating the flow with a pilot tube application to liquids. The speed of sound in liquids is
very high.
With a coefficient it is used for For sonic velocity in piping see the section on "Com-
pressible Flow."
1. Orifice calculations
2. Relating fitting losses, etc.
Bernoulli Equation

Why a Coefficient? Still more mileage can be gotten out of Ah = u2/2g

when using it with Equation 2, which is the famous
For a sparger consisting of a large pipe having small Bernoulli equation. The terms are
holes drilled along its length Equation 1 applies directly.
This is because the hole diameter and the length of fluid 1. The PV change
travel passing through the hole are similar dimensions. 2. The kinetic energy change or "velocity head"
An orifice, on the other hand, needs a coefficient in 3. The elevation change
Equation 1 because hole diameter is a much larger dimen- 4. The friction loss
sion than length of travel (say 1/8 in for many orifices).
Orifices will be discussed under "Metering" in this These contribute to the flowing head loss in a pipe.
chapter. However, there are many situations where by chance, or
4 Rulesof Thumb for Chemical Engineers
on purpose, uZ/2g head is converted to PV or vice versa.
We purposely change uZ/2g to PV gradually in the fol-
lowing situations"
1. Entering phase separator drums to cut down on
turbulence and promote separation
2. Entering vacuum condensers to cut down on
pressure drop
We build up PV and convert it in a controlled manner to
uZ/2g in a form of tank blender. These examples are dis-
cussed under appropriate sections.
Example
Given:
Methane (Mw = 16)
Line @ 100 psia and 60~
Hole in the line of 1/8 in diameter
Hole discharges to atmosphere (15 psia)
Assume Z - compressibility- 1.0
Find:
Flow through the hole in lb/hr
Full Plant Piping
A handy relationship for turbulent flow in full com-
mercial steel pipes is:
A P F - W 18~..L~
where:
AP F - Frictional pressure loss, psi/lO0 equivalent ft of
pipe
W = Flow rate, lb/hr
~t = Viscosity, cp
9 - Density, lb/ft 3
d - Internal pipe diameter, in.
This relationship holds for a Reynolds number range
of 2,100 to 1 0 6. For smooth tubes (assumed for heat
Calculations:
Use AH - u2/2g.
Flow is sonic, so use A P - 100 - 50 - 50 psi (2" 1
pressure drop).
Hole d i a m e t e r - 1/8 i n - 0.125 in
Hole area - n • (0.1252)/4 - 0.0123 in 2 =
0.0000852 ft 2
Density of m e t h a n e - (161b/76ft 3) x (100/76) x
[(460 + 76)/(460 + 60)] - 0.285 lb/ft 3
(See "Approximate Physical Properties" in Section 25,
"Properties," for the rule-of-76.)
AH - 50 lb/in 2 x 144 in2/ft 2 x f t 3 / 0 . 2 8 5 lb - 25,263 ft
u 2 - 2 5 , 2 6 3 ( 6 4 . 4 ) - 1,626,900
u - 1275 ft/sec
F l o w - 1275 ft/sec x 0.0000852 ft 2 x 0.285 lb/ft 3 x
3600 sec/hr - 111 lb/hr
Source
Branan, C.R. The Process Engineer's Pocket Handbook,
Vol. 1, Gulf Publishing Co., Houston, Texas, p. 1. 1976.
exchanger tubeside pressure drop calculations), a con-
stant of 23,000 should be used instead of 20,000.
The equation applies to:
Liquids
Compressible fluids at:
Non-critical flow
AP less than 10% of inlet pressure
It was derived from the Fanning equation:
APE --(2f U2 L 9)/(32.2 D)
and the approximate relationship: 2
f - 0.054/Re ~
 Fluid Flow 5

where: Sources

u =
velocity, ft/sec 1. Branan, C. R., Rules of Thumb for Chemical Engi-
L =
length, ft neers, Butterworth-Heineman, 2002, p. 4.
f =
Fanning friction factor = Moody's / 4 2. Simpson, L.L., "Sizing Piping for Process Plants",
D =
diameter, ft Chemical Engineering, June 17, 1968, p. 197.
Re = Reynold's Number

Partially Full Horizontal Pipes

The equations in the previous section are, of course, Example
intended for use with full pipes. Durand provides a rapid
way to estimate whether a horizontal pipe carrying liquid Given:
is full. The criteria are
Horizontal pipe
If Q/d 25 _> 10.2 the pipe is full. d = 4 in ID
If Q/d 25 < 10.2 do a partially full flow analysis as Q = 100 gpm
follows.
Let x = In (Q/d 25) and find the height of liquid in the
Find:
pipe by:

Is the pipe full?

H / D - 0.446 + 0.272x + 0.0397x 2 - 0.0153x 3
If not, what is the liquid height?
- 0.003575x 4
Also, what is the pipe's equivalent diameter?
Find the "equivalent diameter" by:
Calculations:
D e / D - - 0 . 0 1 1 3 0 + 3.040 ( H / D ) - 3.461 (H/D) 2
+ 4.108 (H/D) 3 - 2.638 (H/D) 4 Q / d 25 - 1 0 0 / 3 2 - 3.125
Not full since Q / d 25 < 10.2
[This is an empirical way to avoid getting De from
De = 4 (cross-sectional flow area/wetted perimeter)] x = ln(3.125) = 1.1394
Note that for 1.0 > H/D > 0.5, De/D > 1.0. My calcu- H / D = 0.779
lations and all references confirm this. H = 0.779 (4)= 3.12 in
De is substituted for D in subsequent flow analysis.
De/D = 1.227
D e = 1.227 (4)= 4.91 in
Nomenclature

D = pipe diameter, ft Source

De = equivalent diameter, ft
H - height of liquid in the pipe, ft Durand, A. A. and M. Marquez-Lucero, "Determining
Q = flow rate, gpm Sealing Flow Rates in Horizontal Run Pipes", Chem-
d = pipe diameter, in ical Engineering, March 1998, p. 129.
q = flow rate, ft/sec
u = velocity, ft/sec
6 Rules of Thumb for Chemical Engineers

Equivalent Length

The following table gives equivalent lengths of pipe for

various fittings.
Table 1
Equivalent Length of Valves and Fittings in Feet

Enlargement Contraction
Short Long Hard Soft 90 ~
9 9 45 ~ Std. Std.
rad. rad. miter bends Sudden Sudden
o --> ~ "~ ell T. T. red. red.
ell ell
-~-
r'N~
~ _~
r
=>
0
.~o
0 ~
>
! Equiv. L in terms of small d
"-- "~ > 9 0 r
~0
z~ ~:o0 ~,t'- o0") = "~o :'
~.,
i~. o= < c O
.- .~ "o T . . . . . . .

~ ~ ~ ~ E E E a a a a a a a a a
~1 03 ~" "O "O "O , "O "O "O "O "O "O

11/2 55 26 13 7 1 1 2 35 23 8 9 23 5 3 1 4 1 3 2 1 1
2 70 33 17 14 2 23 45 34 i
10 11 34 7 4 1 5 1 3 3 1 1
21/2 80 i 40 20 11 2 2.. 5.. 3.. ~ 12 3.. 8 5 2 6 2 4 3 2 2
3 100 50 25 17 2 2 6 4 14 4 10 6 2 8 2 5 4 2 2
4 130 65 ' 32 30 3 3 7 5 19 5 12 8 3 10 3 6 5 3 3
6 200 100 48 70 4 4 11 8 28 8 18 12 4 14 4 9 7 4 4 1
8 260 125 64 120 6 6 15 9 37 9 25 16 5 19 5 12 9 5 5 2
10 330! 160 80 170 7 7 18 12 47 12 31 20 7 24 7 15 12 61 6 2
12 I 400 190 95 170 9 i 9 22 14 55 ~ 14 28 21 20 37 24 8 28 8 18 14 7 7 2
, i
14 450 210 105 80 i 10 ' 10 ' 26 16 62 , 16 32 24 22 42 26 9 -- -- 20 16 8 --
16 500 240 120 1 4 5 ' 11 11 29 ~ 18 72 18 ' 38 27 24 47 30 10 -- m 24 18 9 -- --
18 550 280 140 160 12 12 33 20 82 20 i 42 30 28 53 35 11 ~ ~ 26 20 10 m
20 650 300 155 210 14 14 36 23 90 23 46 33 32 60 38 13 ~ 30 23 11
22 ! 688 335 ~ 170 225 15 15 40 25 100 25 52 36 34 65 42 14 ~ ~ 32 25 12
24 750 370 185 i 254 16 16 44 27 110 27 56 39 36 70 46 15 ~ ~ ' 35 27 13
30 ~ m 312 21 21 i 55 40 ' 140 40 70 ~ 51 44 : i
' i ;
36 m ~ ~ 25 l
25 66 i 47 i170 47 84 60 52 ! I
42 ~ ~ ! 30 30 77 55 200 55 98 69 64
48 m ~ 35 35 88 65 220 65 112 81 72 ]
54 ~ ~ 40 40 99 70 250 70 126 90 80 i
60 ~ ~ 45 45 110 80 260 80 190 99 92

Sources

1. GPSA Engineering Data Book, Gas Processors Sup-

pliers Association, 10th Ed. 1987.
2. Branan, C. R., The Process Engineer's Pocket Hand-
book, Vol. l, Gulf Publishing Co., p. 6, 1976.
 Fluid F l o w 7

Recommended Velocities

Here are various recommended flows, velocities, and Sizing Cooling Water Piping in New Plants Maximum
pressure drops for various piping services. Allowable Flow, Velocity and Pressure Drop

LATERALS MAINS
Pipe Size Flow Vel. AP Flow Vel. AP
in. GPM ft/sec, ft/100' GPM ft/sec, ft/lO0'

3 100 4.34 4.47 7O 3.04 2.31

4 200 5.05 4.29 140 3.53 2.22
Sizing Steam Piping in New Plants Maximum Allowable
6 500 5.56 3.19 380 4.22 1.92
Flow and Pressure Drop
8 900 5.77 2.48 650 4.17 1.36
10 1,500 6.10 2.11 1,100 4.48 1.19
Laterals Mains
12 2,400 6.81 2.10 1,800 5.11 1.23
Pressure, PSIG 600 175 30 600 175 30 14 3,100 7.20 2.10 2,200 5.13 1.14
Density, #/CF 0.91 0.41 0.106 0.91 1.41 0.106 16 4,500 7.91 2.09 3,300 5.90 1.16
AP, PSI/100' 1.0 0.70 0.50 0.70 0.40 0.30 18 6,000 8.31 1.99 4,500 6.23 1.17
20 6,000 6.67 1.17
Nominal Pipe 24 11,000 7.82 1.19
Size, In. Maximum Lb/Hr • 10 3 30 19,000 8.67 1.11

3 7.5 3.6 1.2 6.2 2.7 0.9

4 15 7.5 3.2 12 5.7 2.5
6 40 21 8.5 33 16 6.6 Sizing Piping for Miscellaneous Fluids
8 76 42 18 63 32 14
t0 130 76 32 108 58 25 Dry Gas 100 ft/sec
12 190 115 50 158 87 39 Wet Gas 60 ft/sec
14 260 155 70 217 117 54 High Pressure Steam 150 ft/sec
16 360 220 100 300 166 78 Low Pressure Steam 100 ft/sec
18 9 300 130 ... 227 101 Air 100 ft/sec
20 ...... 170 ...... 132 Vapor Lines General Max. velocity 0.3 mach
0.5 psi/100 ft
Note:
Light Volatile Liquid Near Bubble 0.5 ft head total
(1) 600PSIG steam is at 750~ 175PSIG and 30PSIG are saturated.
Pt. Pump Suction suction line
(2) On 600PSIG flow ratings, internal pipe sizes for larger nominal
Pump Discharge, Tower Reflux 3 - 5 psi/100 ft
diameters were taken as follows: 18/16.5"; 14/12.8", 12/11.6",
Hot Oil Headers 1.5 psi/100 ft
10/9. 75":
Vacuum Vapor Lines below 50 MM Allow max. of 5%
(3) If other actual I.D. pipe sizes are used, or if local superheat exists
Absolute Pressure absolute pressure
on 175 PSIG or 30 PSIG systems, the allowable pressure drop shall
for friction loss
be the governing design criterion.
8 Rules of Thumb for Chemical Engineers

Suggested Fluid Velocities in Pipe and Tubing

(Liquids, Gases, and Vapors at Low Pressures to 50psig and 50~176

The velocities are suggestive only and are to be used to approxi- The final line size should be such as to give an economical balance
mate line size as a starting point for pressure drop calculations. between pressure drop and reasonable velocity.
Suggested Trial Suggested Trial
Fluid Velocity Pipe Material Fluid Velocity Pipe Material
Acetylene (Observe Sodium Hydroxide
pressure limitations) 4000 fpm Steel 0-30 Percent 6 fps Steel
Air, 0 to 30 psig 4000 fpm Steel 30-50 Percent 5 fps and
Ammonia 50-73 Percent 4 Nickel
Liquid 6 fps Steel Sodium Chloride Sol'n.
Gas 6000 fpm Steel No Solids 5 fps Steel
Benzene 6 fps Steel With Solids (6 Min.-
Bromine 15 Max.) Monel or nickel
Liquid 4 fps Glass 7.5 fps
Gas 2000 fpm Glass Perchlorethylene 6 fps Steel
Calcium Chloride 4 fps Steel Steam
Carbon Tetrachloride 6 fps Steel 0-30 psi Saturated* 4000-6000 fpm Steel
Chlorine (Dry) 30-150 psi Satu-
Liquid 5 fps Steel, Sch. 80 rated or super-
Gas 2000-5000 fpm Steel, Sch. 80 heated* 6000-10000 fpm
Chloroform 150 psi up
Liquid 6 fps Copper & Steel superheated 6500-15000 fpm
Gas 2000 fpm Copper & Steel *Short lines 15,000 fpm
Ethylene Gas 6000 fpm Steel (max.)
Ethylene Dibromide 4 fps Glass Sulfuric Acid
Ethylene Dichloride 6 fps Steel 88--93 Percent 4 fps S. S.-316, Lead
Ethylene Glycol 6 fps Steel 93-100 Percent 4 fps Cast Iron & Steel,
Hydrogen 4000 fpm Steel Sch. 80
Hydrochloric Acid Sulfur Dioxide 4000 fpm Steel
Liquid 5 fps Rubber Lined Styrene 6 fps Steel
Gas 4000 fpm R. L., Saran, Trichlorethylene 6 fps Steel
Haveg Vinyl Chloride 6 fps Steel
Methyl Chloride Vinylidene Chloride 6 fps Steel
Liquid 6 fps Steel Water
Gas 4000 fpm Steel Average service 3-8 (avg. 6) fps Steel
Natural Gas 6000 fpm Steel Boiler feed 4-12 fps Steel
Oils, lubricating 6 fps Steel Pump suction lines 1-5 fps Steel
Oxygen 1800 fpm Max. Steel (300 psig Max.) Maximum economi-
(ambient temp.) 4000 fpm Type 304 SS cal (usual) 7-10 fps Steel
(Low temp.) Sea and brackish R. L., concrete,
Propylene Glycol 5 fps Steel water, lined pipe 5-8 fps~ 3 asphalt-line, saran-
Concrete 5-12 fpsJ (Min.) lined, transite
Note: R. L. = Rubber-lined s t e e l
 Fluid Flow 9

Typical Design Vapor Velocities* (ft./sec.) Typical Design* Velocities for Process System
Applications
Line Sizes
Fluid <_6" 8"-12" _>14" Service Velocity, ft./sec.
Saturated Vapor Average liquid process 4-6.5
0 to 50 psig 30-115 50-125 60-145 Pump suction (except boiling) 1-5
Gas or Superheated Vapor Pump suction (boiling) 0.5-3
0 to 10 psig 50-140 90-190 110-250 Boiler feed water (disch., pressure) 4-8
11 to 100 psig 40-115 75-165 95-225 Drain lines 1.5-4
101 to 900 psig 30-85 60-150 85-165 Liquid to reboiler (no pump) 2-7
Vapor-liquid mixture out reboiler 15-30
*Values listed are guides, and final line sizes and flow velocities must Vapor to condenser 15-80
be determined by appropriate calculations to suit circumstances. Gravity separator flows 0.5-1.5
Vacuum lines are not included in the table, but usually tolerate higher
velocities. High vacuum conditions require careful pressure drop *To be used as guide, pressure drop and system environment govern
evaluation. final selection of pipe size.
For heavy and viscous fluids, velocities should be reduced to about
values shown.
Fluids not to contain suspended solid particles.

Usual Allowable Velocities for Duct and Piping Systems* Suggested Steam Pipe Velocities in Pipe Connecting to
Steam Turbines
Service/Application Velocity, ft./min.
Forced draft ducts 2,500-3,500 Service--Steam Typical range, ft./sec.
Induced-draft flues and breeching 2,000-3,000 Inlet to turbine 100-150
Chimneys and stacks 2,000 Exhaust, non-condensing 175-200
Water lines (max.) 600 Exhaust, condensing 400-500
High pressure steam lines 10,000
Low pressure steam lines 12,000-15,000
Vacuum steam lines 25,000 Sources
Compressed air lines 2,000
Refrigerant vapor lines
High pressure 1,000-3,000 1. Branan, C. R., The Process Engineer's Pocket Hand-
Low pressure 2,000-5,000 book, Vol. 1, Gulf Publishing Co., 1976.
Refrigerant liquid 200
Brine lines 400
2. Ludwig, E. E., Applied Process Design for Chemical
Ventilating ducts 1,200-3,000 and Petrochemical Plants, 2nd Ed., Gulf Publishing
Register grilles 500 Co.
*By permission, Chemical Engineer's Handbook, 3rd Ed., p. 1642, 3. Perry, R. H., Chemical Engineer's Handbook, 3rd Ed.,
McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, N.Y. p. 1642, McGraw-Hill Book Co.

Two-phase Flow
Two-phase (liquid/vapor) flow is quite complicated and x - [aPc/aPo 1'/2
even the long-winded methods do not have high accuracy.
You cannot even have complete certainty as to which flow where: APL and APG are the phase pressure drops
regime exists for a given situation. Volume 2 of Ludwig's The X factor is then related to either YL or YG.
design books I and the GPSA Data Book 2 give methods Whichever one is chosen is multiplied by its companion
for analyzing two-phase behavior. pressure drop to obtain the total pressure drop. The fol-
For our purposes, a rough estimate for general two- lowing equation 5 is based on points taken from the YL and
phase situations can be achieved with the Lockhart and YG curves in Perry's 4 for both phases in turbulent flow
Martinelli 3 correlation. Perry's 4 has a writeup on this cor- (the most common case):
relation. To apply the method, each phase's pressure drop
is calculated as though it alone was in the line. Then the YL - 4.6X-178 + 12.5X -~ + 0.65
following parameter is calculated: Y G - X2yL
10 Rulesof Thumb for Chemical Engineers

10.0
8.0
6.0
4.0

2.0

0
3.0
o ~.0
9~ 0.8
2.0
Q_

~- 0.6 g
o_
0
1.0 ~
"~ 0.4
0.8 ~-
0
m 0.6 5.
._
~- 0.2
0.4 u
0

0.3 >
0.1
0.2
0.08
0.06
0.05
pl

2 3 4 6 8 1 1.5 2 3 4 6 81 1.52 3 4 6 81 1.52 3 4 6 81 1.52 3 4 6 81

J ~ J
- 9 .... T - - - -

X 100 -~ ........ X 1,000

~ ' J~ X 10,000
"- • 100,000
Flowrate, Ib/h

Sizing Lines for Flashing Steam-Condensate

The X range for Lockhart and Martinelli curves is 0.01
to 100.
For fog or spray type flow, Ludwig ~ cites Baker's 6
suggestion of multiplying Lockhart and Martinelli by
two.
For the frequent case of flashing steam-condensate
lines, Ruskan 7 supplies the handy graph shown above.
This chart provides a rapid estimate of the pressure drop
of flashing condensate, along with the fluid velocities.
Example: If 1,000 lb/hr of saturated 600-psig condensate is
flashed to 200 psig, what size line will give a pressure drop
of 1.0psi/100ft or less? Enter at 600psig below insert on
the fight, and read down to a 200psig end pressure. Read
left to intersection with 1,000 lb/hr flowrate, then up verti-
cally to select a 1~2 in for a 0.28psi/100ft pressure drop.
Note that the velocity given by this lines up if 16.5 ft/s are
used; on the insert at the right read up from 600psig to
200psig to find the velocity correction factor 0.41, so that
the corrected velocity is 6.8 ft/s.
Lockhart and Martinelli Example
Given:
Saturated 600 psig condensate flashed to 200 psig
1]/2 in line, sch. 80 (ID - 1.500 in)
Flow - 1000 lb/hr
 Fluid Flow 11

Steam Condensate Vapor

Sat. 615 psia APF - (135) ~8 (0.015)~ 4.8(0.468)]
T, ~ 489 489
= 0.045 psi/100 ft
V, ft3/lb 0.7504 0.0202
Cameron 8 = 0.05
H, btu/lb 1203.0 474.7
Liquid
Sat. psia
215

T 388 388
APF -(865)18(0.14)~ 000(1.5)4"8(55.5)]
V 2.135 0.018 = 0.017 psi/100 ft
H 1199.3 361.9 Cameron 8 = 0.02
It, cp 0.015 0.14 Crane9 = 0.01

Total Pressure Drop

Find: X - [APL/APG ]0.5 _ [0.017/0.045] 0.5 - 0.615

The flash amounts of steam and condensate, lb/hr YL - 4.6(0.615) -1"78+ 12.5(0.615 )-0.68+0.65 - 29
Individual pressure drops if alone in the line,
psi/100 ft
Total A P - 29(0.017)- 0.49 psi/100 ft
Total pressure drop, psi/100 ft Ruskan7 = 0.28

Calculations: Sources

Flash 1. Ludwig, E. E., Applied Process Design For Chemical

and Petrochemical Plants, Vol. 1, Gulf Publishing Co.
Let X - lb/hr vapor 2nd Edition., 1977.
Y - lb/hr liquid 2. GPSA Data Book, Vol. II, Gas Processors Suppliers
Association, 10th Ed., 1987.
X + Y = 1000 3. Lockhart, R. W., and Martinelli, R. C., "Proposed
1199.3X + 361.9Y = 474.7(1000) Correlation of Data for Isothermal Two-Phase, Two-
Component Flow in Pipes," Chemical Engineering
Solving: X - 135 lb/hr Progress, 45:39-48, 1949.
Y - 865 lb/hr 4. Perry, R. H., and Green, D., Perry's Chemical
Engineering Handbook, 6th Ed., McGraw-Hill Book
Individual pressure drops Co., 1984.
5. Branan, C. R., The Process Engineer's Pocket Hand-
APF - - W '8 ~~ /(20, 000 d 48 p)(See "Full Plant Piping" book, Vol. 2, Gulf Publishing Co., 1983.
in Section 1, "Fluid Flow") 6. Baker, O., "Multiphase Flow in Pipe Lines," Oil and
Gas Journal, November 10, 1958, p. 156.
where 7. Ruskan, R. E, "Sizing Lines For Flashing Steam-
Condensate," Chemical Engineering, November 24,
APF = psi/100 ft 1975, p. 88.
W = lb/hr 8. Cameron, Hydraulic Data, Ingersoll-Rand Co., 17th
~t = cp Ed.
d - in 9. Flow of Fluids, Technical Paper No. 410, Crane CO.,
9 = lb/ft3 1981.
12 Rules of Thumb for Chemical Engineers

Compressible Flow--Short (Plant) Lines

For compressible fluid flow in plant piping, one can 2. Determine fL/D. 2. Same.
use Mak's ~ Isothermal flow chart (Figure 1). Mak's chart 3. Obtain Z. Figures 3. Same.
was provided originally for relief valve manifold design 5, 6, and 7 are
and adopted by API. 2 The relief valve manifold design provided for
method, and its derivation, is discussed in Section 20, convenience.
"Safety." Mak's methods can be applied to other common 4. Calculate Pz/P~. 4. Calculate M2.
plant compressible flow situations. See Equation 3. If
Since Mak's Isothermal flow chart is intended for relief M2 > 1 flow is
manifold design, it supports calculations starting with Pz, choked, so set M2 at 1
the outlet pressure, that is atmospheric at the flare tip, and determine a
and back-calculates each lateral's inlet pressure, P1. These reduced W.
inlet pressures are the individual relief valves' back pres- 5. Get M2 from 5. Get Pz]P1 from
sures. The chart parameter is M2, the Mach number at the Figure 1. Figure 1.
pipe outlet. Having M2 is very useful in monitoring prox- If below the Read at the reset value
imity to sonic velocity, a common problem in compress- critical flow line, o f M 2 = 1 if
ible flow. use M2 = 1. applicable.
For individual plant lines the following cases are easily 6. Calculate W. See 6. Calculate P~.
solved with Figure 1 and the tabulated steps. Equation 3. Note: This case (given
P2 and W) is the
Given: P2 and P~ P2 and W same as an
Find: W P~ individual lateral in
Steps: 1. Get f from GPSA 1. Same. relief manifold
graph (Figure 4). design.

Based on outlet pressure

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.'~, -
q ""ill "'"Jill' "ql '"~li
,!lllm,.lUllllm,,..llll]llll,,,.lUlttl,,,,,
,,

II!liill!!llliilII!!!llllllliiill!!lllllllliii',IB!
,
, ~,

. ,~

0.4
I ' II!liill!!lliilIl!!!lllliiilll!!llllliillll!!lllllllll
.,

" Jill!!illl!!iiilll!!!llJjiilll!!!lJiilll!!lllllliiil
i
0.3 I i~li.:,,l!!,,,l!!!m,,!!!!fi,lh!!llm,,!!!lllIi,,,,
q "ql -,lq '"llll.... 'Ill "IIII ""'lqll
.';!liilZ!!llil;',!!lllii|!!llliill!lllllil;l!!l
i ........ [!llllli
Ilt|'.llllllli.:!tlhll!!lllli..~=.,lll,;;!lllll;[~,ilUl
lil-'1111111""'IIlllll 'lllii'illllll ll"'qlllll 'Uili'i
.... ....
0.2 !. . .. rr Ii,l.llli,,!!llllm,!!!lll ll,n,,!.,,~!!lin,,!!!!ilitl
""llllI"llllii'"'lllllll'='llllli,l
llll I III fill """""
. . -.

lllllm,,,,,.!+.,,,,,.!!,,,,,,.!:,,,,,,.!!,,,,,,,,,:
...... ' l l i = " ' l l l l
. . . . . . ........

"~"lllllii'~'

0.] :
i .
. .
lllllllllUllllllilllliiiill,,,,,;,,,,::::;,':,,:,
I III I I
,i,, III

.I lllllllllllllllllllillilllillilllnllllllilillillillll
_ .
UlMIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIUlIUilIUlIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII
0.] 0.2 0.3 0,4 0.50.6 0.8 1.0 2 3 4 S 6 7 8 910 2O 30 40 SO 60 7080 I00
0.7 0.9 90
fLIP
Figure 1. Isothermal flow chart based on M2.
 Fluid Flow 13
O
O
~TT-[ o
O~
O
CO
O
O
~O
] T-~ O
__,_..,__,_
O
!~T!
_.,_.+_,_
~ : :
-y,~
i.4_
T c
o
"o
i _k_~Z a

..Q
t....
i
o
LL
-,---,-- !._
ii
u.
O
O~
O0
-r-
O
~d/~d
14 Rulesof Thumb for Chemical Engineers

M~ Graph fL/D - (1/M22)(p1/P2)2 [1 - (P2/p1)2 ] - ln(P1/P2) 2 (4)

100

\\ -,,- M-0.1
-,,- M - 0 . 2 I
Critical pressure at the pipe outlet in psia
10 o M-0.3 I
~ ~ m
m m ~ ~i mi m
l im ~m m ~ ' i ~l lm i m~
m m m ~
m m m m ~ ~ m m ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ m m ~ ~ m -~- M - 0 . 4 I Pcrit - (W/408d 2)(ZT/Mw)~ (5)
-*- M-0.5 I
mmmmmi .Emmmm
- ~ M-O.6 I
- ~ M-O.7 I
For comparison the author has generated an Excel | plot
m m m m m m m m m m m m ~
....,,.. M - 0 . 8 I (Figure 3) using the data from Figure 2. This is for those
0.1
[] M-O.9 I readers who work with this popular spreadsheet.
m m m m m m m m m m m m m k ~

m m m m m m m m m m m m m m - - - Critical I

0.01
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 Example
P2/P1

Figure 3. Excel| version of M1 chart. Given (see sketch following):

Calculate how much gas will flow to the vessel through

The Mak Isothermal flow chart is such a useful tool that the 1 in line with the normally closed hand valve
the author has used it for cases where P1 is known instead fully opened.
of P2 with a trial and error approach. The author has now Use the psv full open pressure of 136 psia as the vessel
generated a graph (Figure 2) based upon M~ using Equa- pressure.
tion 2. The Isothermal flow chart (Figure 1) based on M2 The equivalent length of 200 ft includes the fully
uses Equation 4. Figure 2 facilitates the following case. opened hand valve.
The 1 in pipe's inside diameter is 1.049 in.
Given: P1 and W Assume Z = 1.0.
Find: P2
Steps: 1. Get f from GPSA graph (Figure 4).
2. Determine fL/D.
Calculations:
3. Obtain Z. Figures 5, 6, and 7 are provided
Note that if the AP was across a restriction orifice, sonic
for convenience.
velocity would occur since the AP is greater than
4. Calculate M1. See Equation 1.
2 : 1 (315/136 = 2.31). However, the AP is along a
5. Get Pz/P1 from Figure 2. The critical curve
length of pipe, so we will use Mak's method.
indicates where M1 -- P2/Pl. When this
For commercial steel pipe:
happens M2 = 1 since M2 = Ml(P1/P2). The
design pipe diameter might have to be
f- 0.023
changed to provide a possible set of
id - 1.049in - 0.0874 ft
conditions.
P2/P1 - 136/135 - 0.43
6. Calculate P2. fL/D - 0.023(200)/0.0874 - 52.6
M2 - 0 . 2 8 ( f r o m Figure 1)
Some calculations require knowing the critical pres-
sure at which sonic velocity occurs. This is calculated
Note that if the flow were critical, M2 would be 1.
with Equation 5.
The applicable equations are M2 - 1.702 x 10-5[W/(PzDZ)][ZT/Mw]
~
P2 - 136 psia
Based on M1
D 2 - 0 . 0 8 7 4 2 - 0.00764

M 1 - 1.702 • 10-5 [W/(P1D 2)](ZT/Mw)~ (1) T - 460 + 60 - 520 ~

Mw - 1 6
(2) Z - 1.0 (given)
fL/D = (l/M12)[1 - (P2/p1)2] _ ln(P~/P2):

Based on M2 0 . 2 8 - 1.702 x 10-5[W/(136 x 0.00764)][1.0(520)/16] 0.5

M2 - 1.702 • 10-5 [W/(P2D 2)](ZT/Mw)~ (3) W - 0.28 x 1.039 x 105/(5.70 x 1.702)- 30001b/hr
 Fluid Flow 15

Pipe Diameter, in Feet-D

4 5 (J 25
.05
.04 0~/
.03 OG

.02 05

.01
.008 035
.0O6
.005
,004
.OO3
025
.002 (/}

I .001 02 ~
O

,,,"' .0008
(1) d
018 ~
'- 0006
t--
,

= 0005
O 9
.....,

,~ .0004 016 ~
.0003
c:::
E
O
.0002 014 o
O

I
E
.0001 012
.00008
.00006
.00005
.00004
.00003

.00002
.009

.00001 I 008
.000008
.000006
.000005 1 5 6 8 10 20 30 40 506---0 80 100 200 300
Pipe Diameter, in Inches- d

Figure 4. Friction factor chart.

16 Rules of Thumb for Chemical Engineers

Pseudo-reduced Pressure, Pr
0 ! 2 3 4 5 $
I.I 1.1
Pseudo reduced
temperature

1,0 1.0
1.05
,L2
0.95

0.9

O.O 1.7

0.7 1.6

IIIII
bib

N
il
an
IBm
0.6 "-"l 1.5

E 1.4
0
U

0.4 1.3

0.3 T.2

0.25

1.1 1.1

MW<40 [i i l

1.0 1.0
Compressil0il;ty of
natural gases
Jan.l,1941

0.1 0.9
10 11 12 13 14 15
Pseudo-reduced pressure, Pr

Figure 5. Z factor for natural gas.

 Fluid F l o w 17
ImJNOIgBOJUDPAOOOO
nmmomnmmwmw-.amummu
I I i I I i i n l p ~ l l l l l l l
llllnOlir~llllmlll
iillilr./lllUlllll
niNlmPJOlminlinili
mmomvdmmmmmmmmmmmo
iil%r
IFAOIIIIBBBBNNBIIN
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l l l i l l l l l l l l l l l l l l
Illllllllllllllllll
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Illllllllllllllllll i,.,.
Illllllllllllllllll
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Illllllllllllllllll
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Illllllllllllllllll E
Illllllllllllllllll
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Illllllllllllllllll Cb I...
Illllllllllllllllll
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Illllllllllllllllll
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3 *-
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o
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r~
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5
llllnilllillilir~llil
m n U m m m n m m i l l amVj'~',4mmm
immmmmmmmmmlV~4~!
m m m m m m m m m m g p r i m m mmm~%~ me
mmmmmmmmmmk'~
mmmmmmmmmmm~~~ LL.
mmmmmmmmmmm~~~a
mmmmmmmmmmmmm~v~mm
mmmmmmmmmmmmmMmmm
z 'Joioe~ 'Al!l!q!ssaJdmoo
O.
" (1)
Q
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0
v
z 'JO~Oe~ ' A : ~ ! l ! q ! s s e J d L u o o
18 Rules of T h u m b for Chemical Engineers

Example sketch Mw = Gas molecular weight

P1,P2 = Inlet and outlet line pressures, psia
psv set @ 110 psig x 1.1 accumulation = 121 psig = 136 psia
/. /.
Pcrit- Critical pressure for sonic velocity to occur, psia
15 psia T = Absolute temperature, ~

l
W = Gas flow rate, lb/hr
Z - Gas compressibility factor
NC ~[ ] 60 ~
1O0 psig
lin Sources
0
200 equiv, ft 1. Mak, Henry Y., "New Method Speeds Pressure-Relief
C1 Manifold Design," Oil and Gas Journal, Nov. 20,
1978, p. 166.
300 psig = 315 psia
60 ~ 2. API Recommended Practice 520, "Sizing, Selection,
and Installation of Pressure Relieving Devices I
Nomenclature Refineries," 1993.
3. "Flow of Fluids through Valves, Fittings, and Pipe,"
D = Pipe diameter, ft Crane Co. Technical paper 410, 1981.
d - Pipe diameter, in 4. Crocker, Sabin, Piping Handbook, McGraw-Hill, Inc.,
f = Moody friction factor 1945.
L = Line equivalent length, ft 5. Standing, M.B. and D. L. Katz, Trans. AIME, 146, 159
M1,M2 = Mach number at the line inlet, outlet (1942).

Compressible Flow--Long Pipelines

Equations Commonly Used for Calculating Hydraulic Data Weymouth.
for Gas Pipe Lines 0.5
Panhandle A. Q- 433.5x (Yb/Pb)XI p12GLTz-p22
I X D2"667 x E

Qb - 435.87 x (TB/PB)1"0778x D2.6182 x E x Pavg -- 2/3[P~ + P2 - (P1 x P2)/1:'1 + P2 ]

pl 2 _ p2 2 _ 0.0375 x G x (h2 - hi) M Pavg 2 0.5394
Pavg is used to calculate gas compressibility factor Z
X Zavg
Tavg
6 0.8539 • L x Tavg x Zavg
Nomenclature for Panhandle Equations

Qb = f l o w r a t e , S C F D
Pb- base pressure, psia
Tb " - b a s e temperature, ~
Panhandle B.
Tavg = average gas temperature, ~
P1 = inlet pressure, psia
Qb - 737 X (Tb/Pb)L~176X D 2s3 • E
P2 - outlet pressure, psia
_ 0.0375 x G x (h2 - hi) x Pavg2 0.51 G = gas specific gravity (air = 1.0)
pl 2 _ p2 2
L = line length, miles
x
Tavg X Zavg
Z = average gas compressibility
6 0"961 X L x Tavg x Zavg
D = pipe inside diameter, in.
h2 - elevation at terminus of line, ft
 Fluid Flow 19

h~ = elevation at origin of line, ft Panhandle A.

Pavg- average line pressure, psia
E = efficiency factor Qb - 435.87 X (520/14.7) 1~ X (4.026) 26182 x l x
E = 1 for new pipe with no bends, fittings, or pipe
(2,000)2 _ ( 1 , 5 0 0 ) 2 _ 0.0375 X 0.6 X 100 X (1,762) 2 0.5394
diameter changes
E - 0.95 for very good operating conditions, typically 560 x 0.835
through first 12-18 months (0.6) .8539X 20 x 560 x .835
E = 0.92 for average operating conditions
E - 0.85 for unfavorable operating conditions
Qb - 16,577 MCFD

Nomenclature for Weymouth Equation Panhandle B.

Q = flow rate, MCFD Qb - 737 X (520/14.7) 1~176• (4.026) 2.53 x 1 x

Tb = base temperature, ~ 0.51
Pb = base pressure, psia 000)2 (1,500)2 0.0375 x 0.6 x 100 x (1,762) 2
(2, - -
G = gas specific gravity (air = 1) 560 x 0.835
L = line length, miles (0.6) "961X 20 X 560 X .835
T = gas temperature, ~
Z = gas compressibility factor
D = pipe inside diameter, in. Q b - 17,498 M C F D
E = efficiency factor. (See Panhandle nomenclature for
suggested efficiency factors) Weymouth.

Sample Calculations Q - 0 . 4 3 3 x (520/14.7)• [(2,000) 2 - ( 1 , 5 0 0 ) 2 /

(0.6 x 20 x 560 x 0.835)] 1/2 • (4.026) 2.667
Q-?
G-0.6
Q- 11,101 MCFD
T - 100~
L - 20 miles
P 1 - 2,000psia Source
P 2 - 1,500psia
Elev diff. - 100 ft Pipecalc 2.0, Gulf Publishing Company, Houston,
D - 4.026-in. Texas. Note: Pipecalc 2.0 will calculate the compressibil-
Tb -- 60~ ity factor, minimum pipe ID, upstream pressure, down-
Pb -- 14.7 psia stream pressure, and flow rate for Panhandle A, Panhandle
E - 1.0 B, Weymouth, AGA, and Colebrook-White equations.
Pavg- 2/3(2,000 + 1,500 - (2,000 x 1,500/2,000 The flow rates calculated in the above sample calculations
+ 1,500)) will differ slightly from those calculated with Pipecalc 2.0
= 1,762 psia since the viscosity used in the examples was extracted
from Reference 2. Pipecalc uses the Dranchuk et al.
Z at 1,762psia and 100~ - 0.835. method for calculating gas compressibility.
20 Rules of Thumb for Chemical Engineers

Equivalent Lengths for Multiple Lines Based on Panhandle A

Condition I. dl, d2, d3 & d n - internal diameter of individual

A single pipe line which consists of two or more dif- line corresponding to lengths L1,
ferent diameter lines. L2, L3 & Ln
Let LE -- equivalent length 2.6182 1.8539
dE
L1, L 2 , . . . Ln - length of each diameter LE -Ll[d 12.6182+ d22.6182+d326182+... dn2"6182
D1, D2,... Dn = internal diameter of each separate
line corresponding to L1, L 2 , . . .
Ln
DE = equivalent internal diameter
909

2.6182
dE
i]18539
IDE14"8539 "DE -'4"8539 ,-DE --4.8539 Ln E d12.6182-k-d22.6182+d3 2.6182+...dn 2.6182
t e - gl[_-~-ij + L2 [-~2 ] +... gnl-~nnI
when L1- length of unlooped section
L2 - length of single looped section
L3 - length of double looped section
Example. A single pipe line, 100 miles in length con- dE - dl - d2
sists of 10 miles 10~4-in. OD; 40 miles 123/4-in. OD and
50 miles of 22-in. OD lines. then"
Find equivalent length (LE) in terms of 22-in. OD pipe.
.8539
i
d12.6182 ]1
L - - 5 0 + E 40[ -'215
4"853912.;51 +1 01215
-'4"853910.;5J LE - L1 + 0.27664 L2 + L3 2dl 2"6182-k-d326182

= 50 + 614 + 364
= 1,028 miles equivalent length of 22-in. OD
when dE- dl- d 2 - d3
then LE- L1 + 0.27664 L2 + 0.1305 L3

Condition II. Example. A multiple system consisting of a 15

A multiple pipe line system consisting of two or mile section of 3-85/8-in. OD lines and 1-103/4-in. OD line,
more parallel lines of different diameters and different and a 30 mile section of 2-85/8-in. lines and 1-103/4-in. OD
lengths. line.
Find the equivalent length in terms of single 12-in. ID
Let LE = equivalent length line.
L1, L2, L3, . . . Ln- length of various looped sections
122.6182 11"8539
dl, d2, d3, 9 9 9 = internal diameter of the individ-
ual line corresponding to length LE -- 15 3(7.981)2.6182+ 10.02 2"6182
L1, L2, L3 82 Ln I 22.6182 ]1.8539
i dE2.6182 ]1.8539 + 30 2(7.981)2.16182+ 10.02 2"6182
LE -- L1 dl 2"6182+ d226182+d326182-t-... dn2"6182 = 5 . 9 + 18.1
= 24.0 miles equivalent of 12-in. ID pipe
099

dE2.6182 11"8539
Example. A multiple system consisting of a single
Ln dl 2"6182-k-8226182+d326182+... dn2"6182 12-in. ID line 5 miles in length and a 30 mile section of
3-12-in. ID lines.
Let LE - - equivalent length Find equivalent length in terms of a single 12-in. ID
L1, L2, L3 82 Ln- length of various looped sections line.
 Fluid Flow 21

L E - 5 + 0.1305 X 30 2. McAllister, E. W., Pipe Line Rules of Thumb Handbook,

= 8.92 miles equivalent of single 12-in. ID line 3rd Ed., Gulf Publishing Co., pp. 247-248, 1993.
3. Branan, C. R., The Process Engineer's Pocket Hand-
book, Vol. 1, Gulf Publishing Co., p. 4, 1976.
References

1. Maxwell, J. B., Data Book on Hydrocarbons, Van

Nostrand, 1965.

Sonic Velocity
To determine sonic velocity, use To determine the critical pressure ratio for gas sonic
velocity across a nozzle or orifice use
V~ - ~/KgRT
critical pressure ratio - [ 2 / ( K + 1)] k/(k-~)
where
If pressure drop is high enough to exceed the critical ratio,
Vs = Sonic velocity, ft/sec sonic velocity will be reached. When K - 1.4, ratio -
K = Cp/Cv the ratio of specific heats at constant pressure 0.53.
to constant volume. This ratio is 1.4 for most
diatomic gases.
Source
g = 32.2ft/sec 2
R = 1,544/mol. wt.
Branan, C. R., The. Process Engineer's Pocket Hand-
T = Absolute temperature in ~
book, Vol. 1, Gulf Publishing Co., 1976.

Metering
Orifice 2g - 64.4 ft]sec 2
1/2 Ah - Orifice pressure drop, ft of fluid
Uo - Up 2 - Co (2gAh) 1/2 D - Diameter
Co - Coefficient. (Use 0.60 for typical application where
Do/Op is between 0.2 and 0.8 and Re at vena con-
Permanent head loss % of Ah tracta is above 15,000.)
Permanent
Do/D r Loss
Venturi
0.2 95
0.4 82
Same equation as for orifice:
0.6 63
0.8 40
Co - 0.98

One designer uses permanent loss - Ah (1 - Co) Permanent head loss approximately 3-4% Ah.

where

Uo - Velocity through orifice, ft/sec

Up - Velocity through pipe, ft/sec
22 Rules of Thumb for Chemical Engineers

Rectangular Weir Pitot Tube

Fv - 3.33(L - 0.2H)H 3/2 Z ~ - u2/2g

where Source

F v - Flow in f t 3 / s e c Branan, C. R., The Process Engineer's Pocket Handbook

L - Width of weir, ft Vol. 1, Gulf Publishing Co., 1976.
H - Height of liquid over weir, ft

Control Valves

Notes" where

1. References 1 and 2 were used extensively for this APa]lo w = Maximum allowable differential pressure for
section. The sizing procedure is generally that of sizing purposes, psi
Fisher Controls Company. Km = Valve recovery coefficient (see Table 3)

2. Use manufacturers' data where available. This hand- re = Critical pressure ratio (see Figures 1 and 2)
book will provide approximate parameters applicable P~ = Body inlet pressure, psia
to a wide range of manufacturers. Pv = Vapor pressure of liquid at body inlet tempera-
3. For any control valve design be sure to use one of ture, psia
the modem methods, such as that given here, that
This gives the maximum AP that is effective in produc-
takes into account such things as control valve pres-
ing flow. Above this AP no additional flow will be pro-
sure recovery factors and gas transition to incom-
duced since flow will be restricted by flashing. Do not use
pressible flow at critical pressure drop.
a number higher than APa]lo w in the liquid sizing formula.

Liquid Flow

Across a control valve the fluid is accelerated to Critical Pressure Ratios For Water
some maximum velocity. At this point the pressure 1.0
reduces to its lowest value. If this pressure is lower than
~U
the liquid's vapor pressure, flashing will produce bubbles
or cavities of vapor. The pressure will rise or "recover"
~_ o.9
i..-

downstream of the lowest pressure point. If the pressure

0.8
rises to above the vapor pressure, the bubbles or cavities r~

collapse. This causes noise, vibration, and physical V)

I,SJ
damage. o=
o..
0.7
..J
When there is a choice, design for no flashing. When
U
there is no choice, locate the valve to flash into a vessel nt,
0.6"
if possible. If flashing or cavitation cannot be avoided, U

select hardware that can withstand these severe condi- O.5 -

tions. The downstream line will have to be sized for two o 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500
VAPOR PRESSURE-PSIA
phase flow. It is suggested to use a long conical adaptor
from the control valve to the downstream line. Figure 1. Enter on the abscissa at the water vapor pres-
When sizing liquid control valves first use sure at the valve inlet. Proceed vertically to intersect the
curve. Move horizontally to the left to read rc on the ordi-
nPallo w - K m (P1 - rc Pv ) nate (Reference 1).
 Fluid F l o w 23

Critical Pressure Ratios For Liquids Other Than Water Table 1

Critical Pressure of Various Fluids, Psia*
I 1.0
0
.=,.
Ammonia ........................... 1636 Isobutane ............................ 529.2
Argon ................................... 705.6 Isobutylene ......................... 580
o.9 Butane ................................. 550.4 Methane .............................. 673.3
w C a r b o n Dioxide ................. 1071.6 Nitrogen .............................. 492.4
a: 0.8 Carbon Monoxide ............... 507.5 Nitrous Oxide ................... 1047.6
U3
U3 Chlorine ............................. 1118.7 O x y g e n ............................... 736.5
n- 0.7
Lu Dowtherm A ........................ 465 Phosgene ........................... 823.2
O, Ethane ................................. 708 Propane .............................. 617.4
" 0.6 Ethylene .............................. 735 Propylene ........................... 670.3
r Fluorine ............................... 808.5 Refrigerant 11 ..................... 635
I-. Helium ................................... 33.2 Refrigerant 12 ..................... 596.9
.I9IO .20 .30 .40 .50 60 .70 .80 90 1.00 Hydrogen ............................. 188.2 Refrigerant 22 ..................... 716
VAPOR P R E S S U R E - - P S I A Hydrogen Chloride ............ 1198 Water ................................ 3206.2
CRITICAL PRESSURE-- PSIA
*For values not listed, consult an appropriate reference book.
Figure 2. Determine the vapor pressure/critical pressure
ratio by dividing the liquid vapor pressure at the valve inlet
by the critical pressure of the liquid. Enter on the abscissa
at the ratio just calculated and proceed vertically to inter-
sect the curve. Move horizontally to the left and read rc Gas and Steam Flow
on the ordinate (Reference 1).
The gas and steam sizing formulas are Gas

Q
Cg
G-~P1 sin ~ AP
Some designers use as the minimum pressure for flash C1 -~1 deg.
check the upstream absolute pressure minus two times
control valve pressure drop.
Table 1 gives critical pressures for miscellaneous
fluids. Table 2 gives relative flow capacities of various
types of control valves. This is a rough guide to use in Table 2
Relative Flow Capacities of Control Valves (Reference 2)
lieu of manufacturer's data.
The liquid sizing formula is Valve Type Cd* CdFpt CdFL**

Cv-Q
~G
AP
Double-seat globe
Single-seat top-guided g l o b e
Single-seat split b o d y
12
11.5
12
11
10.8
11.3
11
10
10
Sliding gate 6-12 6-11 na
Single-seat top-entry cage 13.5 12.5 11.5
where Eccentric rotating plug (Camflex) 14 13 12
60 ~ open butterfly 18 15.5 12
Single-seat Y valve (300 & 600 Ib) 19 16.5 14
Cv- Liquid sizing coefficient Saunders type (unlined) 20 17 na
Q- Flow rate in GPM Saunders t y p e (lined) 15 13.5 na
AP- Body differential pressure, psi Throttling (characterized) ball 25 20 15
Single-seat streamlined angle
G- Specific gravity (water at 6 0 ~ 1.0)
(flow-to-close) 26 20 13
90 ~ o p e n butterfly (average) 32 21.5 18
Two liquid control valve sizing rules of thumb are
Note: This table may serve as a rough guide only since actual flow
capacities differ between manufacturer's products and individual valve
1. No viscosity correction necessary if viscosity _-<20 sizes. (Source: ISA "Handbook of Control Valves" Page 17).
centistokes. *Valve flow coefficient C v - Cd x d 2 (d = valve dia., in.).
tCv/d 2 of valve when installed between pipe reducers (pipe dia. 2 x valve
2. For sizing a flashing control valve add the Cv's of dia.).
the liquid and the vapor. **Cv/d 2 of valve when undergoing critical (choked) flow conditions.
24 Rules of Thumb for Chemical Engineers

Steam (under 1,000psig) Table 4

Correlations of Control Valve Coefficients (Reference 2)
Q s(1 + 0.00065 Ts. ) Ci = 36.59 Cf Km "-O f 2 = FL2
CS ~
CI = 36.59 V~rn Cs = 1.83 CfCv
P~sinI3417 ~AP ]
Cg = C,Cv Cv = 19.99 Cs/Ci
C1 ~ deg. Cg = 19.99 Cs

Values of Krn calculated from Cf agree within 10% of published data of

Steam and Vapors (all vapors, including steam under K~.
any pressure conditions) Values of Cl calculated from Krn are within 21% of published data of CI.

Cs = Qs lOO
Camflex
C1 -~1 deg.
80
When the bracketed quantity in the equations equals or
exceeds 90 degrees, critical flow is indicated. The quan- ~s 6o
tity must be limited to 90 degrees. This then becomes $r
unity since sin 90 ~ - 1. .~
Explanation of terms:

C1 = Cg/Cv (some sizing methods use Ce or Y in place of

n
~ 40
r,j
t,.,
/ ;/. , iiiiiiiiI
C1)
Cg = Gas sizing coefficient
percentage
Cs = Steam sizing coefficient 0~
Cv- Liquid sizing coefficient 0 20 40 60 80 100
d~ = Density of steam or vapor at inlet, lbs/ft 3 Percent of rated travel

Figure 3. These are characteristic curves of common

Table 3
valves (Reference 2).
Average Valve-Recovery Coefficients, Km and C1"
(Reference 2)

Type of Valve Km Ci G= Gas specific gravity = mol. wt./29

P1 = Valve inlet pressure, psia
Cage-trim globes:
Unbalanced 0.8 33
AP = Pressure drop across valve, psi
Balanced 0.70 33 Q= Gas flow rate, SCFH
Butterfly: Qs = Steam or vapor flow rate, lb/hr
Fishtail 0.43 16
T= Absolute temperature of gas at inlet, ~
Conventional 0.55 24.7
Ball: Tsh = Degrees of superheat, ~
Vee-ball, modified-ball, etc. 0.40 22
Full-area ball 0.30 The control valve coefficients in Table 4 are for full open
Conventional globe:
Single and double port (full port) 0.75 35 conditions. The control valve must be designed to operate
Single and double port (reduced port) 0.65 35 at partial open conditions for good control. Figure 3 shows
Three way 0.75 partial open performance for a number of trim types.
Angle:
Flow tends to open (standard body) 0.85
Flow tends to close (standard body) 0.50 General Control Valve Rules of Thumb
Flow tends to close (venturi outlet) 0.20
Camflex:
Flow tends to close 0.72 24.9 1. Design tolerance. Many use the greater of the
Flow tends to open 0.46 31.1 following:
Split body 0.80 35
Qsizing- 1.3 Qnormal
*For use only if not available from manufacturer. Qsizing = 1.1 Qmaximum
 Fluid F l o w 25

2. Type of trim. Use equal percentage whenever there
is a large design uncertainty or wide rangeability is
desired. Use linear for small uncertainty cases.
Limit max/min flow to about 10 for equal per-
centage trim and 5 for linear. Equal percentage trim
usually requires one larger nominal body size than
linear.
3. For good control where possible, make the control
valve take 50%-60% of the system flowing head loss.
4. For saturated steam keep control valve outlet veloc-
ity below 0.25 mach.
5. Keep valve inlet velocity below 300 ft/sec for 2" and
smaller, and 200ft/sec for larger sizes.
References
1. Fisher Controls Company, Sizing and Selection Data,
Catalog 10.
2. Chalfin, Fluor Corp., "Specifying Control Valves,"
Chemical Engineering, October 14, 1974.

Safety Relief Valves

The ASME code I provides the basic requirements for 2. Long lines to tank farms that can lie stagnant and
over-pressure protection. Section I, Power Boilers, covers exposed to the sun.
fired and unfired steam boilers. All other vessels in-
cluding exchanger shells and similar pressure containing Sizing
equipment fall under Section VIII, Pressure Vessels. API
RP 520 and lesser API documents supplement the ASME Use manufacturer's sizing charts and data where avail-
code. These codes specify allowable accumulation, which able. In lieu of manufacturer's data use the formula
is the difference between relieving pressure at which the
valve reaches full rated flow and set pressure at which the u - 0.442gAh
valve starts to open. Accumulation is expressed as per-
centage of set pressure in Table 1. The articles by Rearick 2
where
and Isqacs 3 are used throughout this section.
Full liquid containers require protection from thermal Ah = Head loss in feet of flowing fluid
expansion. Such relief valves are generally quite small.
u = Velocity in ft/sec
Two examples are g = 32.2ft/sec 2

1. Cooling water that can be blocked in with hot fluid This will give a conservative relief valve area. For
still flowing on the other side of an exchanger. compressible fluids use Ah corresponding to ~2P~ if head
difference is greater than that corresponding to ~P1 (since
sonic velocity occurs). If head difference is below that
Table 1
Accumulation Expressed as Percentage of Set Pressure corresponding to ~2P~use actual Ala.
For vessels filled with only gas or vapor and exposed
ASME ASME Typical Design to fire use
Section I Section VIII for Compressors
Power Pressure Pumps
Boilers Vessels and Piping 0.042As
A ~. (API RP 520, Reference 4)
LIQUIDS
thermal expansion -- 10 25
fire -- 20 20 A = Calculated nozzle area, in. 2
STEAM
P1 = Set pressure (psig) x (1 + fraction accumulation) +
over-pressure 3 10 10
fire -- 20 20 atmospheric pressure, psia. For example, if accu-
GAS OR VAPOR mulation = 10%, then (1 + fraction accumulation)=
over-pressure -- 10 10
1.10
fire -- 20 20
A~ = Exposed surface of vessel, ft 2
26 Rules of T h u m b for Chemical Engineers

Table 2
Relief Valve Designations

Odfice
Area
(in. 2)

c D 0.110
O
E 0.196
c F 0.307
"~ G 0.503
G)
H 0.785
| j 1.287
O
9r- K 1.838
O L 2.853
3.60
N 4.34
9,., p 6.38
Q 11.05
R 16.0
T 26.0
lx2 1.5x2 1.5 x 2.5 1.5x3 2x3 2.5x4 3• 4x6 6x8 6x10 8x10
......

Valve Body Size (Inlet Diameter x Outlet Diameter), in.

This will also give conservative results. For heat input
from fire to liquid containing vessels see "Determination
of Rates of Discharge."
The set pressure of a conventional valve is affected by
back pressure. The spring setting can be adjusted to com-
pensate for constant back pressure. For a variable back
pressure of greater than 10% of the set pressure, it is cus-
tomary to go to the balanced bellows type which can gen-
erally tolerate variable back pressure of up to 40% of set
pressure. Table 2 gives standard orifice sizes.
Plants, situations, and causes of overpressure tend to
be dissimilar enough to discourage preparation of gener-
alized calculation procedures for the rate of discharge. In
lieu of a set procedure most of these problems can be
solved satisfactorily by conservative simplification and
analysis. It should be noted also that, by general assump-
tion, two unrelated emergency conditions will not occur
simultaneously.
The first three causes of overpressure on our list are
more amenable to generalization than the others and will
be discussed.

Determination of Rates of Discharge Fire

The more common causes of overpressure are The heat input from fire is discussed in API RP 520
(Reference 4). One form of their equation for liquid con-
1. External fire taining vessels is
2. Heat Exchanger Tube Failure
3. Liquid Expansion
4. Cooling Water Failure Q - 21,000 FAw~
5. Electricity Failure
6. Blocked Outlet
where
7. Failure of Automatic Controls
8. Loss of Reflux
9. Chemical Reaction (this heat can sometimes exceed Q - Heat absorption, Btu/hr
the heat of an external fire). Consider bottom venting Aw - Total wetted surface, ft 2
for reactive liquids. 5 F - Environment factor
 Fluid Flow 27

The environmental factors represented by F are Liquid Expansion

Bare v e s s e l - 1.0 The following equation can be used for sizing relief
I n s u l a t e d - 0.3/insulation thickness, in. valves for liquid expansion.
Underground storage - 0.0
Earth covered above grade - 0.03 BH
Q m
(API RP 520, Reference 4)
500GC
The height above grade for calculating wetted surface
should be where

1. For vertical vessels~at least 25 feet above grade or

Q - Required capacity, gpm
other level at which a fire could be sustained.
H - Heat input, Btu/hr
2. For horizontal vessels~at least equal to the
B -Coefficient of volumetric expansion per ~
maximum diameter.
= 0.0001 for water
3. For spheres or spheroids~whichever is greater, the
= 0.0010 for light hydrocarbons
equator or 25 feet.
= 0.0008 for gasoline
= 0.0006 for distillates
Three cases exist for vessels exposed to fire as pointed
= 0.0004 for residual fuel oil
out by Wong. 6 A gas filled vessel, below 25 ft (flame
G - Specific gravity
heights usually stay below this), cannot be protected by
C - Specific heat, Btu/lb ~
a PSV alone. The metal wall will overheat long before the
pressure reaches the PSV set point. Wong discusses a
number of protective measures. A vessel containing a Rules of Thumb for Safety Relief Valves
high boiling point liquid is similar because very little
vapor is formed at the relieving pressure, so there is very 1. Check metallurgy for light hydrocarbons flash-
little heat of vaporization to soak up the fire's heat input. ing during relief. Very low temperatures can be
A low-boiling-point liquid, in boiling off, has a good produced.
heat transfer coefficient to help cool the wall and buy 2. Always check for reaction force from the tailpipe.
time. Calculate the time required to heat up the liquid and 3. Hand jacks are a big help on large relief valves for
vaporize the inventory. If the time is less than 15 minutes several reasons. One is to give the operator a chance
treat the vessel as being gas filled. If the time is more than to reseat a leaking relief valve.
15-20 minutes treat it as a safe condition. However, in 4. Flat seated valves have an advantage over bevel
this event, be sure to check the final pressure of the vessel seated valves if the plant forces have to reface the
with the last drop of liquid for PSV sizing. surfaces (usually happens at midnight).
5. The maximum pressure from an explosion of a
hydrocarbon and air is 7 x initial pressure, unless it
Heat Exchanger Tube Failure
occurs in a long pipe where a standing wave can
be set up. It may be cheaper to design some small
1. Use the fluid entering from twice the cross section
vessels to withstand an explosion than to provide a
of one tube as stated in API RP 5204 (one tube cut
safety relief system. It is typical to specify ~" as
in half exposes two cross sections at the cut). 4
minimum plate thickness (for carbon steel only).
2. Use Ah - uZ/2g to calculate leakage. Since this acts
similar to an orifice, we need a coefficient; use 0.7.
So, Sources

u - 0.%/2gAh 1. ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Sections I

and VIII.
For compressible fluids, if the downstream head is less 2. Rearick, "How to Design Pressure Relief Systems,"
than ~ the upstream head, use ~2the upstream head as Ah. Parts I and II, Hydrocarbon Processing, August/
Otherwise use the actual Ah. September 1969.
28 Rules of Thumb for Chemical Engineers
3. Isaacs, Marx, "Pressure Relief Systems," Chemical
Engineering, February 22, 1971.
4. Recommended Practice for the Design and Installation
of Pressure Relieving Systems in Refineries, Part I ~
"Design," latest edition, Part II~"Installation," latest
edition RP 520 American Petroleum Institute.
5. Walter, Y. L. and V. H. Edwards," Consider Bottom
Venting for Reactive Liquids," Chemical Engineering
Progress, June 2000, p. 34.
6. Wong, W. Y., "Improve the Fire Protection of Pressure
Vessels," Chemical Engineering, October, 1999, p.
193.