σzz Stresses in 3-D

z
τzy
τzx
τyz
τxy σxx
τxz
σyy σyy
τxy y
τyx
σxx τxz

σzz

⎡σ x τ yx τ zx ⎤
⎢ ⎥
σ = σ ij = ⎢τ xy σ y τ zy ⎥
⎢τ xz τ yz σ z ⎥
⎣ ⎦
 Matrices Review
Matrix Multiplication : When the number of columns of the first
matrix is the same as the number of rows in the second matrix then
matrix multiplication can be performed.
Here is an example of matrix multiplication for two 2x2 matrices

Here is an example of matrices multiplication for a 3x3 matrix

When A has dimensions mxn, B has dimensions nxp. Then the

product of A and B is the matrix C, which has dimensions mxp.
Transpose of Matrices : The transpose of a matrix is found by
exchanging rows for columns i.e. Matrix A = (aij) and the transpose
of A is: AT=(aij) Where i is the row number and j is the column
number.
For example, The transpose of a matrix would be:

In the case of a square matrix (m=n), the transpose can be used to

check if a matrix is symmetric. For a symmetric matrix A = AT
The Determinant of a Matrix : Determinants play an
important role in finding the inverse of a matrix and also in
solving systems of linear equations.
Determinant of a 2x2 matrix Assuming A is an arbitrary 2x2
matrix A, where the elements are given by:

Determinant of a 3x3 matrix The determinant of a 3x3 matrix

is more difficult
 Inverse Matrix
For a 2x2 matrix the matrix inverse is

⎡ Cosθ Sinθ ⎤
Example: A=⎢ ⎥ ⇒ A = Cos 2
θ + Sin 2
θ =1
⎣− Sinθ Cosθ ⎦
⎡ Cosθ Sinθ ⎤ 1 ⎡Cosθ − Sinθ ⎤
A=⎢ −1
A = ⎢ = AT

⎣− Sinθ Cosθ ⎥⎦ 1 ⎣ Sinθ Cosθ ⎥⎦

For a 3x3 matrix

Coordinate Transformations in 2-D
σ X 1 = σ X cos θ + σ Y sin θ + 2τ XY sin θ cos θ
2 2

σ Y 1 = σ X sin 2 θ + σ Y cos 2 θ − 2τ XY sin θ cosθ

τ x1 y1 = −σ x ⋅ sin θ ⋅ cos θ + σ y ⋅ sin θ ⋅ cos θ + τ xy (cos 2 θ − sin 2 θ )

⎡ cos 2 θ sin 2 θ 2 sin θ cos θ ⎤

⎢ ⎥
[T ] = ⎢ sin 2 θ cos 2 θ − 2 sin θ cos θ ⎥
⎢− sin θ cos θ sin θ cos θ cos 2 θ − sin 2 θ ⎥⎦
⎣

⎡ σ x1 ⎤ ⎡σ x ⎤ ⎡σ x ⎤ ⎡ σ x1 ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ −1 ⎢ ⎥
⎢ σ y1 ⎥ = [T ]⎢σ y ⎥ ⎢σ y ⎥ = [T ] ⎢ σ y1 ⎥
⎢τ x1 y1 ⎥ ⎢τ xy ⎥ ⎢τ xy ⎥ ⎢τ x1 y1 ⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
 Theory of Matrix Method for Stress Calculations in 2-D

From equations of rotational transformation of axis, we obtain the following:

⎡ x'⎤ ⎡ cosθ sin θ ⎤ ⎡ x ⎤ ⎡ x'⎤ ⎡ ⎤⎡ x⎤ ⎡ x ⎤ ⎡ cos θ − sin θ ⎤ ⎡ x ' ⎤
⎢ y '⎥ = ⎢− sin θ =
⎢ y '⎥ ⎢ T ⎥ ⎢ y ⎥ inversely ⎢ y ⎥ = ⎢ sin θ cos θ ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ y '⎥⎦
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ cosθ ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ y ⎥⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣

Hence −1 T
⎡ ⎤ ⎡cosθ − sin θ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
⎢ T ⎥ = ⎢ sin θ ⎥ =⎢ T ⎥
⎡σ xx τ yx ⎤ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ cos θ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦

⎢τ σ ⎥ Y'
Y
AC = Area A

⎣ xy yy ⎦
AB = A cos θ
BC = A sin θ

σy A
X'
τyx
θ θ
X
τxy
σx σx
θ
σ x'
τxy B C
σx
τyx
τ xy
σy
σy
Using and force equilibrium equation, we obtain
expressions for stress transformations as follows: θ
σ x'
σx
{0} = Σ{F }
⎡ Fx ⎤ ⎡ Fx ⎤ ⎡ Fx ⎤ τ xy
{0} = ⎢ ⎥ + ⎢ ⎥ + ⎢ ⎥ σy
⎣ Fy ⎦ AB ⎣ Fy ⎦ BC ⎣ Fy ⎦ AC
⎡σ x ⎤ ⎡τ xy ⎤ ⎡cos θ ⎤ ⎡− sin θ ⎤
{0} = − ⎢ ⎥ A cosθ − ⎢ ⎥ A sin θ + Aσ x ' ⎢ ⎥ + Aτ x ' y ' ⎢ ⎥
τ
⎣ xy ⎦ σ
⎣ y⎦ ⎣ sin θ ⎦ ⎣ cos θ ⎦
⎡σ x τ xy ⎤ ⎡cos θ ⎤ ⎡cos θ − sin θ ⎤ ⎡ σ x ' ⎤
{0} = − A⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ + A⎢ ⎥ ⎢τ ⎥
τ
⎣ xy σ y ⎦⎣ sin θ ⎦ ⎣ sin θ cos θ ⎦ ⎣ x' y' ⎦
Canceling area A out and pre-multiplying by transformation T
(where T ⊗ T T = I
the identity matrix. The order of the matrix multiplication does
matter in the final outcome., we have
 ⎡cos θ − sin θ ⎤ ⎡ cos θ sin θ ⎤ ⎡1 0⎤
⎢ sin θ ⎥ ×⎢ ⎥ =⎢ ⎥ =I
⎣ cos θ ⎦ ⎣− sin θ cos θ ⎦ ⎣0 1⎦

⎡σ x τ xy ⎤ ⎡cos θ ⎤ ⎡cos θ − sin θ ⎤ ⎡ σ x ' ⎤

{0} = − A⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ + A⎢ ⎢ ⎥
⎣τ xy σ y ⎦ ⎣ sin θ ⎦ ⎣ sin θ cos θ ⎥⎦ ⎣τ x ' y ' ⎦

⎡ σ x ' ⎤ ⎡ cosθ sin θ ⎤ ⎡σ x τ xy ⎤ ⎡cosθ ⎤

⎢τ ⎥ = ⎢ ⎥ ⎢τ ⎥
⎣ x ' y ' ⎦ ⎣− sin θ cosθ ⎦ ⎣ xy σ y ⎦ ⎢⎣ sin θ ⎥⎦
 For the forces in the X axis we will use the same procedure.
Y'
Y {0} = Σ{F }
BD = Area A
⎡ Fx ⎤ ⎡ Fx ⎤ ⎡ Fx ⎤
BC = A cos θ
CD = A sin θ
{0} = ⎢ ⎥ + ⎢ ⎥ + ⎢ ⎥
⎣ Fy ⎦ CD ⎣ Fy ⎦ BC ⎣ Fy ⎦ BD
⎡σ x ⎤ ⎡τ xy ⎤ ⎡− sin θ ⎤ ⎡cos θ ⎤
{0} = ⎢ ⎥ A sin θ − ⎢σ ⎥ A cos θ + A σ y' ⎢ ⎥ + A τ x' y' ⎢ ⎥
⎣τ xy ⎦ ⎣ cos θ ⎦ ⎣ sin θ ⎦
X'
θ ⎣ y⎦
⎡σ τ ⎤ sin θ ⎤ ⎡cos θ − sin θ ⎤ ⎡τ x ' y ' ⎤
D X {0} = A⎢ x xy ⎥ ⎡⎢ ⎥ + A ⎢ sin θ cos θ ⎥ ⎢ σ ⎥
⎣τ xy σ y ⎦ ⎣ − cos θ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦⎣ y' ⎦
θ
B C σ y' τ x' y'
τ xy
σx
θ

σy

⎡τ y ' x ' ⎤ ⎡ cosθ sin θ ⎤ ⎡σ x τ yx ⎤ ⎡− sin θ ⎤

⎢σ ⎥ = ⎢ ⎥ ⎢τ σ ⎥⎢ ⎥
⎣ y ' ⎦ ⎣− sin θ cosθ ⎦ ⎣ xy y ⎦⎣ cos θ ⎦
 ⎡ σ x ' ⎤ ⎡ cosθ sin θ ⎤ ⎡σ x τ xy ⎤ ⎡cosθ ⎤
⎢τ ⎥ = ⎢ ⎥ ⎢τ σ ⎥⎢ ⎥
⎣ x ' y ' ⎦ ⎣− sin θ cosθ ⎦ ⎣ xy y ⎦ ⎣ sin θ ⎦

⎡τ x ' y ' ⎤ ⎡ cosθ sin θ ⎤ ⎡σ x τ xy ⎤ ⎡− sin θ ⎤

⎢σ ⎥ = ⎢ ⎢ ⎥
⎣ y ' ⎦ ⎣− sin θ cosθ ⎥⎦ ⎣τ xy σ y ⎦ ⎢⎣ cosθ ⎥⎦

Combining the above expressions

⎡ σ x ' τ x ' y ' ⎤ ⎡ cosθ sin θ ⎤ ⎡σ x τ xy ⎤ ⎡cosθ − sin θ ⎤

⎢τ ⎥ =⎢ ⎥ ⎢τ ⎥⎢ ⎥
⎣ x ' y ' σ y ' ⎦ ⎣− sin θ cosθ ⎦ ⎣ xy σ y ⎦ ⎣ sin θ cosθ ⎦

or
⎡ σ x' τ y'x' ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡σ x τ yx ⎤ ⎡
T
⎤
⎢τ ⎥ = ⎢ T ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ T ⎥
⎣ x' y' σ y' ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣τ xy σ y ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
 State of Stresses in Three Dimensions
The general three dimensional state of stress
z consists of three unequal principal stresses acting
K at a point (triaxial state of stresses).

The plane JKL is assumed to be

σx
τxy a principal plane and σ is the
τyx
τxz σ principal stress acting normal to
σy the plane.
τyz L
τzx -y
τzy
J σz Letα, β and γ are the angles between the vector σ
and the x, y and z axis respectively and
-x
k = cos α l = cos β m = cos γ
 σ ⋅ k = σ xx ⋅ k + τ yx ⋅ l + τ zx ⋅ m
Under equilibrium conditions σ ⋅ l = τ xy ⋅ k + σ yy ⋅ l + τ zy ⋅ m
σ ⋅ m = τ xz ⋅ k + τ yz ⋅ l + σ zz ⋅ m
(σ − σ xx ) ⋅ k − τ yx ⋅ l − τ zx ⋅ m = 0
− τ xy ⋅ k + (σ − σ yy ) ⋅ l − τ zy
As k, l and m are different than
⋅ m = 0 zero (non-trivial solution)
− τ xz ⋅ k − τ yz ⋅ l + (σ − σ z ) ⋅ m = 0
k +l + m =1
2 2 2

⎡σ − σ xx − τ yx − τ zx ⎤ ⎡ k ⎤
⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ The determinant must be
⎢ − τ xy σ − σ yy − τ zy ⎥ ⎢ l ⎥ = 0 equal to zero
⎢ − τ xz − τ yz σ − σ zz ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣m⎥⎦
⎣
σ − σ xx − τ yx − τ zx
− τ xy σ − σ yy − τ zy = 0
Solution of the determinant results
− τ xz − τ yz σ − σ zz in a cubic equation in σ
⎡σ − σ xx − τ yx − τ zx ⎤ ⎡ k ⎤ The eigenvalues of the stress
⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ matrix are the principal stresses.
⎢ − τ yx σ − σ yy − τ zy ⎥ ⎢ l ⎥ = 0
The eigenvectors of the stress
⎢ − τ xz − τ yz σ − σ zz ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣m⎥⎦
⎣ matrix are the principal

k +l + m =1
2 2 2
directions.
σ1 > σ 2 > σ 3
σ 3 − I1 ⋅ σ 2 + I 2 ⋅ σ − I 3 = 0
I1 = σ x + σ y + σ z
I 2 = σ x ⋅ σ y + σ y ⋅ σ z + σ x ⋅ σ z − τ xy2 − τ xz2 − τ yz2
I 3 = σ x ⋅ σ y ⋅ σ z + 2 ⋅τ xy ⋅τ xz ⋅τ yz − σ x ⋅τ yz2 − σ y ⋅τ xz2 − σ z ⋅τ xy2

The three roots are the three principal stresses σ1 , σ2 , σ3.

I1, I2, and I3 are known as stress invariants as they do not change
in value when the axes are rotated to new positions.
 I1 = σ x + σ y + σ z
σ x τ xy σ y τ yz σ x τ xz
I2 = + +
τ xy σ y τ zy σ z z τ zx σ z
σ x τ xy τ xz
I 3 = τ yx σ y τ yz
τ zx τ yz σ z

I1 has been seen before for the two dimensional state of stress. It
states the useful relationship that the sum of the normal stresses for
any orientation in the coordinate system is equal to the sum of the
normal stresses for any other orientation

σ x + σ y + σ z = σ x1 + σ y1 + σ z1 = σ 1 + σ 2 + σ 3
 σ − I1 ⋅ σ + I 2 ⋅ σ − I 3 = 0
3 2

I1 2
⎛ I1 ⎞ ⎛ I 2 ⎞
σ 1 = 2 ⋅ A ⋅ cos α + A = ⎜ ⎟ −⎜ ⎟
3 ⎝3⎠ ⎝ 3⎠
σ 2,3 (
= −2 ⋅ A ⋅ cos α ± 60 +0I1
3
) ⎡ ⎛ I1 ⎞ 3 ⎛ I1 ⎞ ⎤
⎢2 ⋅ ⎜ ⎟ − ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ I 2 + I 3 ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎥⎦
Cos (3α ) =
2 ⋅ A3 ( )
Stress Invariants for Principal Stresses
I1 = σ 1 + σ 2 + σ 3
⎡σ 1 ⎤
⎥ I 2 = σ1 ⋅σ 2 + σ 2 ⋅σ 3 + σ 3 ⋅σ 1
σ = ⎢⎢ σ2 ⎥
⎢⎣ σ 3 ⎥⎦ I3 = σ 1 ⋅σ 2 ⋅σ 3
The solution are the eigenvalues
of the stress tensor ⎛ σ1 − σ 2 σ 2 − σ 3 σ 3 − σ1 ⎞
τ max = max⎜ , , ⎟
⎝ 2 2 2 ⎠
 ⎡ 0 − 240 0 ⎤
Example: determine the principal stresses for ⎢− 240 200 ⎥
the state of stress (in MPa). ⎢ 0 ⎥
⎢⎣ 0 0 − 280⎥⎦
Solution:
σ − σ x − τ xy − τ xz
The solution are the eigenvalues of the
stress tensor; − τ yx σ − σ y − τ yz = 0
Substituting: − τ zx − τ zy σ − σ z
σ − (−240) 0
− (−240) σ − 200 0 =0
0 0 σ − (−280)
(σ − (−280) ) ⋅ ((σ ⋅ (σ − 200) ) − ((−240) ⋅ (−240)) ) = 0
One solution σ3=-280MPa is a principal stress because τxz and τyz are
zero, then the other two principal stresses are easy to find by solving the
quadratic equation inside the square brackets for σ
− ( −200) ± (−200) 2 + 4 ⋅ (240) 2
σ − 200σ − (240) = 0
2 2
σ=
2
σ = 100 ± 260 σ1 = 360 MPa σ 2 = -160 MPa
⎡ 0 − 240 0 ⎤
⎢− 240 200 ⎥
⎢ 0 ⎥ I1 = −80 I 2 = −113,600 I 3 = 16,128,000
⎢⎣ 0 0 − 280⎥⎦

A = 196.4 Cos (3α ) = 0.8620 α = 10.15

− 80
σ 1 = 2 ⋅196.4 ⋅ Cos (10.15) + = 359.99
3
− 80
σ 2 = −2 ⋅196.4 ⋅ Cos (10.15 + 60 ) + = −160.0
3
− 80
σ 3 = −2 ⋅196.4 ⋅ Cos (10.15 − 60) + = −279.9
3

⎡360 0 0 ⎤
⎢ 0 − 160 0 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ 0 0 − 280⎥⎦
 Example 2: Determine the maximum ⎡ 20 40 − 30⎤
principal stresses and the maximum
σ = ⎢⎢ 40 30 25 ⎥⎥ MPa
shear stress for the following triaxial
stress state. ⎢⎣− 30 25 − 10 ⎥⎦
Solution
⎡σ xx τ yx τ zx ⎤ ⎡ 20 40 − 30⎤
⎢ ⎥
Stress _ Tensor = [σ ] = ⎢τ xy σ yy τ zy ⎥ = ⎢⎢ 40 30 25 ⎥⎥
⎢τ xz τ yz σ zz ⎥ ⎢⎣− 30 25 − 10 ⎥⎦
⎣ ⎦
σ 3 − I1σ 2 + I 2σ − I 3 = 0
I1 = σ x + σ y + σ z = 20 + 30 –10 = 40 MPa

I 2 = σ xσ y + σ xσ z + σ yσ z − τ xy2 − τ xz2 − τ yz2 = -3025 MPa

I 3 = σ xσ yσ z + 2τ xyτ xzτ yz − σ τ − σ τ − σ τ
2
x yz
2
y xz
2
z xy= -89500 MPa
 Solution to Exam ple
600000

400000
26.5 MPa
-51.8 MPa
200000
Sigm a (MPa)

0
-100 -80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60 80 100

-200000
65.3 MPa

-400000

-600000

-800000
Stress (MPa)

σ 1 = 65.3MPa σ 2 = 26.5MPa σ 3 = −51.8MPa

τ max = 1 / 2(65.3 + 51.8) = 58.5MPa
 τy’z’, τabs max=58.5

σ2=26.5

σ1= -51.8 σ3=63.5

Normal
Stress, σ (MPa)

Shear (MPa)
Safety Factor?
If the stress state was determined on a steel crankshaft, made of 
forged SAE1045 steel with a yield strength of 300 MPa, what is the 
factor of safety against yield? S y 300
Tresca Criterion: τmax= 58.5 MPa FS = = = 2.6
2τ max 2(58.5)
Max Principal Stress Criterion:  Sy 300
FS = = = 4.6
σmax= 63.5 MPa σ max 65.3
Von Mises Criterion: σ e=
1
[
(σ 1 − σ 2 ) 2
+ (σ 2 − σ 3 ) 2
+ (σ 3 − ]
σ 1 ) 2 1/ 2

σ 3 = 65.3MPa 2

σ 2 = 26.5MPa σe =
1
[
(−51.8 − 26.5) 2 + (26.5 − 65.3) 2 + (65.3 − (−51.8)) 2 ]
1/ 2

2
σ 1 = −51.8MPa σ e = 103.31MPa

Sy
300
FS = = = 2.9
σ e 103.3
 Mohr’s Circles for 3-D Analysis
Mohr’s circles can make visualization of the stress condition clearer to
the designer. Note that the principal stress values are always
ordered by convention so the σ1 is the largest value in the tensile
direction and σ3 is the largest value in the compressive direction.
Note also that there is one dominant peak shear stress in this diagram.

Be forewarned the principal stresses

and this peak shear stress are going
to play a strong role in determining
the factor of safety in mechanical
design.
A Mohr’s circle can be generated for triaxial stress states, but it is
often unnecessary, as it is sufficient to know the values of the
principal stresses.
The principal stresses must be ordered from larger to smaller.

σ1 − σ 2
τ 12 =
2
σ 2 −σ3
τ 23 =
2
σ1 − σ 3
τ 13 =
2
τ
Compare 2-D and 3-D Mohr’s Circle. If σz is zero, does it have an
effect in 3D?
 Q

2α 2α

σ3 σ2 + σ3 σ 1 + σ 3σ2 σ1 + σ 2 σ1
2 2 2
Consider σ3=0 then the plane will be an angle α from σ1, in
the direction of σ2 (anticlockwise). Point P
Consider σ2=0 then the plane will be an angle α from σ1, in
the direction of σ3 (anticlockwise). Point Q
The required system of stresses, fall within P and Q. Loci
determined by the center in σ 2 + σ 3
2
 2β
2β

σ3 σ2 σ1
Consider σ1=0 then the plane will be an angle β from σ2, in the
direction of σ3 (anticlockwise). Point R
Consider σ3=0 then the plane will be an angle β from σ2, in the
direction of σ1 (clockwise). Point S
The required system of stresses, fall within R and S. Loci
determined by the center in σ + σ1 3
2
Example:
Use Mohr’s Circle to obtain the principal stresses and maximum
shear of a component subjected to the following stresses:
σ x = 90tension
σ y = 30tension
σ z = −25compression
τ xy = 40ccw

ccw counterclockwise
 Stress on ANY Inclined Plane (3-D)
The stress on a plane (S) can
be decomposed into its normal
component (Sn) and its shear
component (Ss).

S = S + S = σ +τ
2 2
n
2
s
2 2

Sn = sx + sy + sz If α, β and γ are the angles between the vector Sn

and the x, y and z axis respectively and
k = cos α l = cos β m = cos γ then
 It can be proved that ⎡σ xx τ yx τ zx ⎤
⎢ ⎥
σ = ⎢τ xy σ yy τ zy ⎥
⎢τ xz τ yz σ zz ⎥
⎣ ⎦
⎡σ 1 1 τy x τz x ⎤ ⎡σ xx τ yx τ zx ⎤
⎢ xx ⎥
1 1 1 1
⎢ ⎥
⎢τ x1 y1 σy y
1 1 τz y
1 1 ⎥ = [T ] × τ
⎢ xy σ yy τ zy ⎥ × [T ]T

⎢τ 1 1 τy z σz z ⎥ ⎢τ xz τ yz σ zz ⎥
⎣ xz 1 1 1 1
⎦ ⎣ ⎦
 Mohr’s Circles for 3-D Analysis
There is no easy Mohr’s circle graphical solution for problems of
triaxial stress state. Solution for maximum principal stresses and
maximum shear stress is analytical.
z Consider the x, y and z axis to coincide with the
axis of the principal stresses σ1, σ2 and σ3.
If α, β and γ are the angles between the
σ1 normal to the plane and the x, y and z
axis respectively and
σ k = cos α l = cos β m = cos γ
σ2
y k 2 + l 2 + m2 = 1
We would like to find graphically
σ3 the normal stress and shear stress on
the plane.
x
 Octahedral Plane and Stresses
An octahedral plane is a plane that makes
three identical angles with the principal planes.
σ ⋅ k = σ xx ⋅ k + τ yx ⋅ l + τ zx ⋅ m
σ ⋅ l = τ xy ⋅ k + σ yy ⋅ l + τ zy ⋅ m
σ ⋅ m = τ xz ⋅ k + τ yz ⋅ l + σ zz ⋅ m
1
n1 = n2 = n3 = =n
3
σ1 + σ 2 + σ 3 I1
σ op = σ 1 ⋅ n12 + σ 2 ⋅ n22 + σ 3 ⋅ n32 = =
3 3
τ op = n 2 ⋅ (σ 12 + σ 22 + σ 32 ) − σ op2 = (σ 1 − σ 2 )2 + (σ 2 − σ 3 )2 + (σ 3 − σ 1 )2
1
3
9τ op = 2 I12 − 6 I 2
2
 Mean and Deviatoric Stresses
When describing the materials behavior of metals, one concludes
that in certain cases some stress components play a more important
role than other components. Plastic behavior of metals, is reported
to be independent of the average (mean) normal stress.
σ1 + σ 2 + σ 3 σ x +σ y +σ z I1
σM = = = = σ op
3 3 3
⎡σ M 0 0 ⎤
Mean stress matrix M = ⎢⎢ 0 σM 0 ⎥⎥
⎢⎣ 0 0 σ M ⎥⎦

Deviatoric stress σ x′ = σ x − σ M σ y′ = σ y − σ M σ z′ = σ z − σ M

The shear components do not change

Deviatoric Stress Matrix
⎡2 1 1 ⎤
⎢ 3 σ xx − 3 σ yy − 3 σ zz τ yx τ zx ⎥
⎢ 2 1 1 ⎥
D=⎢ τ xy σ yy − σ xx − σ zz τ zy ⎥
⎢ 3 3 3 ⎥
⎢ τ xz τ yz
2
σ zz − σ xx − σ yy ⎥
1 1
⎢⎣ 3 3 3 ⎥⎦

Deviatoric stresses play an important role in the theory of plasticity.

They influence the yielding of ductile materials.
The principal stresses obtained only from the deviatoric matrix is

⎡σ 1 − σ M 0 0 ⎤
σ P,D ⎢
=⎢ 0 σ 2 −σ M 0 ⎥
⎥
⎢⎣ 0 0 σ 3 − σ M ⎥⎦
 Failure Theories
Why do mechanical components fail? Mechanical components fail
because the applied stresses exceeds the material’s strength (Too
simple).
What kind of stresses cause failure? Under any load combination,
there is always a combination of normal and shearing stresses in the
material.
What is the definition of Failure?
Obviously fracture but in some
components yielding can also be
considered as failure, if yielding
distorts the material in such a way
that it no longer functions properly

Which stress causes the material to

fail?
Usually ductile materials are
limited by their shear strengths.
While brittle materials (ductility <
5%) are limited by their tensile
strengths.

Stress at which point?

Stress at which point?
 Failure Theories

Load type
Material Property Application of Stress
Uniaxial
Ductile Static
Biaxial
Brittle Dynamic
Pure Shear

Static Loading
Maximum Normal Stress Dynamic Loading
Modified Mohr Goodman
Yield strength Gerber
Maximum shear stress Soderberg
Distortion energy
 Static Failure Theories
The idea behind the various classical failure theories is that whatever
is responsible for failure in the standard tensile test will also be
responsible for failure under all other conditions of static loading.
 Ductile Material Brittle Material
Characteristic Yield Stress Ultimate Stress
Failure Stress

Important 1. Maximum Shear Stress 1. Maximum Normal

Theories 2. Maximum Octahedral Stress
Shear Stress 2. Modified Mohr.

Maximum Ductile Materials

Shear Stress Failure occurs when the maximum shear stress in
the part exceeds the shear stress in a tensile test
Theory
specimen (of the same material) at yield.
Hence in a tensile test,
Sy
τ max =
2
For a general state of stresses
σ1 − σ 3 S y
τ max = =
2 2
This leads to an hexagonal
failure envelop. A stress system
in the interior of the envelop is
considered SAFE

The Maximum Shear

Stress Theory for Ductile
Materials is also known
as the Tresca Theory.

for design purposes, the failure relation can be Sy

n=
modified to include a factor of safety (n):
σ1 − σ 3
Several cases can be analyzed in
plane stress problems:
Case 1: σ 1 ≥ σ 2 ≥ 0
In this case σ3=0
σ1 − σ 3 σ1 S y
τ max = = =
2 2 2
σ1 ≥ S y
Case 2: σ 1 ≥ 0 ≥ σ 3
Yielding condition

σ1 − σ 3 Sy
τ max = =
2 2
σ1 − σ 3 ≥ S y
 Distortion Energy Theory
Based on the consideration of angular distortion of stressed elements.
The theory states that failure occurs when the distortion strain energy
in the material exceeds the distortion strain energy in a tensile test
specimen (of the same material) at yield.
Resilience
Resilience is the capacity of a material to absorb
energy when it is deformed elastically and then,
upon unloading, to have this energy recovered.
εy
Modulus of resilience Ur U r = ∫ σ dε
0
If it is in a linear elastic region,

1 ⎛σ y ⎞ σ y
2
1
U r = σ yε y = σ y ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ =
2 2 ⎝ E ⎠ 2E
For general 3-D stresses: u = (σ 1ε 1 + σ 2ε 2 + σ 3ε 3 )
1
2

2E
(
Applying Hooke’s Law u = 1 σ 2 + σ 2 + σ 2 − 2ν (σ σ + σ σ + σ σ )
1 2 3 1 2 2 3 3 1 )
There are two components in σ1 + σ 2 + σ 3 σ x +σ y +σ z
this energy a mean component σM = =
and deviatoric component. 3 3
σ 1, D = σ 1 − σ M σ 2, D = σ 2 − σ M σ 3, D = σ 3 − σ M

The energy due to the mean stress (it gives a volumetric change but
not a distortion:

u Mean =
1
2E
(
σ M2 + σ M2 + σ M2 − 2ν (σ M σ M + σ M σ M + σ M σ M ) )
1 − 2ν 2
u Mean =
1
2E
[
3σ M (1 − 2ν ) =
2
] 6E
(
σ 1 + σ 22 + σ 32 + 2σ 1σ 2 + 2σ 2σ 3 + 2σ 3σ 1 )
 1 +ν 2
u D = u − u Mean =
3E
(
σ 1 + σ 22 + σ 32 − σ 1σ 2 − σ 2σ 3 − σ 3σ 1 )
Compare the distortion energy of a tensile test with the distortion
energy of the material.
1 +ν 2 1 +ν 2
uTensile =
3E
S y = uD =
3E
(
σ 1 + σ 22 + σ 32 − σ 1σ 2 − σ 2σ 3 − σ 3σ 1 )

S y = σ 12 + σ 22 + σ 32 − σ 1σ 2 − σ 2σ 3 − σ 3σ 1
S y = σ + σ − σ 3σ 1
2
1
2
3
Plane Stress

Von Mises effective stress : Defined as the uniaxial tensile stress

that creates the same distortion energy as any actual combination of
applied stresses.
 This simplifies the approach
since we can use the following
failure criterion
σ VM ≥ S y
Sy
n=
σ VM

σ VM =
(σ x −σ y ) + (σ
2
y −σz ) + (σ
2
z − σ x )2
+ 6 (
τ 2
xy + τ 2
yz + τ zx )
2

2
σ VM = σ x 2 + σ y 2 + σ z 2 + σ x × σ y + σ y × σ z + σ x × σ z + 3 × (τ xy2 + τ yz2 + τ zx2 )

σ VM = σ x + σ y − σ xσ y + 3τ xy2
2 2
2D
Case of Pure Shear

σ VM = 3τ xy ≥ S y
Sy
τ Max = = 0.577 S y
3

Brittle Materials
Several theories have been developed to describe the failure of
brittle materials, such as:
Maximum Normal Stress Theory
Coulomb-Mohr Theory
Modified-Mohr Theory
Maximum Normal Stress Theory

σ1 > σ 2
Failure occurs when one of the three principal
stresses reaches a permissible strength (TS).
Failure is predicted to occur when
σ1=St and σ2<-Sc
Where St and Sc are the tensile and σ2
compressive strength St
For a biaxial state of stresses
-Sc St
σ1

-Sc
 Coulomb-Mohr Theory or Internal Friction Theory (IFT)
This theory is a modification of the maximum normal stress theory in
the which the failure envelope is constructed by connecting the opposite
corners of quadrants I and III.

The result is an hexagonal failure envelop.

Similar to the maximum shear stress theory but also accounts for the uneven material
properties of brittle material
 Mohr’s Theory
The theory predicts that a material will fail if a stress
state is on the envelope that is tangent to the three
Mohr’s circles corresponding to:
a. uni-axial ultimate stress in tension,
b. uni-axial ultimate stress in compression, and
c. pure shear.
Modified Mohr’s Theory

σ 2 σ1
− ≤1
σC σT

This theory is a modification of the Coulomb-Mohr theory and is

the preferred theory for brittle materials.
Example:
Given the material SY , σx , σv and τxy find the safety factors for all the
applicable criteria.
a. Pure aluminum
SY = 30 MPa σ x = 10 MPa σ y = −10 MPa τ xy = 0 MPa
σ 1 = 10 MPa σ 3 = −10 MPa τ Max = 10 MPa
Is Al ductile or brittle? Ductile
Use either the Maximum Shear Stress Theory (MSST)
or the Distortion Theory (DT)
-10 10 MSST Theory
Sy 30 30
n= = = = 1.5
σ 1 − σ 3 10 − (−10) 20
DT Theory σ VM = σ x 2 + σ y 2 − σ xσ y + 3τ xy2 = 300 = 17.32MPa
Sy 30 MPa
n= = = 1.73
σ VM 17.32 MPa
b. 0.2%C Carbon Steel
SY = 65 Ksi σ x = −5 Ksi σ y = −35 Ksi τ xy = 10 Ksi
In the plane XY the principal stresses are -
1.973Ksi and -38.03Ksi with a maximum
shear stress in the XY plane of 18.03Ksi
In any orientation
σ 1 = 0 Ksi σ 2 = −1.973Ksi σ 3 = −38.03Ksi
τ Max = 19.01Ksi
Sy Ductile
65
MSST Theory n = = = 1.71
σ 1 − σ 3 0 − (−38.03)

σ VM = σ 12 + σ 3 2 − σ 1σ 3 = 38.03Ksi
DT Theory
Sy 65 Ksi
n= = = 1.71
σ VM 38.03MPa
 C. Gray Cast Iron

Sut = 30 Ksi S uc = 120 Ksi σ x = −35 Ksi σ y = 10 Ksi τ xy = 0 Ksi

σ 1 = 10 Ksi σ 2 = 0 Ksi σ 3 = −35 Ksi

τ Max = 22.5Ksi

-35 10 Brittle
Use Maximum Normal Stress Theory (MNST),
Internal Friction Theory (IFT), Modified Mohr
Theory (MMT)
Sut 30
MNST Theory (tensile) n= = = 3.0
σ 1 10
Suc 120
MNST Theory (compression) n= = = 3.4
σ 3 35
 IFT σ 2 σ1
− ≤1
σC σT
σ 1 ≥ 0 σ 3 ≤ 0 4th _ quadrant
S uc
line _ equation σ 3 = − Suc + σ1
S ut
1 σ 1 σ 3 10 − 35
= − = − = 0.625
n Sut Suc 30 120
n = 1.6
MMT
σ 1 ≥ 0 σ 3 ≤ 0 4th _ quadrant
S ut 1 S uc S ut
σ1 − σ3 =
S uc − S ut n S uc − S ut 1
= 0.54
30 1 (120)(30) n
10 − (−35) =
120 − 30 n (120 − 30) n = 1.84
 Example 1
The cantilever tube shown is to be
made of 2014 aluminum alloy
treated to obtain a specified
minimum yield strength of
276MPa. We wish to select a stock
size tube (according to the table
below). Using a design factor of
n=4.
The bending load is F=1.75kN, the axial tension is P=9.0kN and the
torsion is T=72N.m. What is the realized factor of safety?

Consider the critical area ( top surface).

 Sy 0.276 P Mc
σ VM ≤
n
=
4
GPa = 0.0690GPa σx = +
A I
Maximum bending moment = 120F

⎛d ⎞
120mm × 1.75kNx⎜ ⎟
9kN ⎝ 2⎠
σx = +
σ VM = (σ + 3τ )
A I 1
2 2 2
x zx
⎛d ⎞
72 × ⎜ ⎟
Tr ⎝ 2 ⎠ 36d
τ zx = = =
J J J
For the dimensions of that tube
 For 30x4
Inside diameter = 30mm
Thickness = 4mm
Outside diameter=30+2x4=38mm
Area = 3.266cm2
I=2,827cm4
J=5.652cm4

For 42x5

Sy 0.276
n= = = 4.57
σ VM 0.06043
Example 2:
A certain force F is applied at D near the end of the 15-in lever, which
is similar to a socket wrench. The bar OABC is made of AISI 1035
steel, forged and heat treated so that it has a minimum (ASTM) yield
strength of 81kpsi. Find the force (F) required to initiate yielding.
Assume that the lever DC will not yield and that there is no stress
concentration at A.
Solution:
1) Find the critical section
The critical sections will be
either point A or Point O. As the
moment of inertia varies with r4
then point A in the 1in diameter
is the weakest section.
2) Determine the stresses at the ⎛d ⎞
critical section M⎜ ⎟
My ⎝ 2 ⎠ 32 × F × 14in
σx = = = = 142.6 F
I πd 4
πd 3

64
3) Chose the failure
⎛d ⎞
criteria. T⎜ ⎟
Tr ⎝ 2 ⎠ 16 × F × 15in
τ zx = = = = 76.4 F
The AISI 1035 is a J πd 4
π (1in) 3
ductile material. Hence,
we need to employ the 32
distortion-energy
theory.
σ VM = σ x 2 + σ y 2 − σ xσ y + 3τ xy2 = σ x 2 + 3τ zx2 = 194.5F
Sy 81000
F= = = 416lbf
σ VM 194.5
Apply the MSS theory. For a point undergoing plane stress with
only one non-zero normal stress and one shear stress, the two non-
zero principal stresses (σA and σB) will have opposite signs (Case 2).

σ A −σ B Sy ⎛σx ⎞
2

τ max = = = ± ⎜ ⎟ + τ zx2
2 2 ⎝ 2 ⎠
⎛σx ⎞
2

σ A − σ B ≥ S y = 2 ⎜ ⎟ + τ zx2 = σ x 2 + 4τ zx2
⎝ 2 ⎠
(
81000 = (142.6 F ) + 4 × (76.4 F )
2 2
)
1
2

F = 388lbf
 Example 3:
A round cantilever bar is subjected to torsion plus a transverse load at
the free end. The bar is made of a ductile material having a yield
strength of 50000psi. The transverse force (P) is 500lb and the torque
is 1000lb-in applied to the free end. The bar is 5in long (L) and a
safety factor of 2 is assumed. Transverse shear can be neglected.
Determine the minimum diameter to avoid yielding using both MSS
and DET criteria.
Solution

1) Determine the critical section

The critical section occurs at the

wall.
 ⎛d ⎞ ⎛d ⎞
PL⎜ ⎟ T⎜ ⎟
Mc ⎝ 2 ⎠ 32 PL Tc ⎝ 2 ⎠ 16T
σx = = = τ xy = = = 3
I πd 4
πd 3 J πd 4
πd
64 32

⎛σ x +σ y ⎞ ⎛σ x −σ y ⎞
2
⎛σ ⎞ ⎛σ ⎞
2

σ 1, 2 = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ± ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + (τ xy )2 = ⎜ x ⎟ ± ⎜ x ⎟ + (τ xy )2
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
2 2
16 PL ⎛ 16 PL ⎞ ⎛ 16T ⎞ 16 ⎡
σ 1, 2 = ± ⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ = 3 ⎢
PL ± (PL )2 + T 2 ⎤⎥
πd 3
⎝ πd ⎠ ⎝ πd ⎠
3 3
πd ⎣ ⎦

= 3 ⎡500 × 5 ± (500 × 5) + 1000 2 ⎤

16
σ 1, 2 2

πd ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
 26450 980.8 The stresses are in the wrong
σ1 = σ2 = − 3
d3 d order.. Rearranged to

26450 980.8
σ1 = σ3 = − 3
d3 d
σ1 −σ 3 26450 − ( − 980 . 8 ) 13715 . 4
τ MAX = = =
MSS 2 2d 3
d3
Sy 50000
σ 1 − σ 3 = 2τ MAX ≤ = = 25 , 000
n 2
d ≥ 1 . 031 in
2 2
⎛ 26450 ⎞ ⎛ 980.8 ⎞ ⎛ 26450 ⎞⎛ 980.8 ⎞
σ VM = σ 1 + σ 3 − σ 1σ 3 = ⎜ 3 ⎟ + ⎜ − 3 ⎟ − ⎜ 3 ⎟⎜ − 3 ⎟
2 2

⎝ d ⎠ ⎝ d ⎠ ⎝ d ⎠⎝ d ⎠
DET
26950 S y 50000
σ VM = ≤ =
d 3
n 2
d ≥ 1.025in
 Example 5:
The factor of safety for a machine
element depends on the particular
point selected for the analysis.
Based upon the DET theory,
determine the safety factor for
points A and B.

This bar is made of AISI 1006 cold-drawn steel (Sy=280MPa) and it is

loaded by the forces F=0.55kN, P=8.0kN and T=30N.m
Solution: ⎛d ⎞
Fl ⎜ ⎟
Mc P ⎝ 2⎠ P 32 Fl 4 P
Point A σ x = + = + 2 = + 2
I Area πd 4
πd πd 3
πd
64 4

σx =
( ) +
( )
32(0.55) 103 (0.1) 4(8) 103
= 95.49 MPa
π (0.02)3
π (0.02)2
 Tr 16T 16(30)
τ xy = = 3 = = 19.10 MPa
J πd π (0.020 )3

(σ ) = [95.49 + 3(19.1) ]
1
σ VM = 2
x + 3τ 2
xy
2 2 2
= 101.1MPa
Sy 280
n= = = 2.77
σ VM 101.1
Point B 4 P 4(8) 103
σx = 2 = = 25.47 MPa
( )
πd π (0.02)2

τ xy
16T 4V
= 3+ =
16(30)
+
4(0.55) 103
= 21.43MPa
( )
πd 3 A π (0.02 )3
⎛π ⎞
3⎜ ⎟(0.02)
2

⎝4⎠
[
σ VM = 25.47 + 3(21.43) 2 2
] 1
2
= 45.02 MPa
280
n= = 6.22
45.02