A Review of The Literature On Teacher Effectiveness and Student Outcomes - SpringerLink

11/30/2019 A Review of the Literature on Teacher Effectiveness and Student Outcomes | SpringerLink
A Review of the Literature on Teacher

Effectiveness and Student Outcomes
Teaching for Excellence and Equity pp 7-17 | Cite as
Nathan Burroughs (1) Email author (burrou25@msu.edu)

Jacqueline Gardner (2)
Youngjun Lee (3)
Siwen Guo (4)
Israel Touitou (5)
Kimberly Jansen (6)
William Schmidt (7)
1. CREATE for STEM, Michigan State University, , East Lansing, USA

2. Office of K-12 Outreach, Michigan State University, , East Lansing, USA
3. Michigan State University, , East Lansing, USA
4. College of Education, Michigan State University, , East Lansing, USA
5. CREATE for STEM, Michigan State University, , East Lansing, USA
6. Michigan State University, , East Lansing, USA
7. Center for the Study of Curriculum Policy, Michigan State University, , East Lansing,
USA
Open Access
Chapter
First Online: 24 May 2019
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Part of the IEA Research for Education book series (IEAR, volume 6)
Abstract
Researchers agree that teachers are one of the most important school-based resources in
determining students’
We use cookies to future academic
personalise success and lifetime outcomes, yet have
content
simultaneously had difficulties
and ads, to provide in defining
social media what teacher characteristics make for an
features
effective teacher. This chapter reviews the large body of literature on measures of teacher
and to analyse our traffic. We also share
effectiveness, underscoring the diversity of methods by which the general construct of
information about your use of our site with
“teacher quality” has been explored, including experience, professional knowledge, and Cookies
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opportunity media, advertising
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the United States)
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voluminous
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research literature on the
of teacher characteristics (experience and professional knowledge) on student outcomes
https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-030-16151-4_2 1/17
remains quite limited. There is a smaller, but more robust set of findings for the effect of
teacher support on opportunity to learn. Five measures may be associated with higher
student achievement: teacher experience (measured by years of teaching), teacher
professional knowledge (measured by education and self-reported preparation to teach
mathematics), and teacher provision of opportunity to learn (measured by time on
mathematics and content coverage). These factors provide the basis for a comparative
cross-country model.
Keywords
Opportunity to learn Teacher education Teacher experience Teacher quality
Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS)
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2.1 Defining Teacher Effectiveness
Researchers agree that teachers are one of the most important school-based resources in
determining students’ future academic success and lifetime outcomes (Chetty et al. 2014;
Rivkin et al. 2005; Rockoff 2004). As a consequence, there has been a strong emphasis
on improving teacher effectiveness as a means to enhancing student learning. Goe
(2007), among others, defined teacher effectiveness in terms of growth in student
learning, typically measured by student standardized assessment results. Chetty et al.
(2014) found that students taught by highly effective teachers, as defined by the student
growth percentile (SGPs) and value-added measures (VAMs), were more likely to attend
college, earn more, live in higher-income neighborhoods, save more money for
retirement, and were less likely to have children during their teenage years. This
potential of a highly effective teacher to significantly enhance the lives of their students
makes it essential that researchers and policymakers properly understand the factors
that contribute to a teacher’s effectiveness. However, as we will discuss in more detail
later in this report, studies have found mixed results regarding the relationships between
specific teacher characteristics and student achievement (Wayne and Youngs 2003). In
this chapter, we explore these findings, focusing on the three main categories of teacher
effectiveness identified and examined in the research literature: namely, teacher
experience, teacher knowledge, and teacher behavior. Here we emphasize that much of
the existing body of research is based on studies from the United States, and so the
applicability of such national research to other contexts remains open to discussion.
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2.2 Teacher Experience
Teacher experience
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experiences and student achievement (Wayne and Youngs 2003). For example, using
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data from 4000 teachers in North Carolina, researchers found that teacher experience
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to student achievement in both reading and mathematics
(Clotfelter et al. 2006). Rice (2003) found that the relationship between teacher
experience and student achievement was most pronounced for students at the secondary
level. Additional work in schools in the United States by Wiswall (2013), Papay and Kraft
(2015), and Ladd and Sorenson (2017), and a Dutch twin study by Gerritsen et al. (2014),
also indicated that teacher experience had a cumulative effect on student outcomes.
Meanwhile, other studies have failed to identify consistent and statistically significant
associations between student achievement and teacher experience (Blomeke et al. 2016;
Gustaffsson and Nilson 2016; Hanushek and Luque 2003; Luschei and Chudgar 2011;
Wilson and Floden 2003). Some research from the United States has indicated that
experience matters very much early on in a teacher’s career, but that, in later years, there
were little to no additional gains (Boyd et al. 2006; Rivkin et al. 2005; Staiger and
Rockoff 2010). In the first few years of a teacher’s career, accruing more years of
experience seems to be more strongly related to student achievement (Rice 2003).
Rockoff (2004) found that, when comparing teacher effectiveness (understood as value-
added) to student test scores in reading and mathematics, teacher experience was
positively related to student mathematics achievement; however, such positive
relationships leveled off after teachers had gained two years of teaching experience.
Drawing on data collected from teachers of grades four to eight between 2000 and 2008
within a large urban school district in the United States, Papay and Kraft (2015)
confirmed previous research on the benefits experience can add to a novice teacher’s
career. They found that student outcomes increased most rapidly during their teachers’
first few years of employment. They also found some further student gains due to
additional years of teaching experience beyond the first five years. The research of Pil and
Leana (2009) adds additional nuance; they found that acquiring teacher experience at
the same grade level over a number of years, not just teacher experience in general (i.e. at
multiple grades), was positively related to student achievement.
2.3 Teacher Professional Knowledge
A teacher’s professional knowledge refers to their subject-matter knowledge, curricular

knowledge, and pedagogical knowledge (Collinson 1999). This professional knowledge is
influenced by the undergraduate degrees earned by a teacher, the college attended,
graduate studies undertaken, and opportunities to engage with on-the job training,
commonly referred to as professional development (Collinson 1999; Rice 2003; Wayne
and Youngs 2003). After undertaking in-depth quantitative analyses of the United States’
1993–1994 Schools and Staffing Survey (SASS) and National Assessment of Educational
Progress (NAEP) data sets, Darling-Hammond (2000) argued that measures of teacher
preparation and certification were by far the strongest correlates of student achievement
in reading and mathematics, after controlling for student poverty levels and language
status.
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As with experience, research on the impact of teacher advanced degrees, subject
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student achievement. However, several international studies comparing country means

found that teacher degrees (Akiba et al. 2007; Gustaffsson and Nilson 2016; Montt 2011)
were related to student outcomes, as did Woessman’s (2003) student-level study of
multiple countries.
2.3.1 Undergraduate Education
In their meta-analysis of teacher effectiveness, Wayne and Youngs (2003) found three
studies that showed some relationship between the quality of the undergraduate
institution that a teacher attended and their future students’ success in standardized
tests. In a thorough review of the research on teacher effectiveness attributes, Rice
(2003) found that the selectivity of undergraduate institution and the teacher
preparation program may be related to student achievement for students at the high
school level and for high-poverty students.
In terms of teacher preparation programs, Boyd et al. (2009) found that overall these
programs varied in their effectiveness. In their study of 31 teacher preparation programs
designed to prepare teachers for the New York City School District, Boyd et al. (2009)
drew from data based on document analyses, interviews, surveys of teacher preparation
instructors, surveys of participants and graduates, and student value-added scores. They
found that if a program was effective in preparing teachers to teach one subject, it tended
to also have success in preparing teachers to teach other subjects as well. They also found
that teacher preparation programs that focused on the practice of teaching and the
classroom, and provided opportunities for teachers to study classroom practices, tended
to prepare more effective teachers. Finally, they found that programs that included some
sort of final project element (such as a personal research paper, or portfolio presentation)
tended to prepare more effective teachers.
Beyond the institution a teacher attends, the coursework they choose to take within that
program may also be related to their future students’ achievement. These associations
vary by subject matter. A study by Rice (2003) indicated that, for teachers teaching at the
secondary level, subject-specific coursework had a greater impact on their future
students’ achievement. Similarly Goe (2007) found that, for mathematics, an increase in
the amount of coursework undertaken by a trainee teacher was positively related to their
future students’ achievement. By contrast, the meta-analysis completed by Wayne and
Youngs (2003) found that, for history and English teachers, there was no evidence of a
relationship between a teacher’s undergraduate coursework and their future students’
achievement in those subjects.
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In a review of 14 studies, Wilson and Floden (2003) were unable to identify consistent
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student achievement. However, specifically in terms of mathematics instruction, teachers

with higher degrees and who undertook more coursework during their education seem to
be positively related to their students’ mathematics achievement (Goe 2007). Likewise,
Harris and Sass (2011) found that there was a positive relationship between teachers who
had obtained an advanced degree during their teaching career and their students’
achievement in middle school mathematics. They did not find any significant
relationships between advanced degrees and student achievement in any other subject
area. Further, using data from the United States’ Early Childhood Longitudinal Study
(ECLS-K), Phillips (2010) found that subject-specific graduate degrees in elementary or
early-childhood education were positively related to students’ reading achievement gains.
2.3.3 Certification Status
Another possible indicator of teacher effectiveness could be whether or not a teacher

holds a teaching certificate. Much of this research has focused on the United States,
which uses a variety of certification approaches, with lower grades usually having multi-
subject general certifications and higher grades requiring certification in specific
subjects. Wayne and Youngs (2003) found no clear relationship between US teachers’
certification status and their students’ achievement, with the exception of the subject
area of mathematics, where students tended have higher test scores when their teachers
had a standard mathematics certification. Rice (2003) also found that US teacher
certification was related to high school mathematics achievement, and also found that
there was some evidence of a relationship between certification status and student
achievement in lower grades. Meanwhile, in their study of grade one students, Palardy
and Rumberger (2008) also found evidence that students made greater gains in reading
ability when taught by fully certified teachers.
In a longitudinal study using data from teachers teaching grades four and five and their
students in the Houston School District in Texas, Darling-Hammond et al. (2005) found
that those teachers who had completed training that resulted in a recognized teaching
certificate were more effective that those who had no dedicated teaching qualifications.
The study results suggested that teachers without recognized US certification or with
non-standard certifications generally had negative effects on student achievement after
controlling for student characteristics and prior achievement, as well as the teacher’s
experience and degrees. The effects of teacher certification on student achievement were
generally much stronger than the effects for teacher experience. Conversely, analyzing
data from the ECLS-K, Phillips (2010) found that grade one students tended to have
lower mathematics achievement gains when they had teachers with standard
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Although work by Desimone et al. (2002, 2013) suggested that professional development
may influence the quality of instruction, most researchers found that teachers’
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professional development experiences showed only limited associations with their
effectiveness, although middle- and high-school mathematics teachers who undertook

more content-focused training may be the exception (Blomeke et al. 2016; Harris and
Sass 2011). In their meta-analysis of the effects of professional development on student
achievement, Blank and De Las Alas (2009) found that 16 studies reported significant
and positive relationships between professional development and student achievement.
For mathematics, the average effect size of studies using a pre-post assessment design
was 0.21 standard deviations.
Analyzing the data from six data sets, two from the Beginning Teacher Preparation
Survey conducted in Connecticut and Tennessee, and four from the United States
National Center for Education Statistics’ National Assessment of Educational Progress
(NAEP), Wallace (2009) used structural equation modeling to find that professional
development had a very small, but occasionally statistically significant effect on student
achievement. She found, for example, that for NAEP mathematics data from the year
2000, 1.2 additional hours of professional development per year were related to an
increase in average student scores of 0.62 points, and for reading, an additional 1.1 h of
professional development were related to an average increase in student scores of 0.24
points. Overall, Wallace (2009) identified professional development had moderate
effects on teacher practice and some small effects on student achievement when
mediated by teacher practice.
2.3.5 Teacher Content Knowledge
Of course, characteristics like experience and education may be imperfect proxies for
teacher content knowledge; unfortunately, content knowledge is difficult to assess
directly. However, there is a growing body of work suggesting that teacher content
knowledge may associated with student learning. It should be noted that there is an
important distinction between general content knowledge about a subject (CK) and
pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) specifically related to teaching that subject, each of
which may be independently related to student outcomes (Baumert et al. 2010).
Studies from the United States (see for example, Chingos and Peterson 2011; Clotfelter et
al. 2006; Constantine et al. 2009; Hill et al. 2005; Shuls and Trivitt 2015) have found
some evidence that higher teacher cognitive skills in mathematics are associated with
higher student scores. Positive associations between teacher content knowledge and
student outcomes were also found in studies based in Germany (Baumert et al. 2010) and
Peru (Metzler and Woessman 2012), and in a comparative study using Programme for
the International Assessment of Adult Competencies (PIAAC) data undertaken by
Hanushek et al. (2018). These findings are not universal, however, other studies from the
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Teacher Education and Development Study in Mathematics (TEDS-M, conducted in
2007–2008) have included many questions, asking teachers to report on their

preparedness to teach particular topics. Although Luschei and Chudgar (2011) and
Gustafsson and Nilson (2016) found that these items had a weak direct relationship to
student achievement across countries, other studies have suggested that readiness is
related to instructional quality (Blomeke et al. 2016), as well as content knowledge and
content preparation (Schmidt et al. 2017), suggesting that instructional quality may have
an indirect effect on student learning.
2.4 Teacher Behaviors and Opportunity to

Learn
Although the impact of teacher characteristics (experience, education, and preparedness

to teach) on student outcomes remains an open question, there is much a much more
consistent relationship between student achievement and teacher behaviors
(instructional time and instructional content), especially behaviors related instructional
content. Analyzing TIMSS, Schmidt et al. (2001) found an association between classroom
opportunity to learn (OTL), interpreted narrowly as student exposure to instructional
content, and student achievement. In a later study using student-level PISA data,
Schmidt et al. (2015) identified a robust relationship between OTL and mathematics
literacy across 62 different educational systems. The importance of instructional content
has been recognized by national policymakers, and has helped motivate standards-based
reform in an effort to improve student achievement, such as the Common Core in the
United States (Common Core Standards Initiative 2018). However, we found that there
was little research on whether teacher instructional content that aligned with national
standards had improved student learning; the only study that we were able to identify
found that such alignment had only very weak associations with student mathematics
scores (Polikoff and Porter 2014). Student-reported data indicates that instructional time
(understood as classroom time on a particular subject) does seem to be related to
mathematics achievement (Cattaneo et al. 2016; Jerrim et al. 2017; Lavy 2015; Rivkin
and Schiman 2015; Woessman 2003).
2.5 Conclusion
This review of the literature simply brushes the surface of the exceptional body of work
on the relationship between student achievement and teacher characteristics and
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teacher factors that may be associated with higher student achievement: teacher
experience, teacher professional knowledge (measured by education and self-reported

preparation to teach mathematics), and teacher provision of opportunity to learn (time
on mathematics and content coverage).
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Burroughs N. et al. (2019) A Review of the Literature on Teacher Effectiveness and Student Outcomes. In:
Teaching for Excellence and Equity. IEA Research for Education (A Series of In-depth Analyses Based on Data
of the International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement (IEA)), vol 6. Springer, Cham
First Online 24 May 2019

DOI https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-16151-4_2
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A Review of the Literature on Teacher

Nathan Burroughs (1) Email author (burrou25@msu.edu)

1. CREATE for STEM, Michigan State University, , East Lansing, USA

2.1 Defining Teacher Effectiveness

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2.3 Teacher Professional Knowledge

A teacher’s professional knowledge refers to their subject-matter knowledge, curricular

student achievement. However, several international studies comparing country means

2.3.1 Undergraduate Education

student achievement. However, specifically in terms of mathematics instruction, teachers

2.3.3 Certification Status

Another possible indicator of teacher effectiveness could be whether or not a teacher

effectiveness, although middle- and high-school mathematics teachers who undertook

2.3.5 Teacher Content Knowledge

2007–2008) have included many questions, asking teachers to report on their

2.4 Teacher Behaviors and Opportunity to

Although the impact of teacher characteristics (experience, education, and preparedness

experience, teacher professional knowledge (measured by education and self-reported

About this chapter

First Online 24 May 2019

Buy this book on publisher's site

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