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The Violin in The Arab Musical Tradition-History and GDGD Tuning
The Violin in The Arab Musical Tradition-History and GDGD Tuning
September 2011
In the beginning, I would like to thank all of those who have supported me
throughout my dissertation process. I am heartily thankful to my supervisor,
Meredith White, whose encouragement; supervision and support from beginning to
end enabled me to develop an understanding for the subject.
I would also like to thank professors Tim Ewers, Helen Minor and Jane Masters
for their constructive comments and many useful discussions.
I owe my deepest gratitude to Mr. Abdallah Nazek, whom without I could not
be writing this acknowledgment now.
It would have been next to impossible to write this thesis without the help
and encouragement of Miss Hind Sabanekh.
Also to Mr. Adolfo Hernández, for helping me in recording and editing the
music on the enclosed audio CD.
iii
Grateful acknowledgement for proofreading and correcting the English
edition to Meredith White and Hind Sabanekh.
Love and thanks to my beloved deceased father Amer Madi who used to
guide me and taught me the recesses of Arab Music. In addition to, my mother
Nabeela Madi and Mr. Mohammed Amr for helping me in gathering the resources
and for their continuous support and love. Finally, Miss Dalia Alshaer, Mr. Ramy
Shaheen and all my friends in the United Kingdom and Jordan for their patience and
support throughout the academic year, I could not have done it without you all!
Obeida Madi
iv
Table of Contents
Acknowledgment iii
Table of Contents v
List of Figures vi
List of Tracks vii
Introduction 1
v
List of Figures
vi
List of Tracks
vii
Introduction
cultivated style characterized by its uniqueness. However, “musical life [in that
region]… is largely in the realm of oral tradition where individuals learn music
by hearing it and being taught without written notation”, as Bruno Nettl (1964,
presented various aspects of Arab music regarding the theory, its history and
the instruments used; however, they have not addressed a number of issues
associated with the practical aspects such as the application of the modal
As a violinist who performs both classical and Arab music, I see that
the violin in Arab music, since it suffers from lack of literature and practical
methodologies, a part from a few promising attempts. So far, there has been
little discussion about the Arab Violin Tuning (GDgd) in either Arab or western
literature.
This paper has been divided into four chapters. The first chapter is a
the application of the music on the violin, and the musical instruments of the
Arab music. While the second chapter deals with the violin in Arab music,
exploring its emergence, the tuning, learning it, and its role in Arab music. For
1
better understanding of the reasons behind the use of the tuning, the third
chapter has been devoted to explaining different aspects regarding the Arab
music theory. Finally, the fourth chapter clarifies my conclusions about the
During the past thirty years, much more information has become
available on the Arab Violin Tuning (GDgd). However, the sources merely
mention the violin as a part of Arab ensembles, list the tunings used in Arab
music, and provide little information about who introduced the violin into
Arab music and when. Therefore, in order to ensure the integrity of the raised
2
1. Arab Musical Life: A Historical Overview
may sound strange for the inexperienced ear since it is based on a modal
according to the taste, emotion or effect desired (Touma, 1996, & Farmer,
1915).
Different readings show that the Arab musical tradition has been based
the Arab tradition (Touma, 1996, p xx). Arab music has been associated with
poetry and words throughout its history (Touma, 1996, p xvii). However,
The earliest roots of the musical life of the Arabs originate from the
Arab Peninsula during the Pre-Islamic period in the sixth century AD (Touma,
1996, p1). The musical life of that epoch was distinguished by two singing
styles based on the traditional poetry; the singing of the Bedouin nomads1
and the sedentary population (Touma, 1996, p2). That of the sedentary
1
this style is limited in pitch and unaccompanied, usually sung to entertain the travelers in
addition to dirges, love and war songs (Touma, 1996, p2)
3
population defined by the qanyah2 (singular, plural: qyaan,) whose voice and
The qyaan singing depicted the generality of Arab musical life and led
maintained its influence into the ninth century after the appearance of Islam
(Touma, 1996, p3-4). It is thought that Arab musicians in that period probably
had transformed the singing style they had borrowed from the Persians and
decades of Islam which started in approximately 632 AD. After the emergence
of Islam the Arabic language started to be used for the names of musical
instruments, and for other musical terminologies, not only for the lyrics of
songs (Touma, 1996, p6). At the time of the Umayyad reign from
singing tradition was created originally from the Hijaz3 that was a musical
center of the Arab empire and the source of excellent singers. Those singers
ensembles. Therefore, the great singers were able to establish an Arab vocal
2
a singer and servant, whose duty was to entertain the guests with songs, pouring wine and
eroticism in the Eros houses or palaces of rich people (Touma, 1996, p.2)
3
a specific region in the Arab Peninsula (Touma, 1996, p 5).
4
school that taught the popular style of singing that time, defined later as the
and gathered the music of their time. Further information about the quality of
the sound could not be gathered from the written evidence, since the
contemporary theory of Arab music has been handed down orally, therefore
1996, p.10-11).
in the eighth and early ninth centuries. However, it lost its position during the
first half of the ninth century because of the rising of a new musical
Persian music enriched the classical singing of Hijaz with new musical
elements that probably still set the tone of Arab music (Touma, 1996, p 9).
From that time onwards, singers began to free themselves from the limitation
modes that could not accommodate the local practice (Danielson and Fisher,
actual practice occurred, the most original and important of these come from
the ninth to thirteenth century and are associated with names such as al-Kindi
(d. 874) , al-Farabi (d. 950) and Ibn Sina (d.1037) (Touma, 1996, p.10-11). Their
5
ideas have been transmitted to a number of Middle Eastern societies;
therefore, many musicians from that area claim the same theories as their
own, such as Arabs, Turks, and Persians despite their different languages and
social histories (Danielson and Fisher, 2002, p.16). Those scholars systemized
information about modes; analyzed rhythmic patterns and meters which were
The most accomplished of all is al-Farabi, who chose the Oud, his own
instrument, to bring theory and practice together with “a keen ear” (Danielson
and Fisher, 2002, p.16). The Oud is an important instrument in the Arab
musical tradition (Danielson and Fisher, 2002, p.16), and modern musicologists
continue to address the Oud in serving theoretical issues regarding the modal
between the eleventh and fifteenth centuries, the influence of Turkish and
change occurred to the Eastern Arab musical culture from the beginning of
the sixteenth century until the beginning of the twentieth century after the
6
Since the end of the nineteenth century, the Arab world has
Iraq, Levant4, Egypt, the Arab Peninsula, and North Africa5 (Touma, 1996, p14).
used and their content (Touma, 1996, p 15). On the other hand, many aspects
of music are the same in all Arab countries; such as the modal system
the entire area of the mashriq share the same application of the modal system
4
Including Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, and Palestinian Territories.
5
Including Algeria, Libya, Morocco, Tunisia, and Western Sahara.
7
instigators of the new Arab musical school 6(Touma, 1996, p 13). Those
musicians have studied the modal system (Maqamat) in order to read the
Koran7 and to give the call to prayer and afterwards became composers,
singers, and teachers of vocal traditions and theories i (interview: Amer Madi,
2008).
Since the early twentieth century, Egypt has become the prime center
of Arab musical attraction and its culture has disseminated throughout the
Arab world (Jones, 2002, p.432). It is the gate that connects Arab countries by
sharing their musical culture (Jones, 2002, p.432). Cairo was the host of the
pivotal Congress of Arab Music under the patronage of The Arab Society for
Music of the League of Arab States in 1932, during which a substantial part of
scholars (Jones, 2002, p.433 & interview: Amer Madi, 2008). Emerging media
such as gramophone, film and later, local television and radio broadcast have
during that period (Jones, 2002, p.432). On the other hand, many Egyptian
ensembles toured different parts of the Arab world inspiring local artists with
Egyptian musical culture, which led to the merging of these two cultures that
helped in inlaying and shaping the urban taste as in Jordan for example
6
among them ‘Abdo al-Hamuli and Mohammed ‘Uthman, abu al’ella Mohamed, Zakaryya
Ahmed and Sayyed Darweesh.
7
the holy book of Islam.
8
1.2 Musical Instruments of the Arab Music
the region (Hassan, 2002, p.401). In the twentieth century, performers began
to change this status and liberate Arab instruments from their historical
association with voice. However, those trends could not change the
(Chordophones) among which oud8, buzuq9, qanoun (kanoun)10 and violin. The
kawala which are wooden flutes. The third category is rhythmic instruments
Oud, qanoun and nay are symbols of Arab musical culture, those which
have been given the main role of solo improvisation and are essential
sets of percussion and latterly a violin. Those instruments are part of al-firqa
8
an unfretted short-necked lute with five to fix double strings, played with a plectrum.
9
a fretted long-necked lute with five to four to five double strings, played with a plectrum.
10
a board zither with about twenty six triple strings, played with two plectra attached to rings
worn on the index finger of each hand.
11
a small tambourine.
12
are single-skin frame drums with different diameter.
13
a double-headed frame drum.
14
a kettledrum.
15
a single headed portable drum.
9
al-arabyyah, that is an enlarged orchestra consisting of takht sharqi, violins,
cellos, and a double bass. However, modern Arab composers in the late
twentieth and twenty first century have introduced these instruments into
violin, viola, cello and double bass because they sound like local instruments
and could be recruited to imitate the local music. (Hassan, 2002, p.420) The
violin among other strings established a firm place in Arab music (Hassan,
2002, p.421).
In the next chapter, I will explore the emergence of the Arab violin
specifically in al-mashriq, the tuning used, learning the Arab violin, and the
10
2. The Violin in Arab music
The violin (Kaman or Kamanjah) was adopted widely into the Arab
instrument. However, the tuning of the violin’s open strings has been modified
to the intervals; fifth, fourth and fifth (GDgd) instead of three consecutive fifths
says that this tuning is the most suitable tuning for the application of the
(Abdel Rahman, 1986, p.30). Moreover, there are a number of famous and
I will particularly explore the Arab violin in al-mashriq (the eastern part
of the Arab world) where the violin is held as in western music in contrast to
al-maghrib (the western part of the Arab world), where the violin playing
position is inverted so that the sound box end rests on the knee rather than
16
among them Ahmed Al-hifnawi (1910s-?), Anwar Mansi (1922-1961), Mahmoud Al-gersha
(1948-1999), Abdo Dagher (1936), Sa’ad Mohamed Hassan in Egypt; Abboud Abd Al-aall (1935-
2009) in Syria, Khaled Mohamed Ali in Iraq; and Antoine Sha’moon (1952), George Jubrail
known as George As’ad (1975), Feras Hattar (1969) Abed Dukhan (1969) and Yarub Smairat
(1988) in Jordan.
11
two-string fiddle-like instrument that used to be in the takht prior the violin
the Congress on Arab Music in 1932 (Tnnous, 2006 & Jubrail, 2010), the time
of its emergence in the Arab musical culture is not clear. Sources agree that
performers who originally come from Aleppo (Syria) have utilized the violin in
Arab music in Egypt since the end of the nineteenth century. However, there is
Yousif Tnnous (2006, p.27) affirms that in 1865, Senior Antoine Al-
shawwa introduced the violin to the takht. While a few years later, Sami Al-
Contemporary Arab Violin School, became known as the first introducer of the
While Mohammed Ibrahim (1984, p.14) alleges that the violin was firstly
taught violin to Sami Al-shawwa who latterly became well known as the
Since the emergence of the violin in the Arab Takht, the instrument has
been set to different tasweyyat (tunings). However, political, social and artistic
12
conditions that the Arab region particularly in al-mashriq has gone through
could have reflected on the use of the instrument especially after the
Ottoman’s occupation (Abdel Rahman, 1986, p.25). The different tunings used
1. Western Tuning:
The violin in western music is a string instrument with four strings tuned in
tuning used by students who are learning the basic techniques of violin
1986, p.25).
Western tuning is valued for its brilliant tone and its wide range of
who play Arab music prefer western tuning since they became accustomed to
it, achieving a high level of technical skill which enables them to express music
freely. Nevertheless, many still use the GDgd tuning because it gives a
13
George Jubrail (2010, p.143) says that those who have advanced technical
skills do not care what tuning is being used especially since the role of the
violin has changed in the last few years, from a heterophonic doubling of the
2. Turkish Tuning:
The four strings are tuned in perfect consecutive fifths with a perfect fourth
between the two upper strings, G3 D4 A4 D5 (Abdel Rahman, 1986, p.27). This
tuning has been used during the Ottoman colonization of al-mashriq that
the Arab performers could not maintain it since it does not fit into the
structure of the modal system (maqamat) they use (Abdel Rahman, 1993, p.1).
The four strings are tuned in perfect fifth and consecutive perfect fourths,
G3 D4 G4 C5 (Abdel Rahman, 1986, p.28). This tuning was popular in the takht
14
at the end of the nineteenth and the beginning of the twentieth centuries
(Abdel Rahman, 1986, p.28). Hassan al-jaheli and Ibrahim al-salhoon are
among the first musicians who used the GDgc Arab tuning (Abdel Rahman,
1986, p.28).
It is the most popular and vivid tuning and often called the Egyptian
tuning (Abdel Rahman, 1986, p.30). The four strings are tuned to a perfect
p.29). Later in this paper, I will talk about why the performers prefer this
tuning.
Music (2007, p.345) in Cairo, scholars confirmed the necessity of studying the
violin through western classical methods with western tuning. Learning violin
in most of the Arab music curriculum often depends on western classical violin
15
never played or been educated on the classical tuning, among them Abdo
George Jubrail (2010, p.6) affirms that studying western methods makes
benefit from; yet the performer must maintain the identity of the Arab music.
Anwar Mansi, Abboud Abd Al-aall and Mahmoud Al-gersha have benefited
learn the style of performing Arab music on the violin. As Amr Abdel Rahman
(1986, p.9) observes, a classically educated performer would find that Arab
music needs fewer technical skills than western classical music and it requires
lines with ornaments, slides, trills, wide vibrato, and double stops, and often
with Feras Hattar (2011), he claims that a violinist would learn those
different Arab instruments, not only violin, spending a long time with an
16
2.4 The Role of the Violin in Arab Music
The violin has had a central role in Arab music ensembles since its
and vocal music, preludes and interludes as a part of a song (Tnnous, 2006,
p.30).
performers merely follow a musical score (Touma, 1996, 39), as they memorize
the vocal part then enhance the line by improvising embellishments using
different techniques (Jubrail, 2010, p. 136). Moreover, the violin and the other
takht instruments are often tuned a semitone or a whole tone lower to suit
for violin (Tnnous, 2006, p.30). Famous works for violin include; a number of
compositions for Abdo Dagher (1936) among them Al-nile, Longa Nahawand
last decade the violin has taken on an accompanying role. The accompanying
17
comparison to the vocal line (Jubrail, 2010, p. 153). However, violinists
performing these lines are often classically educated who have achieved high
skills and techniques, at the same time gained familiarity with the modal
bands that combine Arab music with jazz, rock and roll, or rap in the last
Smairat, 2011).
After presenting the central importance of the violin in Arab music and
of Arab Music Theory. The next chapter will be devoted to an overview of this
theory, including the rules that govern practical techniques, and strategies of
18
3. Arab Music Theory
explaining the modal system (Maqamat) used in Arab music. However, the
institutions and can be found in recently published theory books. The theory
Beside the flat, sharp and natural notes, many maqamat (modes)
between two semitones and the intonation of the same quartertone may vary
with each maqam (mode) (Farraj, 2007). These quartertones are referred to by
using accidentals, the most common are the half-flat sign (nisf bemol) ( ) for
the notes falling between a note and its corresponding flat or the half-sharp
sign (nisf diyaz) ( ) for the notes falling between a note and its corresponding
sharp. Moreover, these symbols are usually used in the key signature just as in
19
Figure(3.1.1) Quartertones. (figure 3, Marcus, 2002, p.35)
Each note in Arab music has a specific Persian name that differs from
Since each tone is divided into four quarters, every quarter carries a new name
often used in naming the maqamat and the ajnas. In classical music,
enharmonic tones are tones that have the same pitch but different letter
names. In Arab music, enharmonic tones have the same pitch and the same
name; G-sharp and A-flat For instance, are named Qarar Husar. Nevertheless,
there is an exception for every rule; F-sharp and G-flat are the only notes that
do not share the same name because their pitch is slightly different
A A3 Oushayran A4 Husaini
B B 3 Ouraq B 4 Awj
B B3 Kawasht B4 Mahour
D D 4 Zerkolah D 5 Shahinaz
20
D D4 Dokah D5 Muhayyar
E E 4 Kord E 5 Sunbula
E E 4 Seka E 5 Bazork
F F4 Jaharkah F5 Mahouran
Figure(3.1.2): the Persian nomenclatures for the notes most used. (Madi, 2011)
chords (Marcus, 2007, p.16). However, the melodic aspect of that musical
17 18
culture is either monophonic or heterophonic (Marcus, 2002 & 2007), for
In contrast to western music, where the whole tone is divided into two
half tones, a tone in Arab music is divided into four quarters. There are four
types of melodic intervals (al-bo’d al-sawti): the whole tone containing four
quarters, the quartertone containing three quarters, the half tone containing
two quarters, and the augmented tone containing six quarters (Mohamed,
17
a single melodic line.
18
a single melodic line presented by different instruments playing simultaneously with a slight
different execution of the melodic line.
21
Figure (3.2.1): Whole tone (Mohamed, 1984, p 5).
Jinss (plural ajnas) comes from the Latin word "genus," meaning
variations such as tones, half tones, quartertones and augmented tones. Ajnas
are the foundation elements which set up the Arab Maqam for which a
22
1. Tabe’ (trichords): a sequence of three notes consisting of a sum of seven
The nine main ajnas In Arab music that construct the main nine maqamat:
A sequence of four notes which start with a whole tone followed by two
19
A series of four notes that form the intervals of whole tone, whole tone, half tone, with the
top and bottom notes forming the interval of a perfect fourth or a four-note scale (Ammer,
2004, p.426-7).
23
Figure(3.3.2): Jinss Bayati (Mohamed, 1984, p 14). [CD Track 02]
notes which start with a whole tone, half tone followed by a whole tone.
The ajam tetrachord sounds similar to the first four notes of a Major
scale in western classical music. A sequence of four notes which start with
1984, p 15).
24
5. Jinss Kurd (tetrachords)
It took its name from the E-flat (Kurd) which differentiates it from the
Bayati. A sequence of four notes which start with a half tone followed by
It took its name from the F-sharp (Hijazz) which differentiates it from
Kurd and Bayati. It is a sequence of four notes which start with a half tone,
It took its name from the G-flat (Saba) which differentiates it from
25
Figure(3.3.7): Jinss Saba (Mohamed, 1984, p 15). [CD Track 07]
It took its name from the E-half flat (Seka). However, it consists of a
Jinss Nahawand and a Jinss Hijazz. It is a sequence of five notes which start
with a whole tone, a half tone, an augmented tone followed by a half tone.
Figure(3.3.9): Eqd Nawa Athar (Mohamed, 1984, p 16). [CD Track 09]
26
Moreover, each Jinss has a specific root position that may occur in a
Bayati has its root position on D; it also may occur commonly on G and C.
These transpositions -which will be clarified later on in this chapter- are used
Each maqam is created by joining two main ajnas called the Lower Jinss
(Jinss al-‘asel) and Upper Jinss (Jinss al-fere’). The lower jinss is used to group
or classify the maqam in a family titled after the jinss’s name or the tonic of
and melodic structure associated with specific moods, tone colours, etc.
(Marcus, 2007, p.18). However, a maqam is a mode set of two main ajnas;
lower and upper along with other ajnas called secondary ajnas, which overlap
ii
them, and can be utilized during modulation (Mohamed, 1984, p.19-20)
(Farraj, 2007).
For musicians, modes are generally understood by the way they occur in
those recordings are old or new. Ali Jihad Racy (1976, 1977) observes that
27
accidentals that give a special characteristic to the motif; or common or less
There are nine main maqamat based on the main nine ajnas. While each
maqam has a unique character which conveys a mood, similar to the mood
which a major or minor scale sets, even though that mood is subjective
1. Maqam Rast
2. Maqam Bayati
3. Maqam Nahawand
classical music.
28
4. Maqam Ajam
The Ajam is the typical B-flat major scale in western classical music.
5. Maqam Kurd
6. Maqam Hijazz
harmonic minor perfect fifth below). It sounds like double harmonic major
scale in western classical music, which is the natural major but with a
7. Maqam Saba
Maqam Saba is an exception since it ends on D-flat that is not the same
29
Figure(3.4.7): Maqam Saba (Mohamed, 1984, p 31). [CD Track 16]
8. Maqam Seka
9. Maqam Nikrez
classical music. Moreover, the double harmonic minor is the natural minor but
terms of modes with a recognized tonic pitch (Marcus, 2002, p.38). It can be
transposed when needed to fit the register of the singer or to vary the mood
iii
.
20
some theorists mention Maqam Nawa Athar as the ninth maqam (Farraj, 2007). That is the
same mode without raising the B-flat whilst the secondary jinss becomes Jinss Kurd instead of
Jinss hijazz.
30
Generally, the upper jinss starts from a note called ghammaz (the
dominant note) which on the contrary to western classical music does not
mean the fifth note in a scale but rather dominant as in powerful being the
second most important note in the maqam after the qarar (tonic). The
ghammaz serves as the pivot note during modulation, and it could be the
fourth note of the maqam like in Bayati, Hijaz and Kurd or the fifth like in Rast,
Take notice that G4 is the common connecting note that links the
upper jinss and the lower jinss in some maqamat or the note that the upper
recognized as one of the most important aspects of Arab modal practice, the
subject has been all but ignored in written Arab music theory.” Further, he
adds, “With few exceptions, theorists over the centuries have concentrated on
describing the modes as individual and distinct entities rather than discussing
tahwil, and taghyir, which translate to; to shift, to relocate, or to transfer from
one to another.
31
Modulation is a very important technique that shows the true richness
and beauty of the maqam system. However, it requires a lot of experience and
knowledge of the Arab music theory along with a musical performing artistry
(Farraj, 2007 & Marcus, 1992). Nevertheless, rules that govern modulation in
practical realms exist most commonly in oral traditions rather than written
another. The new jinss may start on the same note (common-tone
2007 & Marcus, 1992). These shifts could happen suddenly, gradually, or by a
the transitions to which one can modulate, Marcus (1992, p.175) describes
each maqam as “a part of a fabric” that includes all the maqamat, and a
The simplest and the most common way to modulate is to develop the
upper jinss of the maqam through the ghammaz (Farraj, 2007 & Mohamed,
1984 & Marcus, 1992). You can establish a modulation on Maqam Rast by
32
shifting Jinss Rast to Jinss Kurd in the upper jinss for example. However, there
on changing the upper jinss and keeping the same lower jinss (Marcus, 1992,
p.176).
For example:
Lower Jinss Rast on C, Upper Jinss Rast on G (Maqam Rast). [CD Track 19]
These combinations are what we call the (Rast Family), and each of the
lower Jinss Rast on C4 and upper Jinss Hijazz on G4 is called Maqam Rast
33
On the other hand, modulation would be achieved by keeping the
upper jinss and replacing the lower jinss with another one of the same type.
2007). For instance, replacing the lower Jinss Hijazz in Maqam Hijazz with Jinss
which starts on the same tonic by replacing a jinss with another one that
differs only by a note. As in Maqam Kurd and Maqam Bayati for example,
where the second note of the tetrachord is different; the E flat and the E half-
the other, although it is common to return to the first Maqam unless the
other words, Shiloah (1981) writes, "a skilled musician distinguishes himself by
excelling in the modulatory progressions that allow him to move away from
34
Now that the foundations of Arab music theory have been presented, I
will discuss in the next chapter analytical concepts that exist mainly in oral
rather than written realms, about the use of the Arab violin tuning and
35
4. The Reasons for the Use of GDgd Tuning
reasons behind using the Arab violin tuning (GDgd) could be divided into
The oud, as the most important instrument in Arab music, could have
influenced the structure of tuning used for the Arab violin, since the oud is
tuned in perfect fourths between the upper four strings (FADGC or GADGC)
(interview: Amer Madi, 2008). However, Ibn Al-munajim, a scholar from the
tenth century, observed that the old four-stringed oud used to be tuned in
(ADGC) (Shawqi, 1976), which is close to the old Arab violin tuning (GDGC)
that has been adjusted into the current GDgd tuning to accommodate the
musical structure of Arab music. Perhaps the first violinists might have
borrowed the oud performing techniques since the violin lacked its own
A number of sources assert that the violin was derived from the rebab21,
and to other sources assert that the rebab replaced the violin in the Arab
takht. Although none of these sources determines the tuning that was used
for the rebab, it seems likely that the earliest violinists may have tuned the
21
an old two-string fiddle-like instrument
36
upper two strings in G and D to resemble the tuning of the rebab assuming
The theory of Arab music is closely associated with the use of the Arab
common ghammaz in seven of the nine main maqamat (see: Maqam Bayati,
Hijaz, Kurd, Rast, Nahawand, Ajam and Nikrez in chapter three). It is the pivot
note during modulation and a port to create new maqam families (see:
The maqamat are often presented with a stationary tonic pitch that
could be applied more fluently to the Arab tuning as in Maqam Bayati when
transposed in G for example, since the A-half-flat is applied on the first finger
on the first position rather than playing it with the second finger on the third
Figure(4.2.1): fingering used on western tuning – Amer Madi, Samaai Zarafat, an excerpt from
37
Figure(4.2.2): fingering used on GDgd tuning – Amer Madi, Samaai Zarafat, an excerpt from
most of the maqamat are based on key signatures with flats and/or half-flats,
which make the application of the maqamat with three or four flats more
fluent, especially those with half-flats. In other words, quartertones are more
in tune and freely embellished when played with the first or second finger in
Khaled Mohamed Ali (interview, 2011) claims, motifs and tunes in Arab
music rarely exceed the octave, which could be because of the limited register
in other takht instruments (Farraj, 2007). Gamil (interview, 2010) confirms Ali
and adds; this tuning provides the opportunity to perform the same motif an
octave higher or lower using the same fingering presenting an identical style
Figure(4.2.3): original pitch – Amer Madi, Samaai Zarafat, bar 1. [CD Track 27]
38
Figure(4.2.4): octave higher with the same fingering and embellishments – Amer Madi,
Samaai Zarafat, bar 1. [CD Track 28]
associated with the timbre of the instrument. The majority of the interviewees,
upper two strings are tuned to G and D, the strings are loosened. This makes
resonant.
39
Conclusion and Future Debates
The violin was adopted and adapted from the western musical heritage
and has become a crucial part of Arab music, a pillar in the Arab takht since
the end of the nineteenth century. Its tuning has gone through several
sculpting its character until it settled on the Arab tuning of GDgd. However, as
tuning on the resonance and timbre of the instrument from the physical
40
Appendix
i The modal system (Maqamat) used in singing has been infused in Muslims
acts of worship throughout history although it is forbidden in some cases. The athan
(call to prayer) for instance has been associated with music since the mo’athen (the
one who gives the call) uses the fixed text of the call with his own interpretation of
the melodic line (Marcus, 2007, p.13). Moreover, music is integrated in the tajwid (The
recitation of Koran) that is a melodic reading for the verses of the Koran (the holy
book of Islam) that should be executed with attention to the meaning of the text;
therefore, a reciter’s musical artistry is important because it engages the listeners
more fully and emotionally in the significance of the text (Daves, 2002, p158&160).
iii The names of the makamat change when transposed to other tonics such as
in Maqam Yakah, which is the same as Maqam Rast but starting from G3 or the
maqam might be named after the tonic it starts from as in Maqam Rast Sol for
example.
41
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