TARLAC STATE UNIVERSITY-SCHOOL OF LAW

THE ROLE OF DNA

TESTING IN CRIME
INVESTIGATIONS

Agudo, Kristine Ann

Agustin, Marilou
Botio, Marc Jeryl
Gaite, Maricel
Pagco, Reymond Jude
Vilog, Mhedy Joy

LEGAL MEDICINE
 FORENSIC DNA ANALYSIS IN
CRIMINAL INVESTIGATIONS
DNA-based methods of identification DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid, is the fundamental
building block of a person’s entire genetic makeup. DNA is present in all human cells and
is the same in every cell and it is composed of sugar, phosphate and nitrogen bases
namely Adenine (A), Guanine (G), Cytosine (C) and Thymine (T). The order of the
nitrogen bases determines the so-called ‘DNA sequence.

USES OF DNA TESTING

Determining someone’s family background

Genetic condition a child may be born with while still in the womb
Forensic Science -an area of science which is concerned with using scientific inquiry to
ensure justice is served in legal matters

ANALYSIS OF DNA EVIDENCE

Once samples are processed, possible sources of DNA profile/s are evaluated. Sources
may be:
a) the victim;
b) human handlers such as crime scene investigators, medico-legal officers, forensic
analysts and lawyers;
c) the perpetrator of the crime.

DNA evidence in Philippine courts A case report To demonstrate the role of DNA
evidence in criminal courts and in resolving a disputed paternity case, the case of People
of the Philippines vs. Victoriano Paras (Criminal case nos. 85974-85978 Regional Trial
Court, Branch 163 Pasig City) is discussed. This case involved a man charged with
sexual assault resulting in the victim’s pregnancy and birth of a child. DNA evidence was
obtained by conducting a simple paternity test on the DNA of the suspect, the victim and
the child. The accused was charged with five counts of rape committed on various dates,
namely: December 31, 1989, the first, second and fourth weeks of January 1990, and first
week of February 1990 leading to the birth of a child on November 8, 1990. The case was
filed on March 31, 1991. However, inconsistencies were detected in the testimony and
subsequent cross examination of the victim. In addition, the defense presented evidence
that showed the accused was not in Pasig during the period covered by the charges. The
defense also argued that the child was born 10 months after the last incident of the
supposed rapes.

Legal Medicine | The Role of DNA Testing in Crime Investigations 1

 FORENSIC DNA ANALYSIS IN
CRIMINAL INVESTIGATIONS
Hence, to determine whether the accused was indeed the father of Joanna Ocray, the
Court ordered the UP-NSRI DNA Analysis Laboratory to conduct DNA tests on the child,
the victim and the accused.

Two weeks later, on the basis of mismatching DNA profiles at four out of five STR
markers tested, the accused was excluded from being the father of the child.

The results of the laboratory examination, the inconsistencies of the victim’s testimony as
well as other evidences presented by the defense in Court on the whereabouts of the
accused during the stated time and dates of the incidences of rape ‘cast a very serious
doubt in the mind of the court as to the guilt of the accused on the five incidences of rape
filed against him’ (Judge Aurelio C. Trampe, 5 May 1999).

The accused was subsequently acquitted and released. Nonetheless, the accused was
imprisoned and his petition for bail was denied whilst the case was being tried in court.
Thus, prior to acquittal, the accused had already been incarcerated for six years. In
contrast, DNA analysis that provided key evidence in this case was conducted within two
weeks. Consideration of these facts highlights the need to incorporate forensic DNA
testing in routine criminal investigations to decrease the possibility of erroneous
convictions as well as to accelerate the progress of pending cases that clog Philippine
courts.

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 DEFINITION OF TERMS
BIOLOGICAL SAMPLE- any organic material originating from a person’s body, even if
found in inanimate objects, that is susceptible to DNA testing. This includes blood,
saliva and other body fluids, tissues, hairs and bones.

DNA EVIDENCE - constitutes the totality of the DNA profiles, results and other genetic
information directly generated from DNA testing of biological samples;DNA PROFILE -
means genetic information derived from DNA testing of a biological sample obtained
from a person, which biological sample is clearly identifiable as originating from that
person.

DNA TESTING - means verified and credible scientific methods which include the
extraction of DNA from biological samples, the generation of DNA profiles and the
comparison of the information obtained from the DNA testing of biological samples for
the purpose of determining, with reasonable certainty, whether or not the DNA
obtained from two or more distinct biological samples originates from the same person
(direct identification) or if the biological samples originate from related persons (kinship
analysis).

DNA PROFILING or DNA TYPING – a process where a minute sample of genetic DNA
material is taken from a human tissue and is given a computerize numeric value in the
form of a “bar code”.

CERTIFIED DNA COLLECTOR – any law enforcement personnel who has

successfully completed the training as certified by his/her agency with respect to DNA
collection.

BUCCAL SWAB – a sample of cellular material taken from the inside of a person’s
mouth.

FORENSIC DNA ANALYSIS – analysis of the DNA from a body sample or crime
scene sample to determine forensic DNA profile.

FORENSIC DNA PROFILES – the result obtained from forensic DNA analysis on body
sample or crime scene, providing a unique string of alpha numeric character to provide
identity reference.

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 DEFINITION OF TERMS

INTIMATE SAMPLE- a sample of blood, semen or any other tissue or fluid taken from
a person’s body, urine or pubic hair, or a swab taken from any part of a person’s
genitals (including pubic hair) or from a person’s body orifice other than the mouth.

NON-INTIMATE SAMPLE- a sample of hair other than the pubic hair.A sample taken
from a nail or from under a nail.A swab taken from any part of a person’s body other
than apart from which a swab taken would be an intimate sample;saliva.

PHILIPPINE DNA DATABASE SYSTEM (PDDS) – is the country’s central repository

of DNA profiles.

PHILIPPINE DNA DATABASE OFFICE (PDDO) – an inter agency organization

composed of personnel from the Philippine National Police, National Bureau of
Investigation, Philippine Drug Enforcement Agency and Armed Forces of the
Philippines.

OSAMA BIN LADEN CASE

American forces have killed the most wanted and feared terrorist Osama Bin Laden.
Despite have sound leads to the compound in which Osama was hiding in Pakistan, is
was crucial to be sure that the man they thought was Bin Laden was truly the terrorist.

The mission was so secret that the Pakistani government did not even know about it; this
for fear of leakages in top secret information that could have foiled the whole project. DNA
Tests were indispensable to know whether the man killed in a compound in Pakistan was
really the most infamous and wanted terrorist Osama Bin Laden, also known as Usuma
Bin Laden.

The operation took place on the 2nd of May 2011. The top secret investigation and
subsequent killing of Bin Laden could not be a closed case until there was absolute
certainty that the right man had been killed.The first method used to determine whether
the body was really that of infamous Bin Laden was facial recognition.

Analysis of photos, comparisons and special computerized systems of superimposing

features to determine a match were used.

Legal Medicine | The Role of DNA Testing in Crime Investigations 4

 Also, one of Bin Laden’s wives’s assisted the US in identifying the body.

DNA testing is by far the most accurate and reliable way of identifying someone. The In
the case of Osama Bin Laden, US intelligence has managed to collect a number of DNA
profiles belonging to relatives of Bin Laden. This means they had a sound way to identify
the body using forensic DNA tests.

Relationship testing can confirm the biological relationship between relatives. If the DNA
profiles of Bin Laden’s relatives can be confirmed the relationship with Bin Laden’s
alleged body, then it clearly indicated that the body in question is actually Bin laden’s. The
Intelligence also had access to brain samples from Bin Laden’s sibling sister who has
recently passed away from cancer in a hospital in Massachusetts.

These DNA samples were taken and used to establish whether the DNA taken from the
body belonged to her brother (ie Bin Laden).

Legal Medicine | The Role of DNA Testing in Crime Investigations 5

 WHAT IS DNA EVIDENCE?

DNA evidence can be collected from blood, hair, skin cells, and other bodily
substances.

It can even be used to solve crimes by determining the identities of criminals.

Similar to fingerprints, each individual has a unique DNA profile (except for identical
twins, who share the same genetic code).

HOW DOES IT WORK?

A sufficient amount of DNA may be found in virtually any type of biological evidence.

For violent crimes, such evidence typically comes from blood or other bodily fluids.

Hair and skin cells left at the crime scene also may provide investigators with enough
DNA for testing purposes.

While DNA testing is not completely foolproof, it is more than 99% accurate (in fact,
there is only a one in one billion chance that the DNA of two individuals will match).

Typically, errors in testing are the result of mix-ups in the lab or the contamination of
samples.

TO CONVICT OR TO EXONERATE?
THAT IS THE QUESTION!
Often, physical evidence from a crime is kept. If the evidence includes samples of
blood, hair, skin, or other evidence that can include DNA, it can often be used to prove
that the person accused could not have committed the crime.

These individuals are frequently convicted on eyewitness testimony, but without any
physical evidence tying them to the crime.

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 THE DNA TESTING PROCESS

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 CHALLENGES OF FORENSIC DNA TESTING
TECHNOLOGY IN THE PHILIPPINES
The utility of forensic deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) analysis in resolving issues involving
the identification of individuals has long been recognized and accepted worldwide. The
Philippines is no exception.

There are presently three Philippine laboratories which have the capability to do forensic
DNA work involving kinship analysis, criminal investigation, and disaster victim
identification (DVI), namely:

DNA Analysis Laboratory at the Natural Sciences Research Institute, -University of the
Philippines Diliman (UPD-NSRI)

the Philippine National Police (PNP) Crime Laboratory, and the National Bureau of
Investigation (NBI) Crime Laboratory.

The first major challenge is the apparent lack of recognition of and support for the vital
role of forensic DNA in criminal investigation and DVI. This can be seen, among other
things, by the fact that Congress has not made the passing of a forensic DNA bill a
priority; that hundreds of sexual assault investigation kits collected from abused women
and children remain untested; and that the government has not released sufficient funds
for laboratories to analyze samples from mass disasters such as Tropical Storm Washi,
also known as Sendong, in 2011, Typhoon Pablo in 2012, and Super Typhoon Haiyan or
Yolanda in 2013.

The second major challenge that forensic DNA scientists face in the Philippines is the
mishandling of crime scene samples. Unfortunately, conducting crime scene
investigations and collecting evidence in the Philippines remain inadequate in a number
of cases, even after the promulgation of the Rule on DNA Evidence in 2007. Section 7 of
the Rule adopted the ruling in the case of People v. Vallejo,38 which outlined the
requirements in assessing the probative value of DNA Evidence. These requirements
include the need for crime scene investigators and law enforcement personnel to follow
“the chain of custody, including how biological samples were collected, how they were
handled, and the possibility of contamination of samples.

Failure to follow proper crime scene investigation procedures was evident when backhoes
were used during the retrieval of bodies in at least two relatively recent cases, namely,
the Maguindanao massacre in November 200940 and the Parojinog case in August
2014.

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 CHALLENGES OF FORENSIC DNA TESTING
TECHNOLOGY IN THE PHILIPPINES
In both cases, the use of backhoes fragmented the human remains, magnified the co-
mingling of body parts, and destroyed potential evidence that could have been recovered
if bodies were properly processed. Interestingly, the Maguindanao massacre was
considered as the “trial of the century” in 2009 because of the number of victims including
32 journalists who were ambushed on the road in broad daylight and dumped in mass
graves, and the identity of the suspects who belonged to one of the powerful political
clans in Maguindanao.42 More than eight years later, the case against the perpetrators
remains unresolved and the suspects continue to be incarcerated in a detention facility,
under tight security.

House bill seeks creation of PH DNA Database Analysis SystemBy Newsbytes.PH on

July 21, 2019Surigao del Norte representative Robert Ace Barbers has proposed to
institutionalize a national forensic DNA database in the country through the establishment
of the Philippine DNA Database Analysis System or PDDAS.A DNA database or DNA
databank is a database of DNA profiles which can be used in the analysis of genetic
diseases, genetic fingerprinting for criminology, or genetic genealogy.

DNA databases may be public or private, the largest ones being national DNA
databases.Credit: FDA.govHe explained that the most important function of a DNA
database is to produce matches between the suspected individual and crime scene bio-
makers.“It provides evidence to support criminal investigations which can lead to the
identity of potential suspect or suspects in criminal investigations,” Barbers said.He
further said that forensic DNA can also assist in the identification of missing persons or
unidentified human remains in times of accidents and calamities. Barbers said the DNA
technology in the country is largely used to establish paternity and other family
relationships.The bill defines the term “DNA” as a biochemical molecule found in the cells
and makes each species unique.

On the other hand, the term “DNA profile” refers to the genetic information from a forensic
DNA analysis.The measure defines DNA profiling or DNA typing as a process where a
minute sample of genetic DNA material is taken from a human tissue and is given a
computerized numeric value in the form of a “bar code.”The bill provides that the PDDAS,
which shall be the central repository of DNA profiles in the Philippines, shall contain the
forensic DNA profiles of persons classified in the following indices: crime scene index;
suspected persons index; convicted offenders index; detainee index; drugs dependent
index; missing persons index; voluntary index; uniformed personnel index; and
government employees index.

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 CHALLENGES OF FORENSIC DNA TESTING
TECHNOLOGY IN THE PHILIPPINES
As stated in the bill, the objective of the DNA Database is to establish, keep and maintain
a comprehensive National DNA database in order to perform comparative searches for
the following purposes:To serve as a tool for crime prevention and crime solution;To
identify person who might have been involved in the commission of an offense; exonerate
a person wrongly convicted of an offense;To prove the innocence or guilt of person
allegedly involved in the commission of an offense;To assist in the identification of
missing persons or unidentified human remains; orTo establish paternity and family
relations and genealogy.

The proposal provides for the establishment of the Philippine DNA Database Office
(PDDO) which shall manage the Philippine DNA Database Analysis System
(PDDAS).The PDDO shall be responsible for the general conduct, administration, and
management of the PDDAS and other functions.It shall be composed of three organic
personnel each from the Philippine National Police (PNP), National Bureau of
Investigation (NBI), Philippine Drug Enforcement Agency (PDEA) and the Armed Forces
of the Philippines.

The PDDAS and any information contained therein shall only be accessed by the
Philippine DNA Database Office. They shall only access the same purposes of
administering the database and comparing DNA profiles or information in the course of an
investigation conducted by any law enforcement agency.Any other law enforcement
agencies who may wish to access information in the PDDAS shall get prior clearance
from the PDDO.

The bill also provides for the establishment of a Philippine DNA Database System
Scientific Advisory Committee for the purposes of developing DNA testing database
quality assurance standards for DNA testing and databasing, including standards for
testing the proficiency of forensic laboratories and forensic analysts conducting forensic
DNA analysis.The PDDAS Scientific Advisory Committee shall be composed of a
maximum of 10 individuals scientifically qualified to understand, develop and adopt DNA
quality assurance standards, with representatives from the University of the Philippines –
Philippine General Hospital (UP-PGH) as chair and other government entities and
institutions actively engaged in forensic DNA testing and analysis as members.The bill
imposes the penalty of 12 years and one day imprisonment or a fine of not less that
P600,00, or both, at the discretion of the court for any person found guilty of tampering of
DNA samples and records. — Ma. Victoria Palomar (HoR)

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 CHALLENGES OF FORENSIC DNA TESTING
TECHNOLOGY IN THE PHILIPPINES
In 2016, National Geographic ran a story on the case of Sierra Bouzigard, a 19-year-old
from Louisiana, USA who was found beaten to death seven years prior. Although in the
fatal struggle Bouzigard managed to get some of her attacker’s tissue under her nails,
traditional methods of matching DNA to suspect failed to yield any result. Policemen were
stumped.With the collected DNA their only lead, the case analyst decided to take a
chance and send the evidence to Parabon Nanolabs, a company specializing in “DNA
phenotyping.” Using so-called single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs, pronounced
“snips”), which are variations in a single building block of DNA, Parabon promised to
conjure a rough likeness of the sample’s owner that would include certain physical
features and probable ethno-geographic ancestry.While the analysis of these
characteristics is in its relative infancy and not without controversy, its use in the
Bouzigard case highlighted the question of how much more science could contribute in
the pursuit of justice. If a broader variety of DNA markers could be simultaneously
analyzed to build on what current methods can accomplish, how much more sophisticated
could our power to discriminate and investigate become?That question is one of many
that the DNA Analysis Laboratory, Natural Sciences Research Institute, UP Diliman (DNA
Analysis Laboratory, NSRI-UPD) is currently trying to address. Using breakthrough
technology called “Next Generation Sequencing” (NGS), University research associates
Jazelyn M. Salvador and Dame Loveliness T. Apaga are now getting a first-hand glimpse
of the answers.

THE GOLD STANDARD

The laboratory, headed overall by Dr. Maria Corazon A. De Ungria, is no stranger to

breakthrough contributions. Its work was a major driver behind the approval by the
Supreme Court of the 2007 Rules on DNA Evidence that set terms and guidelines for the
conduct of DNA testing and its specific applications in Philippine courts.The technology
behind much of the team’s success to date is called capillary electrophoresis (CE). In
creating a DNA profile for any individual using this method, members of the team look at
what they call “short tandem repeats” (STRs). These are areas in the genome with
sequences of nucleotides, made up of combinations of nitrogen bases: (G)uanine,
(T)hymine, (A)denine and (C)ytosine. True to their name, STRs are sequences of these
bases that repeat a certain number of times with successive repeats being located next to
each other (i.e., TCGA-TCGA-TCGA…).The laboratory typically examines a person’s
DNA profile in 20 of these STR regions that are found across 22 so-called “autosomal”
chromosomes, as well as in the X and Y, or human sex chromosomes. In a sample like
blood or saliva, which has sufficient amounts of DNA, these pre-selected DNA regions or

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 CHALLENGES OF FORENSIC DNA TESTING
TECHNOLOGY IN THE PHILIPPINES
markers are amplified or “photocopied” via a process called the Polymerase Chain
Reaction or PCR.“After amplification,” Jazelyn says, “fragments of DNA are separated by
length via CE, where they migrate along an electric field through a tube separating anode
from cathode. Because of their size, smaller fragments can migrate from start to end
much faster.Fragments, distinguished by the number of repeats using a reference set, are
then detected by a laser via fluorescent tags. The result of this process is a person’s DNA
profile. As more STR regions are analyzed, the probability that two unrelated individuals
would have the same DNA profile on each DNA marker becomes increasingly
remote.Dame also spoke about how CE continues to be the gold standard for human
identification. “The system is stable and accurate, and is relatively easy to use for forensic
applications.” The technique, however, has its limits. Because of the relative length of
STRs, creating a suitable profile may not always be possible, especially with degraded
DNA. The latter situation is unfortunately all too common in disaster areas and in many
crime scenes.

NEXT GENERATION SEQUENCING

“That’s the advantage of Next Generation Sequencing (NGS), also known as Massively
Parallel Sequencing,” Dame continues, referring to the newest technology being validated
by the laboratory. “This technology enables a researcher to study and sequence several
markers simultaneously, thereby significantly increasing the amount of information that
can be mined from the sample.” In fact, NGS can be used to sequence an entire genome
at a relatively shorter time compared to more traditional procedures.The NGS project by
the Laboratory funded by DOST-PCHRD has for the most part used Illumina’s MiSeq FGx
Forensic Genomics System.

Using this platform, billions of short, single-stranded templates of DNA are attached to a
slide. Fluorescently-labeled nucleotides are added one by one to the templates, after
which a photo is taken that captures light from color-coded bases. The process is
repeated with these bases added one at a time until sequencing is complete.Jazelyn says
this technique allowed the team to simultaneously analyze not only STRs, but also SNPs.
In a paper published earlier this year, the team analyzed more than 200 markers from 143
unrelated Filipinos who volunteered to provide samples.

These DNA markers included 28 autosomal STRs, 24 STRs from the Y chromosome and
7 from the X chromosome, providing supplementary information that can be vital in
resolving complex kinship cases.

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 CHALLENGES OF FORENSIC DNA TESTING
TECHNOLOGY IN THE PHILIPPINES
Moreover, they were also able to analyze 173 SNPs, including 22 phenotypic informative
SNPs and 56 ancestry informative SNPs. “The purpose of ancestry SNPs is to determine
the bio-geographic lineage of individuals,” explains Dame. “If you test an individual, these
markers can predict whether one is likely to be Caucasian, East Asian, or from another
group based on reference population datasets.”“Phenotypic SNPs, on the other hand
determine externally visible characteristics. These characteristics include eye color, skin
color, and hair color,” Dame adds. Both SNPs, they say, might be extremely important in
cases that involve people that have crossed national boundaries, as in the 2004 Madrid
Bombing, and those who commit international crimes like human trafficking. In these
situations, DNA may provide the lead to aid investigation in the absence of other clues.

ASIAN-SPECIFIC MARKERS

Despite these findings, much work remains to be done before the technology can be used
routinely in the Philippines. Since many of the markers used to create DNA panels
originated from research that involved Europe and the US, the project aims to generate
the “Southeast Asian reference population database” that will be more useful for local law
enforcement agencies.

“We might find that many of the current DNA markers included in the panel are not useful
for the Philippine population,” Jazelyn said. Citing the case of China, which manufactures
DNA kits that better discriminate among the local population, she mentioned the
possibility of creating kits that are both cheaper and better suited to the region. “What our
population-based studies can do is maybe select the most useful markers and come up
with something more applicable to the country.”With the use of NGS, Jazelyn foresees an
even larger role for DNA in forensic investigations. “Usually,” she said, “we use DNA to
answer: Whom does this belong to? But with the discovery and existence of these SNPs,
we can use Asian-specific ones to narrow the field, prior to pinpointing identities.”Just a
year after the Sierra Bouzigard story ran on National Geographic, officers arrested a
suspect based on Parabon Nanolabs’ profile. As the DNA suggested (and contrary to
police speculation), the man was not Hispanic, but Caucasian. He had fair skin and blue-
green eyes. DNA later taken from an item he discarded finally matched the sample from
under Bouzigard’s nails. Police believe they have their man.

Does this case represent the future of forensic analysis in the country? With a little more
work, the answer seems to be “Yes.”

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 RELEVANT CASES DECIDED BY THE COURT
People of the Philippines vs. Victoriano Paras
Criminal Case Nos. 85974-85978
FACTS

Herein accused was charged with five counts of rape committed on various dates leading
to the birth of a child. The victim stated that she was raped by the accused on these
dates, namely: December 31, 1989, the first, second and fourth weeks of January 1990,
and first week of February 1990 and gave birth on November 8, 1990. The case was filed
on March 31, 1991.

However, the testimonies and the subsequent cross-examination of the victim and her
mother contained inconsistencies. In addition, the defense presented evidence that
showed the accused was not in Pasig during the period covered by the charges. The
defense also argued that the child was born ten (10) months after the last incident of the
supposed rape.

ISSUE

Whether or not he accused was indeed the father of the child

RULING

To determine whether the accused was indeed the father of the child, the Court ordered
the UP-NSRI DNA Analysis Laboratory to conduct DNA tests on the child, the victim and
the accused. Two weeks later, on the basis of mismatching DNA profiles at four out of five
STR markers tested, the accused was excluded from being the father of the child. The
results of the laboratory examination, the inconsistencies of the victim’s testimony as well
as other pieces of evidence presented by the defense in Court on the whereabouts of the
accused during the stated time and dates of incidences of rape ‘cast a very serious doubt
in the mind of the court as to the guilt of the accuse on the five incidences of rape filed
against him’.

The accused was subsequently acquitted and released. Nonetheless, the accused was
imprisoned and his petition for bail was denied while the case was being tried in court.
Thus, prior to acquittal, the accused had already been incarcerated for six years. In
contrast, DNA analysis that provided key evidence in this case was conducted within two
(2) weeks only.

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 ESSENTIAL ADMISSIBILITY REQUIREMENTS

1) The samples are different and therefore must have originated from different sources
(exclusion). This conclusion is absolute and requires no further analysis or discussion;

2) It is not possible to be sure, based on the results of the test, whether the samples have
similar DNA types (inconclusive). This might occur for a variety of reasons including
degradation, contamination, or failure of some aspect of the protocol. Various parts of the
analysis might then be repeated with the same or a different sample, to obtain a more
conclusive result;

3) The samples are similar, and could have originated from the same source (inclusion).
In such a case, the samples are found to be similar, the analyst proceeds to determine
the statistical significance of the Similarity.

In assessing the probative value of DNA evidence, therefore, courts should consider,
among others things, the following data: how the samples were collected, how they were
handled, the possibility of contamination of the samples, the procedure followed in
analyzing the samples, whether the proper standards and procedures were followed in
conducting the tests, and the qualification of the analyst who conducted the tests.

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 REFERENCES

Maria Corazon A. De Ungria, et al., Overview of Forensic Services by the UPD-NSRI

DNA Analysis Laboratory, ACTA MEDICA PHILIPPINA, Volume No. 42, Issue No. 2,
at 34-38.

Break Through Of TechnologyForensics 2.0 comes to the PhilippinesJanuary 12, 2018

| Written by Andre DP Encarnacion

U.S. National Library of Medicine: https://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/primer/basics/dna

http://philjournalsci.dost.gov.ph/images/pdf/pjs_pdf/vol132no1/pdf/forensic_DNA_analy
sis.pdf

https://www.academia.edu/2000130/Forensic_DNA_analysis_in_criminal_investigation

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK232615/: National Center for Biotechnology

Information (NCBI) is part of the United States National Library of Medicine (NLM)

An Introduction to Forensic DNA Analysis, 2nd Edition

Biometrics: Personal Identification in Networked Society

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK232607/: The Evaluation of Forendic DNA

Evidence | Statistical Issues

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK232607/: The Evaluation of Forendic DNA

Evidence | DNA Evidence in the Legal System

DNA as an Exoneration Tool: https://criminal.findlaw.com/criminal-procedure/dna-as-

an-exoneration-tool.html

https://oig.justice.gov/special/0405/chapter2.htm: The FBI DNA Laboratory: A Review

of Protocol and Practice Vulnerabilities | Office of the Inspector General

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