SUBMITTED BY Hamza Azam, Usman, Danish,

Zain-ul-Abideen

SUBJECT ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

ROLL NUMBER 506, 503, 504, 505

CLASS BSCS (EVENING) 7TH SEMESTER

SUBMITTED TO MA’M SEHAR REHMAN

Topic:

AI Classical Systems:

General Problem Solver, Rules, Simple search.

What is Artificial Intelligence?
The study of the principles by which natural or artificial machines manipulate knowledge:

 how knowledge is acquired.

 how goals are generated and achieved.
 how concepts are formed.
 how collaboration is achieved.

Classical AI
 Disembodied Intelligence

The principles of intelligence are separate from any hardware / software /

wetware implementation.

 logical reasoning.
 probabilistic reasoning.
 strategic reasoning.
 diagnostic reasoning.

General Problem Solver:

The General Problem Solver (GPS) was an AI program proposed by Herbert Simon, J.C. Shaw, and Allen
Newell. It was the first useful computer program that came into existence in the AI world.

The goal was to make it work as a universal problem-solving machine. Of course there were
many software programs that existed before, but these programs performed specific tasks.

GPS was the first program that was intended to solve any general problem. GPS was supposed
to solve all the problems using the same base algorithm for every problem.
Solving a problem with GPS:

Let's see how to structure a given problem to solve it using GPS:

1. The first step is to define the goals. Let's say our goal is to get some milk from the
grocery store.

2. The next step is to define the preconditions. These preconditions are in reference to the
goals. To get milk from the grocery store, we need to have a mode of transportation and
the grocery store should have milk available.

3. After this, we need to define the operators. If my mode of transportation is a car and if the
car is low on fuel, then we need to ensure that we can pay the fueling station. We need to
ensure that you can pay for the milk at the store.
Rules for Solutions:-
Example 1:

States:
Integer locations of tiles.
Description of the eight tiles and location of the blank tile.

Actions:
Left, right, up, down.

Goal test:
Goal state?
Checks whether the state matches the goal configuration.

Path cost:
1 per move.

Extra:
• Eight puzzle is from a family of “sliding –block puzzles”

– 8 puzzle has 9!/2 = 181440 states

Example 2 Robotic Assembly:

States:
Real-valued coordinates of robot joint angles and parts of the object to be assembled.

Actions:
Continuous motions of robot joints.

Goal
Test assembly complete?

Path
Cost time to execute.
Simple Search Strategies:
1. Breadth-first search.
2. Depth-first search.
3. Iterative deepening search.
4. Uniform-cost search.
5. Depth-limited search.

Breadth-first search:
• Recall from Data Structures the basic algorithm for a breadth-first search on a graph or tree.

• Expand the shallowest unexpanded node.

• Place all new successors at the end of a FIFO queue.

Depth First Search:
• Recall from Data Structures the basic algorithm for a depth-first search on a graph or tree.

• Expand the deepest unexpanded node.

• Unexplored successors are placed on a stack until fully explored.

Iterative Deepening Search:
• Iterative deepening depth-first search.

– Uses depth-first search.

– Finds the best depth limit.

• Gradually increases the depth limit; 0, 1, 2, … until a goal is found.

Step 1:

Step 2:

Step 3:
Step 3:

Uniform-Cost Search:
Same idea as the algorithm for breadth-first search…but…

• Expand the least-cost unexpanded node.

• FIFO queue is ordered by cost.
• Equivalent to regular breadth-first search if all step costs are equal.

Depth-Limited Search:
• A variation of depth-first search that uses a depth limit.

– Alleviates the problem of unbounded trees.

– Search to a predetermined depth l (“ell”).

– Nodes at depth l have no successors.

• Same as depth-first search if l = ∞.

• Can terminate for failure and cutoff.