Geotextile

 Geotextile is a synthetic permeable textile material used to improve the soil

characteristics.
 It has the ability to separate, filter, reinforce, protect and drain when used in association
with soils.
 Geotextiles are ideal materials for many infrastructure works such as roads, harbours,
landfills, drainage structures, and other civil projects.

Fig 1: Uses of Geotextile in various places

Types of Geotextile
Geotextiles are made up of polymers such as polyester or polypropylene. They are divided
into 3 categories on the basis of the way they are prepared:
1) Woven Fabric Geotextiles
2) Non-Woven Geotextiles
3) Knitted Geotextiles
1. Woven Fabric Geotextile

Commonly found geotextiles are of the woven type and are manufactured by adopting the
techniques which are similar to weaving usual clothing textiles. This type has the characteristic
appearance of two sets of parallel threads or yarns. The yarn running along the length is called
warp and the one perpendicular is called weft. (As shown in the figure below)

Fig 2: Woven Geotextile.

2. Non-Woven Geotextile

Non-woven geotextiles are manufactured from either continuous filament yarn or short
staple fiber. The bonding of fibers is done using thermal, chemical or mechanical techniques
or a combination of techniques.

Fig 3: Non-Woven Geotextile.

Geo-fibers obtained from mechanical interlocking or chemical or thermal bonding have a

thickness of 0.5-1 mm while chemically bonded non-wovens are comparatively thick usually
in the order of 3 mm.
3. Knitted Geotextile

Knitted geotextiles are manufactured by the process of interlocking a series of loops of yarn
together. All of the knitted geosynthetics are formed by using the knitting technique in
conjunction with some other method of geosynthetics manufacture, such as weaving.

Fig 4: Knitted Geotextile.

Apart from these three geotextiles, other geosynthetics used are geonets, geogrids, geo-cells,
geomembranes, geocomposites, etc. each having their own distinct features and uses for special
applications.
 Functions of Geotextiles
The mode of operation of a geotextile in any application is defined by six discrete functions:

Fig 5: Functions of Geotextiles.

1. Separation

The separation function of geotextile is majorly used in the construction of roads. Geotextile
prevents the intermixing of two adjacent soils. For example, by separating fine subgrade soil
from the aggregates of the base course, the geotextile preserves the drainage and the strength
characteristics of the aggregate material.

Some of the applicable areas are:

o Between subgrade and stone base in unpaved and paved roads and airfields.

o Between subgrade in railroads.

o Between landfills and stone base courses.

o Between geomembranes and sand drainage layers.

2. Filtration

The equilibrium of geotextile-to-soil system that allows for adequate liquid flow with limited
soil loss across the plane of the geotextile. Porosity and permeability are the major properties
of geotextiles which involve infiltration action.

A common application illustrating the filtration function is the use of a geotextile in a pavement
edge drain, as shown in the figure above.
 3. Reinforcement

Introduction of geotextile in the soil increases the tensile strength of the soil the same amount
steel does in concrete. The strength gain in soil due to the introduction of geotextile is by the
following 3 mechanisms:

o Lateral restraint through interfacial friction between geotextile and soil/aggregate.

o Forcing the potential bearing surface failure plane to develop an alternate higher shear strength
surface.

o Membrane type of support of the wheel loads.

4. Sealing

A layer of non-woven geotextile is impregnated in between existing and new asphalt layers.
The geotextile absorbs asphalt to become a waterproofing membrane minimising vertical flow
of water into the pavement structure.

Uses of Geotextile in Construction

The scope of geotextile in the engineering field is very vast. The application of geotextile is
given under the heading of the nature of work.

1. Road Work

Geotextiles are widely used in the construction of the road. It reinforces the soil by adding
tensile strength to it. It is used as a rapid de-watering layer in the roadbed, the geotextiles need
to preserve its permeability without losing its separating functions.

Fig 6: Use of Geotextile in road construction.

2. Railway Works

The woven fabrics or the non-woven ones are used to separate the soil from the sub-soil without
impeding the groundwater circulation where the ground is unstable. Enveloping individual
layers with fabric prevents the material from wandering off sideways due to shocks and
vibrations from running trains.

Fig 7: Use of Geotextile in railways.

3. Agriculture

It is used for mud control. For the improvement of muddy paths and trails those used by cattle
or light traffic, nonwoven fabrics are used and are folded by overlapping to include the pipe or
a mass of grit.

4. Drainage

The use of geotextiles to filter the soil and a more or less single size granular material to
transport water is increasingly seen as a technically and commercially viable alternative to the
conventional systems. Geotextiles perform the filtering mechanism for drainages in earth dams,
in roads and highways, in reservoirs, behind retaining walls, deep drainage trenches, and
agriculture.
 Fig 8: Use of Geotextile in drain construction.

5. River, Canals and Coastal Works

Geotextiles protect river banks from erosion due to currents or lapping. When used in
conjunction with natural or artificial enrockments, they act as a filter.

Fig 9: Use of Geotextile in canal construction.

Geotextile Testing: In order to determine if a geotextile material is suitable for a particular

application it must undergo appropriate mechanical testing procedures. The most common
forces a geotextile experiences during its application are tensile and puncture. Each of these
forces can cause the premature failure of a geotextile and lead to catastrophic events.
Test on Geotextile

Common Test Methods: The most common geotextile testing methods

are wide widthtensile testing, puncture and puncture resistance testing,
and tensile grab testing. Each method requires a specific setup and is
used to evaluate different characteristics of the material. A wide width
tensile test is a common tensile test in which a rectangular test sample
is placed into a tensile testing machine so that each end is held in a grip
and then the grips are moved apart so that the sample is loaded in
tension until rupture. However, for geotextiles the sample is generally
designed to be wider than it is long, because during its application large sections of the material
will be subjected to tensile forces.

Puncture and puncture resistance testing measures the geotextiles ability to withstand the
penetration of sharp or point objects such as sticks, twigs, pipes or poles.A grab test is very
similar to a tensile test in that it is designed to measure the reaction of the material as it is
essentially stretched; however the key difference is that instead of loading the material
vertically it is loaded horizontally.

Geotextile Testing Specimens: Geotextile test specimens are

generally simple to make as they are usually just squares or
rectangles cut straight from the material. Depending on the test that
will be performed on it the sample will be somewhere between two
to eight inches wide and four to eight inches long. Geotextiles come
in three basic forms: woven (resembles fabric), punched(resembles
felt), and heat bonded (resembles ironed felt). The most common
materials to make geotextiles are polypropylene and polyester .
Applicable Standards

 ASTM D4533 Trapezoid Tearing Strength of Geotextiles

 ASTM D4594 Effects of Temperature on Stability of Geotextiles
 ASTM D4595 Wide-Width Tensile Test Equipment for Geotextiles
 ASTM D4632 Grab Test For Geotextiles
 ASTM D4833 Index Puncture Resistance Test Equipment for Geomembranes
 ASTM D4884 Strength of Sewn or Thermally Bonded Seams of Geotextiles
 ASTM D6241 Puncture Testing for Geotextiles
 ASTM D6392 Peel and Shear Tests of Geomembrane Seams
 ASTM D6496 Bonding Peel Strength Between the Top and Bottom Layers of Needle-
Punched Geosynthetic Clay Liners
 ASTM D6637 Single or Multi-Rib Tensile Test of Geogrids
 ASTM D6693 Tensile Test of Geomembranes
 ASTM D6992 Tensile Creep-Rupture of Geosynthetic Materials
 ASTM D7003 Tensile Test of Reinforced Geomembranes
 ASTM D7004 Tensile Test of Reinforced Geomembranes
 ASTM D7005 Bond Strength (Ply Adhesion) of Geocomposites
 ASTM D7056 Tensile Shear - Bituminous Geomembrane
 ISO 12236 Static Puncture Test (CBR test) for Geosynthetics
 ISO 13431 Tensile Creep of Geotextiles

Geogrids

Geogrids is a geosynthetic materials used as reinforcement in construction works. Types of

geogrids, its functions and applications in construction works are discussed.

Geogrids can be categorized as geosynthetic materials that are used in the construction industry
in the form of a reinforcing material. It can be used in the soil reinforcement or used in the
reinforcement of retaining walls and even many applications of the material are on its way to
being flourished.

The high demand and application of Geogrids in construction are due to the fact that it is good
in tension and has a higher ability to distribute load across a large area.
 Fig.10 Geogrids

Origin of Geogrids and its Manufacture

The geosynthetic material, geogrids, are polymeric products which are formed by means of
intersecting grids. The polymeric materials like polyester, high-density polyethylene and
polypropylene are the main composition of geogrids.

These grids are formed by material ribs that are intersected by their manufacture in two
directions: one in the machine direction (md), which is conducted in the direction of the
manufacturing process. The other direction will be perpendicular to the machine direction ribs,
which are called as the cross-machine direction (CMD).

Fig. 11Geogrid’s rib formation in machine and cross machine directions of

manufacturing process
These materials form matrix structured materials. The open space, as shown in the above figure,
due to the intersection of perpendicular ribs are called as the apertures. This aperture varies
from 2.5 to 15cm based on the longitudinal and transverse arrangement of the ribs.

Among different types of geotextiles, geogrids are considered stiffer. In the case of geogrids,
the strength at the junction is considered more important because the loads are transmitted from
adjacent ribs through these junctions.

Many manufacturing choices are available for ribs. Here we are going to discuss three most
used method of manufacturing of geogrids:

Method-1: By Extruding

This manufacturing method of geogrids involves extrusion of a flat sheet of plastic into the
desired configuration. The plastic material used may be high-density polypropylene or high-
density polyethylene. Already set punching pattern is placed over the sheet to make holes for
the formation of desired grids.

The punching of a pattern of holes would result in the formation of so-called apertures. Next
step involves the development of tensile strength, by stretching the material to both longitudinal
and transverse direction. A figure representing an extruded Geogrid is shown below.

Fig.12 A Geogrid manufactured from the method of extrusion

Method-2: By Knitting or Weaving

In this method of Geogrid manufacture, single yarns of polyester or polypropylene material
undergo either knitting or weaving to form flexible junctions forming apertures. These
materials are recommended to have high tenacity, to give the Geogrid the final desired
property.

The product is bought into the market by giving them an additional coating of either
bituminous material or a polyvinyl chloride or a latex. This choice varies with the
manufacturer of geogrids.

Fig. 13 A Geogrid sample manufactured by knitting

Method-3: By Welding and Extrusion

This is recently developed a method by Secugrid manufactures. The method involves the
extrusion of flat polyester or polypropylene ribs by passing them through rollers as shown in
the figure below. These are done in automated machines that run at different speeds, enabling
stretching of ribs and increasing their tenacity.

Fig.14 The stretching of ribs through extrusion process

As shown in the figure below, the ribs obtained are sent to the welding section through either
side. One in the machine direction and other in the perpendicular direction. Forming a high-
quality Geogrid.
 Fig.15 The welding of the ribs forming apertures

Functions and Working of Geogrids

The geogrids serve the function of holding or capturing the aggregates together. This method
of interlocking the aggregates would help in an earthwork that is stabilized mechanically. The
apertures in geogrids help in interlocking the aggregates or the soil that are placed over them.
A representation of this concept is shown below.

Fig.16 A representation of Geogrid Confining the aggregates

The geogrids as mentioned above helps in redistribution of load over a wider area. This
function has made the pavement construction more stabilized and strong. It has the following
functional mechanisms when applied for pavement construction:

Tension Membrane Effect

This mechanism is based on the concept of vertical stress distribution. This vertical stress is
from the deformed shape of the membrane as shown in the figure below. This mechanism
was initially considered as the primary mechanism. But later studies proved the lateral
restraining mechanism is the major criteria that must be taken into consideration.
 Improvement of Bearing Capacity

Fig.17 Mechanism for Improved Bearing Capacity

One of the main mechanism happening after Geogrid installation in pavement is the reduction
in lateral movement of the aggregate. This would result in the elimination of stresses; that if
exists would have moved to the subgrade.

The Geogrid layer possesses sufficient frictional resistance that opposes subgrade lateral
movement. This mechanism hence improves the bearing capacity of the layer. Reduction of
outward stresses means inward stresses are formed, which is the reason behind the increase in
bearing capacity.
 Lateral Restraining Capability

The stresses produced by means of the wheel loadings coming over the pavement results in
the lateral movement of the aggregates. Which in turn affects the stability of the whole
pavement arrangement. The Geogrid act a restraint against this lateral movement.

Types of Geogrids
Based on the manufacturing process involved in geogrids it can be of

1. Extruded Geogrid

2. Woven Geogrid

3. Bonded Geogrid

Based on which direction the stretching is done during manufacture, geogrids are classified as

1. Uniaxial geogrids

2. Biaxial Geogrids

Uniaxial Geogrids
These geogrids are formed by the stretching of ribs in the longitudinal direction. So, in this
case, the material possesses high tensile strength in the longitudinal direction than on the
transverse direction.
Biaxial Geogrids
Here during the punching of polymer sheets, the stretching is done in both directions. Hence
the function of tensile strength is equally given to both transverse and longitudinal direction.

Fig.18 Uniaxial and Biaxial Geogrids manufactured by the method of extrusion

Applications of Geogrids in Construction

Applications of Geogrids in Construction of Retaining Walls
The usage of geogrids in retaining wall construction is in the area of soil backfills. Holding
the soil together will help in a stable retaining wall construction. The soil structural integrity
can be increased by reinforcing it by geogrids. This help in confining backfill as well as help
in distributing the loads. The geogrids solve the problems with soft backfill or sloping
ground.
 Fig.19 A Typical Arrangement of Geogrids in Retaining Walls
The increase in the length of geogrids will help in increasing the mass of the structure. This
helps in building taller walls. The concept means the geogrids will make the whole unit to
behave as a single mass. The minimum height from which the geogrid laying has to start
depends upon the soil type, the extent of pressure the wall is subjected to from the backfill
and other factors.

Characteristics of Geogrid Retaining Wall System

The geogrid retaining wall system has certain unique characteristics that differ when
compared with the traditional retaining wall construction, like a concrete retaining wall and
gravity retaining walls.
 Fig.20 A completed Geogrid Retaining Wall
The geogrid reinforced retaining wall construction gain the following characteristics:
o The geogrid system is more flexible in nature. The retaining wall with the geogrid system has
the higher adapting ability with the deformation of the foundation, when compared with
traditional construction, which is very stiffer in nature.

o More flexibility implies they behave well as earthquake resistant

o This construction can be made more economical, compared to traditional method. The
landfill can be made steeper, which shows a cost reduction. More height in wall and
steepness are created with the help of reinforced soil system.

o The onboard Geogrid arrangement has afforestation protection. This brings environmental
benefits, which is an important parameter in sustainable construction.

o The Geogrid retaining wall construction guaranty quality and reduced cost of construction.
This helps in rapid and convenient construction.

o With time the geogrid reinforcing retaining wall construction and its advantages have earned
appreciation, which had made its demand to increase in the construction in highways,
railways, dams, ports, planning city and projects focusing on the environment.

Applications of Geogrids in Foundation Soil

Geogrids can be used to stabilize the soil below the foundation mainly in shallow foundation.
To know that the modes of failure under the reinforced soil foundation has to be understood.
 Four failures are observed to occur:
o Failure 1: Bearing Capacity Failure

o Failure 2: Pullout Failure of the Geogrid layer

o Failure 3: Breaking of the geosynthetic layer

o Failure 4: Creep Failure of the geosynthetic layer (Geogrid)

The figure below shows an arrangement of geogrid layer below a rectangular foundation. Let
us consider the dimension of foundation be B x L and that of geogrid layer be b x l (in the
width x length form as shown in the figure below).

As shown in figure, ‘h’ is the distance between each geogrid layer. The first geogrid layer is
placed at a height ‘u’ below the ground level.

If there are ‘N’ layers of geogrid reinforcement, the total depth of the geogrid can be given by
the equation

d = u + (N – 1) h –> Equation-1
 Fig.21: Cross section and top plan of a rectangular foundation supported over a
Geogrid reinforced soil
The figure-2, below show a general relation between the load and the settlement caused for a
foundation under two cases:

1. Reinforced soil, and

2. Unreinforced soil.

The effect of reinforcement can be measured in terms of bearing capacity ratio (BCR). The
bearing capacity ratio is formed with the help of the ultimate bearing load capacity at a given
maximum settlement.

Say BCRU be the bearing capacity ratio when measured in terms of ultimate load. Then from
the figure below
BCRU = qu(R)/qu –> Equation-2
If BCRS is the bearing capacity ratio at a given settlement . Let it be S e, then
BCRS = qR/q –> Equation-3
 Fig.22: Load-settlement Curve for a foundation that is supported with reinforced and
unreinforced soil

Fig23: The variation of ultimate bearing capacity with the u/B ratio
The figure 3, above shows the variation of bearing capacity with the variation of u/B ratio. It
is seen that BCRu is maximum at a value of u/B > (u/B)cr. At a value say (u/B)max, the
BCRu value is lower.
The first range is said as zone-1, the range between (u/B)cr and (u/B)max is called as zone-2,
the range for u/B > (u/B)max is zone 3.

Figure 4 and 5 shows the respective failure surface for zone 1,2 and zone 3 respectively.

Fig24: Zone-1 and Zone-2 conditions

Fig25: Failure surface in Zone 3

It can be generalized that under the zone 1, the increase in the bearing capacity ratio is due to
the most confining pressure of the geogrid layers. The zone 3 have a lower bearing capacity,
as it acts as semi-rigid in nature.
 Applications of Geogrid in Pavement Construction
The Geogrid construction in pavement construction have following features:

o Improvement of subgrade: The subgrade, which is the most important load bearing strata, is
made solid and strong by the geogrids. The problem of soft subgrade can be solved by this
method.
o Reinforcement of pavement base: The thickness of base if increased would increase the
stiffness of base. But increasing thickness enormously is not economical. The reinforcement
to a given base layer would give adequate stiffening that helps in reduction of thickness and
time of construction. This also helps in increasing the life of the pavement.
The procedure involved in geogrid construction for subgrade preparation are shown in
figure6,7 and 8.

Fig26: Laying the Geogrids over leveled soil sub-base as reinforcement

Fig27: Placing Aggregates over the Geogrid layer

Fig.8: Final Compacted and rolled

 Advantages of Geogrids in Construction
o Ease of Construction: he Geogrid can be installed in any weather conditions. This makes it
more demanding.

o Land Optimization: This method of Geogrid installation in soils makes an unsuitable area
suitable for preparing it to meet desired properties for construction. Geogrid thus helps in
proper land utilization.

o Geogrid promotes soil stabilization

o A higher strength soil mass is obtained

o Higher load bearing capacity

o It is a good remedy to retain soil from erosion

o No requirement of mortar. The material is implemented dry.

o No difficulty in material availability

o Geogrids are flexible in nature. They are known for their versatility.

o Geogrids have high durability reducing maintenance cost. They are highly resistant against
environmental influences.

o Materials are tested based on standard codes and regulations.