Wind power stations in Xinjiang, China

Wind Energy

Instructor: Dr Waqas Khalid

Contact: waqaskhalid@smme.nust.edu.pk
Phone: 6098
1
 Facts of Wind Energy
Wind energy is another form of renewable energy which is available in abundant and is
renewable. So, there will always be constant supply of it.

The initial cost to set up wind energy is very high and requires huge initial investment, but
once it starts working, it is one of the cheapest form of electricity to maintain.

 Wind energy is a form of solar energy which describes the process by which
wind used to generate electricity. The use of wind energy is growing rapidly
because it is abundant, cheap, clean, widely available and environment friendly.

 The wind turbines effectiveness depends on the location where they are placed.
Ideally, wind turbines should be located where there are constant flow of wind
throughout the year.

 Denmark , U.S, Germany, India, France, U.K, Spain, China, Italy and Portugal
are the top ten nations where wind turbines are used most efficiently.

 Wind energy uses the kinetic energy of the wind and turns into electrical energy.
Initial cost are quite steep but in the long run they prove to be much cost
effective.
 Facts of Wind Energy
 In the year 2018, wind energy accounted 9.6% of the total electricity
production in the world. In 2017, it was estimated about 4.4% of the
worldwide electric power usage providing 11.6% of electricity in European
Union
 Denmark-highest penetration of wind power (43.4% of consumed
electricity from wind in 2017)
 Wind energy approximately cost $1 million per megawatt to install and one
megawatt of wind energy.

 Wind turbines are relatively quiet. Improved engineering and appropriate

setback from homes mitigates noise issues.

 At the appropriate setback from homes, a wind turbine makes the sound
equivalent of a common kitchen refrigerator.

 The opposition usually met from a proposed wind farm development comes
down to the "NIMBY" factor (not in my backyard).
 Facts of Wind Energy
Wind energy is the only power generation technology that can deliver the necessary
cuts in CO2 in the critical period up to 2020, when greenhouse gases must peak and
begin to decline to avoid dangerous climate change.

120.8 GW of global wind capacity will produce 260 TWh and save 158 million tons of
CO2 every year.

Wind industry also creates many new jobs: over 400,000 people are now employed in
this industry, and that number is expected to be in the millions in the near future.

Cost of electricity from the wind has dropped from about 25 cents/kWh in 1981 to
averaging near 2 cents/kWh in 2017

Though wind turbine prices have increased some since 2005, in areas with the best
resources, wind power is cost competitive with new generation from coal and natural
gas plants.
 Environmental Concerns
Wind power is a clean renewable energy source. There are, however some
environmental considerations to keep in mind when planning a wind power
scheme.

They include the following:

 Electromagnetic interference - some television frequency bands are

susceptible to interference from wind generators.

 Noise - wind rotors, gearboxes and generators create acoustic noise when
functioning; this needs to be considered when siting a machine.

 Visual impact - modern wind machines are large objects and have a
significant visual impact on their surroundings. Some argue that it is a
positive visual impact, others to the contrary.
Worldwide Installed Wind Power Capacity
Share of world Installed wind energy by region & country, 2018
Cost for per unit of electricity generation From Wind
Cost for per unit of electricity generation From Wind
Wind & Solar Energy Installations

Source: www.fi-powerweb.com

10
Source: www.fi-powerweb.com
 Wind Energy Basics
Winds are caused by uneven heating of the atmosphere by the sun, the roughness of the
Earth surface and Earth's rotation.

The term wind power describes the process by which wind is used to make the
mechanical energy or electricity.

Wind turbines convert the kinetic energy of wind energy into mechanical power.

This mechanical power may be used for certain activities (such as milling of rice or
pumping water) or a generator can convert mechanical energy to electrical energy at
home, business, schools and other facilities.

A group of wind turbines can make electricity for the utility grid. The electricity is sent
through transmission and distribution lines to homes, businesses, schools, and so on.

Generally, average annual wind speeds of at least 4.0-4.5 m/s are needed for a small
wind turbine to produce enough electricity to be cost-effective.
 Wind Turbines
Wind turbines convert the kinetic energy of wind energy into mechanical power.

If the mechanical energy is used to produce electricity, the device may be called a wind
generator

If the mechanical energy is used to drive machinery, such as for grinding grain or
pumping water, the device is called a windmill or wind pump.

There are two main families of windmills/wind generators:

Vertical axis machines (VAWT)

Horizontal Axis Wind Turbines (HAWT)

The smallest turbines are used for applications such as battery charging or auxiliary
power on sailing boats;
while large grid-connected arrays of turbines are becoming an increasingly large source
of commercial electric power.
Wind Turbines
 Classification of Wind turbines
Principles of wind energy conversion
There are two primary physical principles by which energy can be
extracted from the wind;

These are through the creation of either drag or lift force (or through a
combination of the two).
 Vertical axis machines (VAWT)
A type of wind turbine in which the axis of
rotation is perpendicular to the wind stream
and the ground.

VAWTs work somewhat like a classical

water wheel in which water arrives at a
right angle (perpendicular) to the rotational
axis (shaft) of the water wheel.

Vertical-axis wind turbines fall into two

major categories:

i. Darrieus turbines and

ii. Savonius turbines.

 Vertical axis machines (VAWT)

Savonius type Wind Turbines

Darrieus type Wind Turbines
Rotates by drag force For the Darrieus the driving wind
forces are lift,
 Horizontal Axis Wind Turbines
Horizontal axis wind turbines, also shortened to HAWT, are the common style that most
of us think of when we think of a wind turbine.

A HAWT has a similar design to a windmill, it has blades that look like a propeller that
spin on the horizontal axis. The dominant driving force is lift

Two- and three-bladed rotors are common for electricity generation.

The three-bladed rotors operate more smoothly and, generally, more quietly than two-
bladed
 Horizontal Axis Wind Turbines
Most horizontal axis turbines built today are
two- or three-bladed, although some have
fewer or more blades.

Horizontal-axis wind turbines (HAWT) have

the main rotor shaft and electrical generator
at the top of a tower, and must be pointed
into the wind.

The purpose of the rotor is to convert the

linear motion of the wind into rotational
energy that can be used to drive a generator.

Small turbines are pointed by a simple wind

vane, while large turbines generally use a
wind sensor coupled with a servo motor.
 Horizontal Axis Wind Turbines
Wind turbines convert wind energy to electricity for distribution. Conventional
horizontal axis turbines can be divided into three components:

1. The rotor component, which is approximately 20% of

the wind turbine cost, includes the blades for
converting wind energy to low speed rotational energy.

2. The generator component, which is approximately 34%

of the wind turbine cost, includes the electrical
generator, the control electronics, and most likely a
gearbox, component for converting the low speed
incoming rotation to high speed rotation suitable for
generating electricity.

3. The structural support component, which is

approximately 15% of the wind turbine cost, includes
the tower and rotor yaw mechanism
 Horizontal Axis Wind Turbines
A 1.5 MW wind turbine of a type frequently seen in the United States has
a tower 80 metres (260 ft) high.

The rotor assembly (blades and hub) weighs 48,000 pounds (22,000 kg).

The nacelle, which contains the generator component, weighs 115,000

pounds (52,000 kg).

The concrete base for the tower is constructed using 58,000 pounds
(26,000 kg) of reinforcing steel and contains 250 cubic yards (190 m3) of
concrete.

The base is 50 ft (15 m) in diameter and 8 ft (2.4 m) thick near the center.
 Vertical axis machines (VAWT)  Advantages
Vertical axis wind turbine is a type of wind turbine that has its rotor shaft installed
vertically and can therefore work even if the turbine is not directly pointed to the wind.

This ensures wind power even in areas where there is low wind speed.

Vertical Axis Wind Turbines, more commonly referred to as VAWTs have the generator
and gearbox assembled near the ground instead of these parts being supported by a
tower. This proves to be advantageous especially considering maintenance purposes.

Part of the disadvantage of using a wind turbine is the difficulty of setting up a tower to
put it up. With these turbines, there is no need for tower structures.

They also have parts which are easier to maintain and are less likely to break down
and collapse during high winds.

There are areas where horizontal axis wind turbines may be prohibited. In these areas,
Vertical Axis Wind Turbines may be the alternatives.
 Vertical axis machines (VAWT)  Advantages

Since VAWT are mounted closer to the ground they are more bird friendly and
down not destroy the wildlife.

VAWT quiet, efficient, economical and perfect for residential energy

production, especially in urban environments.
 Vertical axis machines (VAWT)  Disadvantages

First, most of the turbines of this type only has an energy-producing capacity
which is fifty percent less efficient than those produced by horizontal axis wind
turbines.

Because there is no tower structure required, they cannot take full advantage of
the higher wind speeds that are available on higher, elevated locations.

They also require energy to start the turning of blades due to their low starting
torque.

They will have parts which are difficult to change without disassembling the
entire turbine should it not be assembled properly.

Another disadvantage of the Vertical Axis Wind Turbines is that they require
wires to hold the structure in place.
This puts stress on the bearing because all the weight of the rotor rests upon it.
Darrieus type Wind Turbines

26
 Horizontal Axis Wind Turbines
Swept area is area through which the
rotor blades of a wind turbine spin, as
seen when directly facing the center of
the rotor blades.

The power output of a wind turbine is

directly related to the swept area of its
blades.

The larger the diameter of its blades,

the more power it is capable of
extracting from the wind
 Energy from the Wind

In physics it can be shown that

And, in fluid dynamics, given a mass flow rate (m ) of air with density (ρ) through a
surface of area (A), the available fluid power becomes

These equations characterize the dynamic

power is available in any fluid.

Therefore, they also describe the wind

power incident on a turbine with a rotor
swept area (Ar) and a given air density and
air speed.
 Energy from the Wind
While this calculation does provide a baseline for comparing two competing sites for
installing a turbine or building a wind farm, it is more useful to determine the power
captured by the wind turbine.

This value is a function of the difference between the upstream (Vi) and downstream
(Vo) air velocities, and is given by

The mass flow rate through the turbine

can be approximated as
 Energy from the Wind
The maximum power that can be extracted from the wind in terms of
upstream wind velocity alone

Where Cp is the coefficient of power,

Power developed by the wind machine is mainly affected by:

i. Wind speed,
ii. Area swept by the rotor
iii. Density of air
iv. Radius of the rotor, R
 Example
CALCULATIONS WITH GIVEN DATA

We are given the following data:

Blade length, l = 52 m
Wind speed, v = 12 m/sec
Air density, ρ = 1.23 kg/m3
Power Coefficient, Cp = 0.4

Pmax= 3.6 MW
 Coefficient Of Performance (Cp)
The proportion of the power in the wind that the rotor can extract is termed the
coefficient of performance (or power coefficient or efficiency; symbol Cp)

It is physically impossible to extract all the energy from the wind, without
bringing the air behind the rotor to a standstill.

Consequently there is a maximum value of

Cp of 59.3% (known as the Betz limit),
although in practice real wind rotors have
maximum Cp values in the range of 25%-
45%.

The coefficient of performance is not a

constant, but varies with the wind
speed, the rotational speed of the
turbine, and turbine blade parameters
like angle of attack and pitch angle
 Coefficient Of Performance (Cp)

Maximum value of Cp is 16/27 or

0.59 according to the Betz Limit.

Therefore, because the most

efficient, high speed, two- and
three-blade turbines have a power
coefficient of just less than 0.50
due to in efficiencies and certain
losses attributed to different
configurations ,rotor blades and
turbine design

Power Coefficient (Cp) with downstream

to upstream air velocities (Vo/V)

“V” is the upstream velocity

 Coefficient Of Performance (Cp)

Because the most efficient, high speed, two- and three-blade turbines
have a power coefficient of just less than 0.50, rotor power has an
effective limit given below

Tip speed ratio ()

 Tip Speed Ratio
The power coefficient is not a static value as defined before it varies with the
tip speed ratio of the turbine.

The Tip Speed Ratio (often known as the TSR) is of vital importance in the
design of wind turbine generators.

If the rotor of the wind turbine turns too slowly, most of the wind will pass
undisturbed through the gap between the rotor blades.

Alternatively if the rotor turns too quickly, the blurring blades will appear like a
solid wall to the wind.

Therefore, wind turbines are designed with optimal tip speed ratios to extract
as much power out of the wind as possible.
 Tip Speed Ratio
In reference to a wind energy conversion device's blades, the ratio between the
rotational speed of the tip of the blade and the actual velocity of the wind.

High efficiency 3-blade-turbines have tip speed ratios of 5-6.

On the whole, a high tip speed ratio is better, but not to the point where the
machine becomes noisy and highly stressed.

The tip speed ratio determines

how fast the wind turbine will
turn
 No of blades of Wind Turbines
Most have of the wind turbines 3 blades because of bending moments
caused by having an even number of blades--for example 2 blades.

With 2 blades, when one blade is at the top of the cycle the opposite blade is
at the bottom of the cycle.

The top blade is receiving the greatest force of the wind and the bottom
blade is in the shadow of the tower, which shelters it from the wind.

This sets up a bending torque on the blades which wears out the bearings
and also causes undue stresses

Wind turbine design: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=p5k2LhKBSgQ

 No of blades of Wind Turbines
Two- and one-bladed machines require a more complex design with a
hinged (teetering hub) rotor as shown in the picture, i.e. the rotor has to
be able to tilt in order to avoid too heavy shocks to the turbine when a
rotor blades passes the tower
 Tip Speed Ratio

Drag devices always have tip-speed ratios less than one and hence turn
slowly,

Whereas lift devices can have high tip-speed ratios and hence turn
quickly relative to the wind.

Speed of the rotor tip

T ip speed ratio (l ) =
wind speed
v wr
= =
V V

V = Wind Speed m/s

v = Velocity of the rotor tip
r = Radius of the rotor
w = Angular velocity
 Tip Speed Ratio

How To Find The Tip Speed

i. Measure the rotor radius (length of

one blade)
ii. Speed = distance divided by time.
iii. The distance travelled is the
circumference (2r)

dis t an ce
T ip speed of the blades = (m / s )
time
 Why is TSR Important???
Knowing the tip speed ratio of your turbine will help in maximizing the power output
and efficiency of the wind turbine.

Remember that if the rotor spins too slowly, a lot of wind will pass through the gaps
between the blades rather than giving energy to the turbine.

But if the blades spin too quickly, they could create too much turbulent air or act as a
solid wall against the wind.

So, to maximize the turbine’s efficiency, we’ve got to calculate the perfect Tip Speed
Ratio

:For the optimum TSR for maximum power output, this formula has been empirically
proven

4𝜋
λ (𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟) = (n = number of blades)
𝑛
 Tip Speed Ratio
For n = 2, the optimal TSR is calculated to be 6.28, while it is 4.19 for three-
bladed rotor, and it reduces to 3.14 for a four-bladed rotor.

With proper airfoil design, the optimal TSR values may be approximately 25 –
30 percent above these values.

Using this assumption, the optimal TSR for a three-bladed rotor would be in the
range of 5.24 – 5.45

Poorly designed rotor blades that yield too low of a TSR would cause the wind
turbine to exhibit a tendency to slow and stall.

On the other hand, if the TSR is too high, the turbine will rotate very rapidly,
and will experience larger stresses, which may lead to catastrophic failure in
highly-turbulent wind conditions
Typical Wind Turbine Operation at different wind Speeds
0 ~ 4.5 m/s  Wind speed is too low for generating power. Turbine is not
operational. Rotor is locked.

4.5 ~ 11 m/s  10 mph is the minimum operational speed. It is called “Cut-

in speed”. In 10 ~ 25 mph wind, generated power increases
with the wind speed.

11 ~ 23 m/s  Typical wind turbines reach the rated power (maximum

operating power) at wind speed of 25mph (called Rated wind
speed). Further increase in wind speed will not result in
substantially higher generated power by design. This is
accomplished by, for example, pitching the blade angle to
reduce the turbine efficiency.

23 m/s  Turbine is shut down when wind speed is higher than 50mph
(called “Cut-out” speed) to prevent structure failure.
 Typical Wind Turbine Operation at different wind Speeds
Cut-out speed
The highest wind speed at which a wind turbine stops producing power. and is
usually around 25 meters per second.

Cut-in speed
The lowest wind speed at which a wind turbine begins producing usable power
and is typically between 3 and 4 metres per second.

Wind turbine swept area

The area through which the rotor blades of a wind turbine spin, as seen when
directly facing the center of the rotor blades. The power output of a wind turbine is
directly related to the swept area of its blades. The larger the diameter of its blades, the
more power it is capable of extracting from the wind

Rated output power and rate output wind speed

Typically somewhere between 12 and 17 m/s, the power output reaches the
limit that the electrical generator is capable of.
This limit to the generator output is called the rated power output and the wind
speed at which it is reached is called the rated output wind speed
Typical Wind Turbine Operation at different wind Speeds
 Wind gradient
To calculate the wind speed at the height of the hub, it is necessary to take care
that the wind speed varies with height due to the friction against the structure of
the ground, which slows the wind.

This phenomenon is named wind gradient or wind profile

If a “z” height is considered, the average of the wind

speed at this height is described by

𝑧 ∝
𝑣𝑧 = 𝑣𝑧0 ( )
𝑧0
vz0 = wind speed at the reference height z0 [m/s];
z0 = reference height [m];
α = value depending on the roughness class of the
terrain, as shown in the following table;
Wind gradient
 Problem 1

A wind turbine has the rotor diameter of 42 m and hub height of 41.5m.

What will be the rotor efficiency at upstream velocity of 9 m/s and

downstream velocity of wind is 6.5 m/s.

The density of air can be assumed 1.2 kg/m3.

How much energy will be produced from this turbine annually?

Also calculate the tip speed ratio of the wind turbine?

 Problem 1

Rotor dia = D=42 m

Hub height=41.5m
Upstream wind speed=V=9 m/s
Down stream wind speed=Vo=6.5 m/s
Vo/V =6.5/9=0.7222
Rotor swept area=/4 *D2
=1385.44m2
Air density==1.2 kg/m3 Rotor efficiency=?

Cp =0.412 or 41.2%
Or
 Problem 1

Power extracted by turbine= ½ x.412 x1.2 x 1385 x 93

=249.67 kW

Annual energy production= 249.67 x (365*24) = 2186401.2KWh

Tip speed ratio ()

 Problem 2
Wind turbine have rotor blade radius of 10 m, rotating at 1 rotation per
second find out the tip speed ratio at a wind speed of 15 m/sec.

Also calculate the power it can produced at this wind speed?

Speed of the rotor tip

T ip speed ratio (l ) =
wind speed
v wr
= =
V V
érotation ù
𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
f = 1ê ú
êë sec𝑠𝑒𝑐úû
w = 2p f = 2p rad / sec
v = w * r = 2p * 10 = 62.8m / s

62.8
T ip speed ratio (l ) = = 4.2
15
 Problem 3
A wind turbine with three blades, each 4 meters long, how much distance
does the tip of each blade travel in one full revolution?

i. And if this turbine is rotating at a rate of 42 Revolutions per Minute

(RPM), how long does it take to make one full revolution?

i. Calculate how fast the tips of this wind

turbine are moving through the air?

ii. If the wind is blowing at 6 meters per

second, what is the tip speed ratio of this
turbine?

iii. According to the “optimal” tip speed

ratio for this three-bladed turbine, are
these blades moving too fast or too slow?
 Problem 3

The length of one blade is equal to the radius.

The distance travelled is equal to the circumference of the circle created

by the blades.

Circumference of a circle = 2Πr. So, (2 x Π x 4) = 25.13 meters

Turbine is rotating at a rate of 42 Revolutions per Minute (RPM),

How long does it take to make one full revolution?
 Problem 3
Calculate how fast the tips of this wind turbine are moving through the
air?
Tip speed of the blades = distance /time

= 17.6 m/s

If the wind is blowing at 6 meters per second, what is the tip speed
ratio of this turbine?

T ip speed of the blades 17.6

TSR = = = 2.93
W inds peed 6

4p 4p
Opt imal T SR = = = 4.2 (blades are moving slow )
n 3
OPERATION OF WIND
TURBINE

55
 Angle of Attack
• It is the angle between a reference line on a body (often the
chord line of an airfoil) and the vector representing the relative
motion between the body and the fluid through which it is
moving. Angle of attack is the angle between the body's
reference line and the oncoming flow.
 Types of Output Regulation
• Power output from rotor can be decreased by decreasing power
coefficient through aggravated aerodynamic conditions,
implying decreased lift forces
• Two types of power control for wind turbines are
– Stall regulation
– Pitch regulation
Stall Regulation
• Stall means that the fluid meets the
blade at very big angles of attack, the
flow separates and swirls on the suction
side , so increasing drag and decreasing
lift forces dramatically
• The blades for a stall- controlled wind
turbine are fixed firmly to the hub,
implying simplicity and lower cost, but
the turbine must sustain large thrust
forces at high winds
 Stall Regulation
• Stall (passive) controlled wind turbines have
rotor blades bolted on to hub at fixed angle
• Geometry has been aerodynamically
designed to ensure that when wind speed
becomes too high, it creates turbulence on
side of rotor blade which is not facing wind.
This stall prevents lifting force of rotor
blade from acting on rotor
• Blade of stall control is twisted slightly
along its longitudinal axis to ensure rotor
blade stalls slowly rather than abruptly when
wind speed reaches its critical value

59
Pitch Regulation
• Pitching means that the blade
turns around its longitudinal
axis, thus being able to
maintain a given angle of
attack(i.e. a given maximum
lift force and power output) at
changing wind speeds,
without increasing much
thrust on the rotor.
Stall regulation Pitch regulation
 Pitch Vs. Stall regulation

Decrease in power in
Pitch-regulated system-
stall regulated wind
active pitch control of
turbine – due to
blades
aerodynamic effects on
turbine blades (no need
of active controls)
• Pitching of blades allows for smooth and effective power
regulation of the turbine at any wind speed (and especially, no
loss of power at high wind speed).
• One drawback is the complicated mechanical arrangement in
the rotor hub (pitch motors and blade bearings), which add
costs and may decrease reliability of the machine
64
 Wind Power Projects Status in Pakistan
• Wind power: 6% of total electricity production in country
• Wind power capacity in Pakistan in 2018 was 1237MW
• List
• Ongoing wind projetcs