CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Foreign Literature and Study

Glue derived from sap is called "pitch glue." American Indians used pitch glue

made from materials found in nature to make tools and various waterproof items. Pitch

glue differs from conventional glue that is available in stores today because of its tar-

like consistency and high malleability. While different tribes had their own recipes for

making pitch glue adding or subtracting ingredients to make it more or less fibrous

there’s not just one method that will achieve effective results.(Kivi.R.2019)

Cassava is often considered as a low-quality raw material that can be processed

to produce dried cassava chips, cassava starch, ethanol, liquid sugar, sorbitol,

monosodium glutamate, and modified cassava flour because this raw material contains

low amounts of proteins, minerals, and vitamins (Hillocks and Thresh 2002). Among

various types of starches, cassava starch is advantageous because of its paste clarity,

low gelatinization temperature, good gel stability, and good fil m-forming properties

(Mali et al. 2006). Films produced by cassava starch are more flexible than those formed

by other starches (Parra et al. 2004). The bond strength of SWA, which is a non-reactive

adhesive, is largely dependent on the interaction (weak secondary forces) with wood and

adhesive polymers. Therefore, SWA films may play a significant role in adhesion (Qiao

and Easteal 2001). Considering this property, we used cassava starch as an alternative

material for preparing SWAs. (Thompson.R.2018)

 Starch is one of the most abundant natural, renewal biodegradable polymers and it is

produced by many plants as source of energy. Starch is made up of two molecules: amylose and

amylopectin. Amylose consists of long helical chains, and amylopectin has a branched structure.

It is extracted from several sources as semi-crystalline granules with different shapes and

diameters. Starch is used and delivered most commonly as powder, in either bulk or bag form.

Depending on the industrial application, it is either dissolved cold as it is or cooked. The cassava

starch has special technological properties that allow its utilization in many industrial

applications. Among these properties are the absence of the typical “cereal flavor” of corn and

other cereal starches, its ability of higher swelling degree during cooking, and its lower pasting

temperature, if compared again with cereal starches. Its low protein and lipid contents must also

be valued contributing to its neutral flavor and white color. Cassava is also cultivated in almost

all parts of the country and it is quite cheap and readily available raw material for adhesive

production. In compounding adhesive toluene which is petroleum solvent and some mineral acid

are used. (Opara.I.J.2017)

Cassava starch that is readily available has been used to produce non-structural

adhesives. Certain conditions that could give optimum production had been specified using the

data obtained. The adhesives produced from starch of two varieties of cassava are fairly stable

on addition of a chemical stabilizer. The optimum temperature and stabilization material for the

production could be deduced from the graphs and the equations developed. Cassava starch

therefore could be good source of cheap and readily available adhesives, thus saving the

industries from spending foreign exchange on importation. (Okoromi.P. 2017)

 A more versatile and relatively cheap method of bonding virtually all materials together

is by the use of adhesives. Among all the means of fastening, adhesive is the most suitable

method because no damage is done to the adherends (as in nailing) and stress is more uniformly

distributed. In this research work, various adhesives were produced from cassava which is a

locally available natural raw material. The cassava starch was chemically modified to obtain

oxidized, hydrolyzed and dexrinized from which the various adhesives were produced by

incorporating other chemicals such as plasticizers and tackifiers. Generally, these adhesives were

found have good bonding strength on wood, cardboard, paper and leather materials. However,

adhesives produced from hydrolyzed and oxidized starch showed exceptionally good adhesive

properties. (Ossi.C.D.2017)

A biodegradable, environmentally friendly starch-based wood adhesive with

cassava starch as a raw material and butyl acrylate (BA) as a co-monomer was

synthesized. Results revealed that this cassava starch-based wood adhesive (SWA) was

more stable than corn starch-based wood adhesive, and its bonding performance was

close to that of commercial PVAc emulsion, even after 90 days of storage. Further

analysis found that the improved stability of the adhesive could be attributed to its low

minimum film forming temperature (MFFT) and glass transition temperature (Tg) of

cassava starch. Moreover, the amount of total volatile organic compounds (TVOCs)

emitted by the cassava starch-based wood adhesive were much lower than the Chinese

national standard control criteria. Therefore, cassava SWA might be a potential

alternative to traditional petrochemical-based wood adhesives. (Xu, Q., Wen, J., and

Wang, Z. 2016).
 Adhesives are substances that are able to make things adhere or stick together

without deformation or failure through a process called adhesion (Baumann and Conner,

2003). Adhesives are categorized as either natural or synthetic. Natural adhesives include

animal glues, casein glues, natural gums and resins, sodium silicates and vegetable

glues. Vegetables glues are starch-based and are made from starches and dextrin

(Kennedy, 1989). Starch has several advantages as a raw material in the production of

adhesives, including: renewability, biodegradability, abundance, cheapness and stability

in price (Agboola, et. al., 1990) and can also be used to produce such diverse products

as food, paper, textiles, beverages, confectionery, pharmaceuticals, and building

materials (FAO, 1983). Starch is produced from grain or root crops such as sweet

potatoes, maize, wheat, rice, yam or cassava. The advantages of cassava for starch

production over other grains or root crop includes: high purity level, excellent thickening

characteristics, a neutral (bland) taste, desirable textural characteristics, is relatively

cheap and it contains a high concentration of starch (dry-matter basis), (Masamba et. al.,

2001). Cassava starch has many remarkable characteristics, including high paste

viscosity, high paste clarity and high freeze-thaw stability which are advantageous to

many industries. Cassava is a renewable, an almost unlimited resource and one of the

most abundant substances in nature.(Akpa.J.2013)

Local Literature and Study

Glue came into being when ancient tribes discovered that the bones, hides, skin, sinew,

and other connective tissues from animals could be processed to remove collagen, the protein in

these tissues (Mazur, 2013). The collagen was sticky and was useful for holding things together.

Milk solids, known as casein, and blood albumin can also be used as a basis for glue. Dried serum
from cows' blood yields albumin that coagulates (clumps together) when it is heated and

becomes insoluble in water. Also, in a study conducted by Forrest Wickman (2012), he found out

that horses are very efficient in making glue. This is due to the abundant collagen found in their

bones. Collagen is one of the key ingredient in most animal glues, as it can be made into a gelatin

that’s sticky when wet but hardens when it dries. The word collagen actually derives from the

Greek kolla, meaning glue, and the suffix -gen, meaning producer. As large, muscled animals,

horses contain lots of this glue producer. But most of the glue companies uses pigs and cattle as

the main component of their product.(Portillo.G.2019)

It has been postulated that latexes from certain trees and plants contain various

components like latex. Latex is a milky liquid found in many plants but is not the same as sap

(Myers, 2017). After such deliberation, the researcher decided to make use of jackfruit latex and

rubber tree latex to make an alternative sealant. This mixture of materials was selected due to

the unique properties possessed by the said materials. It has been scientifically proven that

jackfruit latex is a potential source of adhesive. Jackfruit trees are 30 to 70 ft. (9-21 m) tall, with

evergreen, alternate, glossy, somewhat leathery leaves to 9 in (22.5 cm) long, oval on mature

wood, sometimes oblong or deeply lobed on young shoots. All parts contain sticky white latex

(Morton, 1987). The heated latex is employed as household cement for mending chinaware and

earthenware, and to caulk boats and holes in bucket (Tacio, 2017). The chemical constituents of

the latex have been reported by Tanchico and Magpanlay. It is not a substitute for rubber but

contains 82.6 to 86.4% resins which may have value in varnishes (Morton, 1987). The latex

extracted from the plant is extremely sticky and therefore also used as an adhesive.

(Carpo.M.J.2019)
 Jackfruit sap can be an alternative ingredient in producing glue. Jackfruit (Artocarpus

heterophyllus) is one of the most significant trees in tropical home gardens and perhaps the most

widespread and useful tree in the important genus Artocarpus. It is one of the most considered

fruits by the farmers and can grow well in equatorial to subtropical maritime climates. In 2013,

Statista reported that the production of Jackfruit in the Philippines amounted to about 46, 080

metric tons. Jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus) contains latex, that is used for trapping birdlime

and insects, could be an essential ingredient in making adhesives (Elevitch and Manner, 2010).

The latex found in jackfruits contains bacteriolytic value comparable to that of papaya latex.

(Solis.M.2019)

The jackfruit latex and rubber tree latex mixtures are possible eco-friendly and

inexpensive solution for sealing common household leakages. The researcher combined the

constituents which are jackfruit latex and rubber tree latex by heating the ingredients to form a

tacky substance that was used as an alternative sealant. Carpenters, plumbers, and ordinary

household members can be the

beneficiaries of the said alternative sealant. In the study, the researcher manipulated the

concentrations of the jackfruit latex to determine the optimal measurement of the said

ingredient. Furthermore, the sealant was applied on steel sheets with a punctured hole and the

researcher tested its effect by applying high pressures until the seal was broken. (Villa.C.J. 2017)

Paste is a term for any very thick viscous fluid. In this study, it refers to an adhesive. It can

be called an adhesive if it wets the surface, adheres to them, develops strength once applied,

and finally, remains stable after sticking the materials. (Packer, John) The researcher aims to

produce paste out of Jackfruit exocarp and Banana starch. Jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus)
or also known as jack tree or simply jak is a species of Artocarpus genus and is widely abundant

in the parts of South and Southeast Asia but is believed to have originated in the Southwestern

rainforests in India. It is cultivated in tropical regions - that including the Philippines. Studies have

proven Jackfruit sap has the ability to become glue for it contains a substance which is required

to form adhesive, called latex. (Wikipedia) However, this study has yet to prove if the exocarp

has the ability to become a potential adhesive as well.(Fulgencio.J.K.2014)

Jackfruit (Artocarpus Heterophyllus) an indigenous fruit tree is widely distributed

throughout many tropical countries, including PHILIPPINES both cultivated and wild. This fruit

contains a sap which has a component that is identical to the white wood glue called latex. With

this, we are encourage to use this as an additive in making a glue for we know that the sap is

extremely sticky and therefore also utilized as an effective adhesive. On the importance of glue,

the function and value of this sticky stuff plays a very important role in the school. The glue sticks

things to other things or something is stuck to other things especially in bonding thin materials,

through this, the object will likely to stay together and will not fall off and get lost.

(Santos.C.K.2013)