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Networking Besics
Networking Besics
Operating System :
The Operating System called as O.S. is Defined as interpretation
Between User and Machine.
HP Unix HP HP
Networking :
Networking can be defined as the interconnection Between two or more
Machines.
1. Wired
2. Non Wired
A. Coaxial :
1. Thick Net - 10base5 (up to 500 mtrs.)
2. Thin Net – 10base2 (up to 200 mtrs.)
Defination :
Connectivity devices are those devices which are used in Networking.
1. Repeaters :
They regenerate the signals.
2. HUBs :
These are devices used in star topology.
They are always Half Duplex. Providing10 MBPS Data
transmission Speed.
3. Bridges : (Works on MAC Address)
They filters the traffic. (Packets and Frames)
4. Switches : (Works on MAC Address)
They are multiport Bridges
Are always Full Duplex. Providing 100 MBPS Data Transmission
Speed.
Networking Transmissions.
A. BroadCast :
In BroadCast one device sends packets to all devices in
Network.
B. MultiCast :
In MultiCast One Device sends packets to group of other
devices in Network
C. UniCast :
In UniCast One device sends packets to single device in
Network.
Topic 2 : Internetworking.
Defination :
Intercommunication Between two or more networks is called as
Internetworking.
To avoid such LAN traffic conjection different internetworking techniques are used.
Internetworking Basics.
Introduction :
In 1985 Network grew in large scale creating LAN traffic
conjection. Hence they needed to break up a large network into number of
smaller areas. The process called as Segmentation.
This is done by devices like Routers, Switches, Bridges ,Hubs.
1. Dumb terminals :
In a Dumb terminal a machine with single CPU with UNIX
as O.S. is Connected by other terminal machines having
only Monitors & Keyboards, Through a RS232 Cables.
2. Diskless Nodes :
In this type all machines with CPU but without a hard disk
are connected to server via a coaxial cables. Hence they
share server disk while operating.
Booting :
It is a process of Loading system O.S. in computers
memory.
Topic 3 : O.S.I. (Open System Interconnection)
Introduction :
This model is called the layer architecture. It has 7 layers. The first
layers defines how the application with end station will communicate with
each other. The bottom 4 layers find how data is transmitted end to end.
Routing
Network
Examples :
Image Presentation
Sound
Video
Examples :
NFS (Network file system) : (Unix & Linux third party Software) A
software used for data access between TCP/IP host.
1. Connection Oriented :
In communication oriented system
Acknowledgement is done.
Example :
2. Connection Less :
In Communication Less systems Acknowledgement
is not done.
Flow Control :
This concept prevents a sending host of one side of connection
from overloading buffer in receiving host.
Steps :
1. The segment delivered are acknowledged back to sender upon their reception.
2. Any segment that is not acknowledge is retransmitted.
3. Segments are sequenced back into their proper order upon arrival on their
destination
4. A manageable data flow is maintained to avoid conjection overloading and data
loss
Example :
Windowing :
The quantity of data segment (in bytes) that transmitting
machine is allowed to send without receiving acknowledgement for them
is called windowing.
Example :
Acknowledgement :
In connection oriented communication when sender sends
segment to receiver .The receiver machine will send an acknowledgement
for next segment if it is received properly. If any of the segment is not
transmitted to receiver the receiver machine will ask for acknowledgement
for segment it did not received.
Example :
5. Network layer : (Data is in the form of PACKETS)
Data is in the form of packets/Datagrams. This layer
manages device addressing ,tracks. The location of device on network
and determines best way to move data. Router devices are specified at
Network layer (Layer 3) providing a router services within an
internetwork. There are two types of packets used at network layer.
1. Data Packets :
When a machine communicates with a machine through
router or any other device called as Data Packets.
Protocols are called as Routed Protocols (e.g. TCP/IP)
Example :
6. Datalink Layer : (Data is in the form of FRAMES)
This layer formats messages into pieces each called as
dataframe. This layer provides physical transmission of data and handles
error notification network topology & flow of control.
Example :
Modem ,HUB ,Repeater etc.
Topic 4 : Ethernet Networking
Types of Ethernet :
1. ARCNET
2. ETHERNET
3. FDDI (Fiber Distributed Data Interface)
All Ethernet uses CSMA/CD. i.e : Carriers self multiple access/Collision Detect.
CSMA/CD :
CSMA/CD Helps device to share bandwidth evenly without having two
devices transmitting at same time on network. It was mainly created to overcome
the problem of collision which occurs when packets are sent simultaneously from
the host.
The effect of having CSMA/CD Network is to overcome heavy collisions
Like:
1. Delay
2. Low Thoughpot
3. Conjection
Networking Types :
An ideal full duplex network can be obtained with the following conditions only :
Ethernet_II
FCS
Preamble Destination Host Type Data (Frame
Address Address Check
Sequence)
802.3
FCS
Preamble Destination Host Length Data (Frame
Address Address Check
Sequence)
Description :
A. Preamble :
It provides clocking at the start of each packet. This allows
received device to lock packets.
B. Destination Address :
Address of Destination Computer.
C. Host Address :
Address of Host Computer.
F. F.C.S :
It is the field at end of each frame. Which checks the error.
Types of Cables :
100base TX
100base FX
1000base CX
1000base +
1000base SX
1000base LX
Topic 5 : Ethernet Cabling.
1. Straight Through :
This type of cabling can be done under following
conditions. Only 2 pairs of wires are used.
i. A Host is connecting to a HUB/Switch.
ii. A Router is connecting to a HUB/Switch.
Data Encapsulation :
1. DATA :
User information is converted to Data for transmission on the
Network.
2. SEGMENT :
Data is converted to Segments & a reliable connection is set up
between Transmitter & Receiver.
3. PACKETS/DATAGRAMS :
Segments are converted to Packets/Datagrams & Logical address is
placed in header of each packet that can be routed through an
InterNetwork.
4. FRAMES :
Packets/Datagrams are converted to Frames for transmission on
local network, hardware address are used to uniquely identify host
on local Network.
5. BITS :
Frames are converted to Bits & a digital encoding & Clocking is
done.
Topic 6 : Internet Protocols.
Introduction :
Internet Protocols were 1st invented in end of 1960’s by
ARPANET. At that time they were called as N.C.P. (Network Communication
Protocols). In 1981 the real Internet Protocol was Invented. Before that only few
Companies were using Communication Protocols , Like :
O.S.I D.O.D
Application
Session
Datalink
Network Layer LAN/WAN
Technologies.
Physical
a. TELNET :
It is a terminal emulation it allows user on a remote
client machine called as telnet client to access resources
of other machine. It is text based application.
b. FTP :
It is a protocol that actually do transfer (uploading
and Downloading) of files. This protocol service requires
Username & Password.
c. TFTP :
It is Trivial File Transfer Protocol. Smaller version
of FTP which does not give any functionality like FTP. It
does not have directory browsing ability, also do not
support authentication.
d. SMTP :
It is Simple mail Transfer Protocol. It is mainly
Used in mail applications. e.g. Exchange, Lotus Notes
etc. it is used to send mails. POP 3 called as post office
protocol v3 is used to download mails along with SMTP.
e. SNMP :
It is Simple Network Management Protocol. It
collects Network information from SNMP Client. SNMP
Server requests information from agents (Clients).
a. TCP :
It is a connection oriented protocol. It is full duplex
reliable and accurate protocol. It takes large Block of
information from application layer & breaks them into
segments. It numbers and sequence each segment so that
destination TCP protocol can rearrange it. It also wait for
acknowledge from receiving end. It is costly in terms of
network overhead.
TCP segment :
It s 20 bytes long sequence number puts data back into
correct order. Acknowledgement number defines which
TCP octet is expected next.
Code Bit :
It controls function used to setup & terminate a session.
Sequence Number
20 Bytes Long
Acknowledgement
Checksum Urgent
Option
Data
b. UDP :
It is a User Datagram Protocol. It is a
connectionless protocol , which is non reliable,
does not support sequence segment, does not uses
acknowledgement and is faster than TCP.
Length Checksum
Data
Port Number :
TCP & UDP uses port number to communicate with upper layer.
The different port numbers that are used are.
a. Numbers below 1024 are called as well known port numbers.
b. Number 1024 & above upto 65565 are called as dynamic port numbers.
3. Internet Layer :
These are Connection less protocols. It looks at each packet
address (internet address) every time.
a. IP :
It identifies the address to find ID. IP receives
segment from host to host layer. & fragments them into
packets vice versa.
b. ICMP :
It is internet control messaging protocol. It is a
managing protocol & provides messaging services to IP.
c. ARP :
It is address resolution protocol. It finds hardware
address of host from unknown IP address. ARP resolves
IP address to more addresses.
4. Network Layer :
a. LAN :
These are hardware configuration types called as
Local Area Network. Only used for internetworking
within a local limit.
b. WAN :
This hardware configuration is called as Wild area
Networking. And is used for internetworking worldwide.
Topic 7 : IP Addressing.
Introduction :
IP address is a 32 bit logical address. It has 4 divisions. Each
containing an 8 bit binary number.
e.g. : _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ . _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ . _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ . _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
Classes of IP Address :
Class A : 1 to 126
Class B : 128 to 191
Class C : 192 to 223
---------------------------------------------------
Class D : 224 to 239 (Multicast addresses)
Class E : 240 to 254 (For Future addresses)
1. Network ID
2. Host ID
Subnet Mask :
It is a 32 bit logical address used to identify Network ID & Host ID
in an IP address. It contains value up to 255 which is used for Network ID, & 0 which is
used for host ID.
Class A N H H H
Subnet Mask 255 0 0 0
Class B N N H H
Subnet Mask 255 255 0 0
Class C N N N H
Subnet Mask 255 255 255 0
The maximum number of hosts can be added in different classes are :
For Class A :
N . H . H . H => N . 255 . 255 . 255 => 255 x 255 x 255 = 16 millions approx.
For Class B :
For Class C :
e.g.
1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
128 64 x x x x x x = 192
1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1
128 64 x x 8 4 2 1 = 207
e.g.
172 :
128 x 32 x 8 4 x x
1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 = Binary.
12 :
x x x x 8 4 x x
0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 = Binary.
Topic 8 : SubNeting.
Introduction :
Subneting is a process of dividing a single logical network in to
multiple sub networks.
A N H H H 24
B N N H H 16
C N N N H 8
Subneting Types :
Steps :
No. of 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
Subnets (27) (26) (25) (24) (23) (22) (21) (20)
Bits to 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Borrow
Borrowed Value.
Bits Example : 1
1 128 Class “C”
Given number of subnets = 22
2 192 Find subnet mask ?
Number of bits to borrow = 5
3 224
Value of 5 bits = 248
4 240 Hence the subnet mask = 255.255.255.248
5 248 Example : 2
Class “B”
6 252
Given number of subnets = 68
7 254 Find subnet mask ?
Number of bits to borrow = 7
8 255 Value of 7 bits = 254
Hence the Subnet mask = 255.255.254.0
Type 2 . Calculate subnet mask for subnet & number of hosts for each subnet.
Steps :
Example 1:
Ip Address = 192.68.14.2
Number of subnets = 32
Find number of hosts per subnet ?
Class of the IP = Class “C”
Maximum number of bits that can be borrowed =8
Number of bits to borrow = 6
Remaining number of bits = 8-6 = 2
Number of hosts per subnet = 22 – 2 = 2
Example 2:
Ip Address = 10.68.14.2
Number of subnets = 82
Find number of hosts per subnet ?
Class of the IP = Class “A”
Maximum number of bits that can be borrowed =24
Number of bits to borrow = 7
Remaining number of bits = 24-7 = 17
Number of hosts per subnet = 217 – 2 = 1,31,070
Type 3: Calculate subnet mask for the subnet , number of hosts in each subnet , & valid
host range for each subnet.
Steps :
Example 1 :
IP address is 172.12.58.10
Number if subnets = 6
Find valid Host range ?
Class of the IP address = Class “B”
Subnet mask = 255.255.224.0
Number of Hosts per subnet = 8190
Host range validity number = 256-224 = 32
i.e. 172.54.68.48/22
here 22 denotes the number of ‘ON’ bits in a subnet mask starting from left.
Examples :
1. 154.45.69.56/28
11111111.11111111.11111111.11110000 = 255.255.255.240
2. 45.12.2.5/8
11111111.00000000.00000000.00000000 = 255.0.0.0
Type 5. Calculate new subnet mask and number of subnets from given number of hosts
per subnet & IP address.
Steps :
Example :
IP address = 176.15.12.45
Number of Hosts per Subnet = 600
Find Subnet mask & Number of Subnets ?
Class of IP address = Class ‘B’
Maximum number of bits that can be borrowed = 16
Number of bits Borrowed = 10
Remaining bits = 16-10 = 6
Subnet mask = 255.255.252.0
Number of Subnets = 2Y – 2 = 26 – 2 = 62
Topic 9 : Introduction to CISCO Routers
1. Physical
2. Logical
Cisco provides a physical router. Some more companies that provides Routers are :
1. Nortel
2. 3 Com
3. Intel
IOS manages :
1. Bootstrap
2. POST
3. CISCO IOS (Flash)
4. Startup Config
5. Prompt (DRAM)
Router Configuration :
1. Basic – Brief
2. Extended – In Details.
Command Description
Show Command :
There are 5 types of password. The first two passwords are used to
set the enable password. “Enable secret” is always used if we configure both passwords.
Other three passwords are Console password , auxiliary password , Telnet password.
Use Tacacs tells router to authenticate through Tacacs server.
Router>enable
Router#configure terminal
Router(config)# service password-encryption
1. Serial interface
2. Ethernet interface.
The command
Router(config)#interface Ethernet ?
Shows number of Ethernet ports available
The command
Router(config)#interface serial ?
Shows number of serial ports available
The Command
Router(config)#interface fastethernet X/Y
Is used to connect to specific interface. Where X denotes the slot number on which Y
numbered Ethernet port is available.
Router(config)#int e0
Router(config)#ip address 172.16.10.1 255.255.255.0
Router(config)#int s0
Router(config)#ip address 172.16.10.1 255.255.255.0
Router(config)#int s0
Router(config)#ip address xxx.xxx.xxx.xxx yyy.yyy.yyy.yyy
Router(config)#clock rate 64000
Router(config)#no shutdown
Where 64000 is default value of clock rate in bytes.(or any from 300 to 4000000)
Router(config)#int s0
Router(config)#ip address xxx.xxx.xxx.xxx yyy.yyy.yyy.yyy
Router(config)#bandwidth 64
Router(config)#no shutdown
Where 64 is default value of bandwidth in Kilo Bytes. (or any from 1 to 10000000)
Router(config)#hostname pune
Pune(config)#
Deleting the RAM :
Verifying Commands :
Ethernet comes under Physical layer. While Line Protocol comes under Datalink Layer.
Examples and Explanations :
Router routes packets sent from one network device to another network
device in internetwork.
1. Static Routing :
Route addresses are added manually.
2. Default Routing.
Route addresses are added so as any host is connected to
any network through any line.
3. Dynamic Routing :
Route addresses are configured automatically by Routers.
Under Dynamic Routing 3 subtypes appears.
1. Static Routing
Command :
Router>enable
Router#configure terminal
Router(config)#ip route [destination NW address] [destination prefix mask] [forwarding
routers address]
Example : Refer Fig A
Router A
Router(config)#ip route 172.16.30.0 255.255.255.0 172.16.20.2
Router(config)#ip route 172.16.40.0 255.255.255.0 172.16.20.2
Router(config)#ip route 172.16.50.0 255.255.255.0 172.16.20.2
Router B
Router(config)#ip route 172.16.10.0 255.255.255.0 172.16.20.1
Router(config)#ip route 172.16.50.0 255.255.255.0 172.16.40.2
Router C
Router(config)#ip route 172.16.10.0 255.255.255.0 172.16.40.1
Router(config)#ip route 172.16.20.0 255.255.255.0 172.16.40.1
Router(config)#ip route 172.16.30.0 255.255.255.0 172.16.40.1
2. Default Routing :
Command :
Router>enable
Router#configure terminal
Router(config)#ip route [0.0.0.0] [0.0.0.0] [forwarding routers address]
Router A
Router(config)#ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 172.16.20.2
Router B
Router(config)#ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 172.16.20.1
Router(config)#ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 172.16.40.2
Router C
Router(config)#ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 172.16.40.1
3. Dynamic Routing :
Command :
Router>enable
Router#configure terminal
Router(config)#router rip
Router(config-router)#network [Own Network numbers]
Router A
Router(config-router)#network 172.16.10.0
Router(config-router)#network 172.16.20.0
Router B
Router(config-router)#network 172.16.20.0
Router(config-router)#network 172.16.30.0
Router(config-router)#network 172.16.40.0
Router C
Router(config-router)#network 172.16.40.0
Router(config-router)#network 172.16.50.0
#Using IGRP routing protocol
Autonomous number must be identical on all networks
Command :
Router>enable
Router#configure terminal
Router(config)#router igrp [<1-65535 > Autonomous system number]
Router(config-router)#network [Own Network numbers]
Router A
Router(config-router)#network 172.16.10.0
Router(config-router)#network 172.16.20.0
Router B
Router(config-router)#network 172.16.20.0
Router(config-router)#network 172.16.30.0
Router(config-router)#network 172.16.40.0
Router C
Router(config-router)#network 172.16.40.0
Router(config-router)#network 172.16.50.0
Router A
Router(config-router)#network 172.16.10.0
Router(config-router)#network 172.16.20.0
Router B
Router(config-router)#network 172.16.20.0
Router(config-router)#network 172.16.30.0
Router(config-router)#network 172.16.40.0
Router C
Router(config-router)#network 172.16.40.0
Router(config-router)#network 172.16.50.0
#Using OSPF routing protocol
Process ID can be different for any network
Command :
Router>enable
Router#configure terminal
Router(config)#router ospf [<1-65535 > Process ID]
Router(config-router)#network [Own Network numbers] [OSPF wildcard bits] [OSPF
area id]
Router A
Router(config-router)#network 172.16.10.0 0.0.0.255 area 0
Router(config-router)#network 172.16.20.0 0.0.0.255 area 0
Router B
Router(config-router)#network 172.16.20.0 0.0.0.255 area 0
Router(config-router)#network 172.16.30.0 0.0.0.255 area 0
Router(config-router)#network 172.16.40.0 0.0.0.255 area 0
Router C
Router(config-router)#network 172.16.40.0 0.0.0.255 area 0
Router(config-router)#network 172.16.50.0 0.0.0.255 area 0
Nonconnected interface 0
Static Route 1
RIP 120
IGRP 100
EIGRP 90
OSPF 110
Blocked 255
Significance of Different Routing Protocols: