Journal of Cleaner Production 230 (2019) 430e444

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Cleaner Production

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jclepro

Sustainable applications for utilization the construction waste of

aerated concrete
Zolta
*, Bence Jankus, Olive

n Gyurko
r Fenyvesi, Rita Nemes
} egyetem Rkp. 3, Hungary
Department of Construction Materials and Technologies, Budapest University of Technology and Economics, 1111, Budapest, Mu

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: In the next decades many buildings and structures, constructed from autoclaved aerated concrete (AAC)
Received 6 August 2018 will reach their end of lifetime, therefore solutions should be developed to recycle the resulting waste
Received in revised form material. AAC blocks cannot be reused in the form of building blocks as traditional clay bricks. The typical
25 April 2019
form of AAC waste is crushed stone or powder. Present study is dealing with the possibilities of the
Accepted 26 April 2019
recycling of AAC waste as concrete aggregate, prefabricated concrete tiles, concrete blocks, shuttering
Available online 30 April 2019
blocks and cement supplementary material. The concrete mixes were designed in a way to apply as much
AAC waste as possible and to require the least further processing (crushing, pulverizing) of the waste
Keywords:
Aerated (cellular) concrete
material at the same time. Mechanical (compressive strength), thermal (heat conductivity) and durability
Waste material (frost and freeze-thaw resistance) properties of the samples containing AAC waste as aggregate or
Durability supplementary material were tested. The results indicated that opportunities in applying aerated con-
Recycling crete waste in granular form as aggregate for load bearing purposes are limited, but in powdered form
Supplementary material can be highly advantageous. However, if the load bearing capacity is not a strong requirement there are
Secondary raw material many feasible modes to recycle AAC waste as vertical wall coverings, stumped concrete wall, design
exposed concrete or lightweight aggregate concrete. In advance to granular form, adding powdered AAC
to normal concrete, the durability attributes were improved.
© 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction and research objectives
Autoclaved aerated concrete (AAC) is a world-wide well-known
construction material, however, it is a very young compared to the
ancient ones e.g. timber, natural stone or even traditional concrete
(Kausay, 2002). The wide application of AAC in construction industry
have been started between 1940e50 in Europe (see Fig. 2). The first
buildings, made of its earlier version (aerated concrete, AC) are about
to reach their design lifetime. In the EU many industrial and resi-
dential buildings were constructed from AAC blocks mostly designed
for 50 years of lifetime. Therefore, large amount of AC and AAC waste
can be expected to appear in building industry in the next decade(s).
At the demolition of these buildings the potential in recycling the
waste material arises. The application of recycled materials in new
concrete structures is inviting (Mohammadhosseini et al., 2017). It is
not only economically beneficial (lower cost related to waste
* Corresponding author. 1111, Budapest, Mu} egyetem rkp. 3, Hungary.
E-mail addresses: gyurko.zoltan@epito.bme.hu (Z. Gyurko
), bence.jankus@
gmail.com (B. Jankus), fenyvesi.oliver@epito.bme.hu (O. Fenyvesi), nemes.rita@
epito.bme.hu (R. Nemes).
management), but a greener and more sustainable building indus-
trial processes could be developed.
Waste handling is getting higher and higher importance in our
consumption based society. Therefore, both jurisprudence and
technical science have to pay more attention to this topic. The first
European (EU) regulation, which has dealt with the topic in-detail,
was published in 2000 (European Commission, 2000). This was the
first comprehensive edict in the EU dealing with building industrial
waste in deep details. The operative national regulations in
connection with the EU regulation contain both compulsions and
concessions. According to these regulations above a defined limit in
investment it is compulsory to use recycled building materials (see
the regulations for the prescribed rate). However, many extra terms
and financial support can be received in procurement processes
according to green considerations. In 2008 an EC regulation
(European Commission, 2008) was declared which requires the
member states to specify how they plan to develop the recycling
rate in the different fields of waste. Due to this, several research
targeted different recycling methods of communal and industrial
waste (Hoffmann et al., 2003; Nemes, 2015; Jo
zsa and Nemes,
2002). During the last decade several high capacity waste

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Z. Gyurko
handling sites have been founded in the EU to handle building in-
dustrial waste. Thanks to these sites, the rate of building industrial
waste dumped in communal landfills was strongly reduced. Ac-
cording to the latest European waste production statistics by
Eurostat (refreshed in May 2017) the total amount of waste pro-
duced in the EU have not significantly changed from 2004 to 2014
(the change is within 2.5%), as it can be seen in Fig. 1. Besides this,
the amount of building industrial waste increased by 12%.
According to statistics it is obvious that building industrial waste
has a great role in European waste management politics and the
recycling rate in Europe is still not high enough. Nowadays
approximately 50% of all waste is getting recycled.
To use the huge amount of demolition waste, new recycling
options should be developed, supported by laboratory tests and
their results. This is the first step to develop a new product that can
be applied in the construction industry. In the literature only a few
studies can be found dealing with the recycling of AAC and those
studies only dealt with the application of AAC as coarse aggregate
(Topcu and Seridemir (2007); Sinica et al., 2009), however, those
studies showed that it is possible to apply AAC waste as aggregate
in concrete. Present paper introduces different possibilities of re-
use the AAC waste, coming from its production (aerated concrete
powder) and its demolition (crushed recycled AAC aggregate), as it
can be seen in Fig. 2.
There are three major forms in which AAC can be recycled: in
block, crushed or powder form. In crushed form AAC can be recy-
cled in lightweight aggregate concrete (crushed AAC waste is a
lightweight aggregate; rT < 2000 kg/m3) or in no-fines concrete
(here only applied as coarse aggregate). Based on that the research
consist five phases (Fig. 2):

Phase 0: Block form. To reuse AAC in block form requires its
demolition to be performed in a very professional and careful
manner. This process (if it is even possible) requires extraordi-
nary economical effort and time, making it not feasible for
practical applications.

Phase 1: Load bearing lightweight aggregate. Concrete mixes
were designed to produce load bearing lightweight aggregate
concrete. Based on literature recommendations paste saturated
mixtures were designed with high cement dosage. Here AAC
was applied as fine and coarse aggregate (Section 3).

Phase 2: Non-load bearing lightweight aggregate. Applications
introduced to use AAC as fine and coarse aggregate in non-load
bearing applications (Section 3).

Phase 3: No-fines concrete aggregate. AAC waste was applied in
no-fines concrete as aggregate. Here the aim was to decrease the
Fig. 1. Waste production in the EU between 2004 and 2014.
431
amount of cement and thus present a cost-effective solution for
the recycle of AAC (Section 4).

Phase 4: Powder form. During the cutting process and produc-
tion of AAC blocks or rather the demolition of AAC buildings
large amount of AAC powder waste arises. This powder could be
applied in concrete as filling material or as supplementary
material (Section 5).
The aim of the study was to introduce applications not only with
the coarse aggregate of concrete but the complete aggregate matrix
is built up from recycled AAC. The further processing (crushing,
pulverizing) of the waste aggregate is expensive, thus it is aimed to
find applications where the most AAC waste is used with the least
further processing. Besides that, it was intended to reuse all the
form of AAC waste, because recently AAC waste powder is not
recycled. The recycling of the powder fraction of normal concrete
waste is problem as well, which has no satisfactory solution.
2. Characteristics of AAC in different forms
During the production of AAC blocks as well as during the
construction and demolition of AAC buildings, waste material is
generated in various sizes. In Fig. 3 it is sieved into six fractions. In
the present research, one type of AAC with the body density of
440 kg/m3 was applied to produce the aggregate (in all form). The
investigated type of AAC was chosen based on business sales sta-
tistics that were received from the manufacturer company. It was
taken into consideration to test the other available types, but this
parameter was kept constant during the present research. It is
planned to be tested in further research phases with demolished
AAC waste used as aggregate as well. The most important proper-
ties of the original AAC block (the base material of the study), based
on its declaration of performance:

Mean compressive strength: 3.0 N/mm2,

Thermal conductivity: 0.125 W/mK,

Water vapour permeability: 5/10.
In a mix design point of view there are some important prop-
erties of the aggregate depending on the grain size. Therefore,
many differences were found in the lightweight aggregate perfor-
mance compared with earlier researches, where AAC waste was
used only as coarse aggregate (Sinica et al., 2009; Shui et al., 2014).
These main properties were particle body density and total porosity
of the different grain sizes. It is because during the crush process
porosity is decreasing, while the particle body density as well as the
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Z. Gyurko

Fig. 2. Possibilities in recycling of AAC as construction material and research phases.

Fig. 3. Different particle sizes (0/0.25 mm; 0.25/1.0 mm; 1/2 mm; 2/4 mm; 4/8 mm; 8/16) of crushed recycled aggregate from the same AAC waste material.

bulk density (in different rate) are increasing, as it is shown in Fig. 4.
These parameters are extremely important, because they are input
data of the concrete mix design process. This effect is not obviously
true in case of the water demand of the lightweight aggregate
concrete mixture, because as the inner open porosity (apparent
water absorption capacity) of the aggregate is decreasing during
the crush process, the specific surface of the smaller grain sizes is
increasing, which can be seen in Table 1 and Fig. 5. These param-
eters are determinative in the point of view of consistency, espe-
cially if the concrete is going to be pumped, because a lower
consistency mixture can stick in the pipe. This change in the water
demand of the concrete mixture should be calculated during the
mix design (water dosage and super plasticiser admixtures). The
open porosity causes internal curing of the cement matrix, which is
advantageous for concrete parameters (e.g. strength, water tight-
ness, early age shrinkage, durability, etc.), therefore it is also ad-
vantageous in the point of view of cost efficiency.
Water absorption in case of the 0/0.25 and 0.25/1 fractions
cannot be measured, because the water amount on the surface of
the grains is higher than the water amount inside the grains. Water
absorption of the coarse aggregate was determined by using pyc-
nometric method. The 1 h water absorption value was used to

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Z. Gyurko 433

Fig. 4. Change of the particle body (apparent) density and bulk density due to the aggregate particle size.

Table 1
Aggregate material properties due to the grain size.

Grain size [mm] Water absorption capacity [m%] Water absorption capacity [V%] Particle body (apparent) density [g/cm3]

0/0.25 e e 2.041
0.25/1 e e 1.939
1/2 14.7% 24.2% 1.645
2/4 13.0% 19.3% 1.481
4/8 17.1% 19.4% 1.136
8/16 15.3% 13.0% 0.848

Fig. 5. Change of water absorption capacity of aggregate due to the aggregate particle size.

design the water demand of the mixes in the different phases.
3. Application of recycled crushed AAC waste as LWA in LWAC
(phase 1 and 2)
In the literature it was demonstrated that there is a potential to
use waste materials (economically viable way) to produce light-
weight concrete (Makul and Sua-iam, 2016; Kashani et al., 2017). In
the last years, two different research phases were completed with
AAC waste as lightweight concrete aggregate (LWA), used in
lightweight aggregate concretes (LWACs) for different purposes. In
both research phases 100% of the aggregate was substituted by
waste material. In the first research phase LWAC mixtures were
designed containing crushed AAC aggregate for load bearing and
insulating purposes. 30 different mixes were designed for the
research, where the aggregate to cement ratio was different (see
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Z. Gyurko
the value ranges in Table 2). Here the mixtures were tested ac-
cording to the European standards for concrete (MSZ, 2009c). In the
second research phase mixtures were designed for vertical
covering application (e.g. tiles). In this research phase the material
was treated and tested according to the European standards for
artificial stone (MSZ, 2016; MSZ, 2005; MSZ, 2013). Detailed in-
formation about the design parameters, the applied standards and
the test results are presented in Table 2 (Fenyvesi and Jankus, 2015;
Fenyvesi, 2014).
The type and dosage of cement were chosen based on the pur-
pose of application. For a load bearing function high strength
mortar is needed with high cement amount. In the interests of
ecological effectiveness and cost reduction the load bearing mix-
tures were designed with CEM II type cement. CEM II BeS type of
cement has a significant proportion of blast furnace slag used for its
production therefore fewer amount of clinker is needed which
makes this type ecologically advantageous against other e.g. CEM I
types of cement. Based on literature recommendations the mix
design of LWAC targeted to provide paste saturated mixtures
(Ujhelyi, 1960). Based on the greater gap ratio of the AAC aggregate
compared to the commonly used quartz gravel and sand a larger
cement dosage should be applied in order to achieve the wished
high saturation. This is the reason to use 500e650 kg/m3 cement in
the mixtures of the 1st research phase. In case of other types of
LWAC usually oversaturated mixtures are the optimal for strength
parameters, because the hardened cement stone gives the load
bearing part of the composite material. In our research strength
parameters were not primary important, therefore paste saturated
concrete was investigated, but other (no fines and oversaturated)
mixtures have also been tested.
In the second research phase vertical wall coverings were tar-
geted. Therefore the main aim was to form aesthetic appearance,
thus a CEM I type (white cement) was chosen and colouring pig-
ments were added to the mixtures as well. The dosage was planned
according to reference recommendations (Koza
k and Magyari,
2013; Magyari, 2005; Koza
k et al., 2011). In the surface appear-
ance the colour of the crushed AAC waste aggregate was also
applied differ from the cement matrix coloured with different kind
of oxide pigments, as it can be seen in Fig. 6. Here the strength and
density of the mortar matrix could be lower, because only a self-
support load bearing capacity of the resulting concrete was the
requirement. Thus lower cement amount can be applied and a
more economical concrete can be designed.
AAC waste was prepared for suitable aggregate particles to
lightweight concrete by a jaw crusher. After one crushing period
Table 2
Design parameters and test results (n.t.: not tested property).
Research plan 1st Research phase
Grain size distribution Class II
Cement type CEM II BeS 42.5 N (V)
Cement dosage 500e650 kg/m3
Water-cement ratio 0.55
Aggregate (AAC) dosage 550e750 kg/m3
Fresh concrete density 1680e1690 kg/m3
PP fibers e 1.5 kg/m3
Colouring e 5% by mass of cement
Body density 1380e1450 kg/m3
Compressive strength 12e16 N/mm2
Thermal conductivity 0.39e0.45 W/mK
Water tightness XV1(H) e XV2(H)
Flexural-tensile strength n.t.
Impact resistance n.t.
Freeze-thaw resistance n.t.
particle size distribution was tested by standard sieve test. The
results showed that the produced particle size distribution is in the
II. quality class according the recent Hungarian regulations (Fig. 7),
therefore it is suitable for concrete aggregate without any addition
of normal aggregate which was tested in the first research phase
(MSZ, 2004).
This is a major progress against previous researches, where only
recycled coarse (d  4.0 mm) AAC aggregate was used and quartz
sand was added as fine aggregate (Topcu and Seridemir (2007);
Sinica et al., 2009). In our first research phase pure one-phase-
crushed AAC bulk was used as lightweight aggregate. The applied
maximum particle size was 16 mm. In the second research phase, to
improve strength parameters and reduce cement dosage, the bulk
was sieved into six, single fractions that can be seen in Fig. 7. The
fractions were added to the mixtures according to the limit grading
curve B given in recent Hungarian standard (see Fig. 7) (MSZ, 2004).
After a half year of storage, map surface cracking (mapping) was
observed on the specimens made in the first research phase, shown
in Fig. 8. Therefore, PP fibre were added to the mixtures in the
second phase, to prevent the formation of early age deformation
cracks on the surface of the specimens, and the possible causes
were investigated (Koza
k and Magyari, 2013; Magyari, 2005; Koza

k
et al., 2011). In the crushing process high amount of fine aggregate
(under 2 mm grain size) is formed for which other use/application
should be founded (see Phase 5).
In the first research phase the aim was to produce LWAC mix-
tures for combined structural and thermal insulating purposes. This
means that the body density of the lightweight concrete shall be
between 600 and 1600 kg/m3. The common applications of this
kind of LWACs are usually prefabricated masonry blocks, monolith
concrete walls and slabs, acoustic insulations. Their compressive
strength is usually between 10 ÷ 20 N/mm2 (MEASZ,
1995).
According to the purpose of this kind of LWAC main material
parameters (density, compressive strength, thermal conductivity
and water tightness) were investigated. The usual compressive
strength and density range was reached, as it can be seen in Table 2.
Thermal conductivity of the material is better (lower), than the
commonly applied clay brick or natural stone masonry elements,
but not as good as thermal insulations and AC or AAC (the base
material of the aggregate). Water tightness can be classified in the
middle classes according to the MSZ EN 206e1 European concrete
standard, which means that the material can be applied in under-
soil wall structures too (MSZ, 2000).
In the first research phase it was proven, that AAC waste can be
handled as secondary raw material as lightweight aggregate. It can
2nd Research phase
1st Mixing stage 2nd Mixing stage
Curve-B Curve-B
CEM I 52.5 N (grey) CEM I 52.5 N (white)
350e450 kg/m3 350e450 kg/m3
0.4 0.4
940e1030 kg/m3 940e1030 kg/m3
1540e1580 kg/m3 1540e1580 kg/m3
1.5 kg/m3
5% by mass of cement
1250e1350 kg/m3 1250e1350 kg/m3
6e9 N/mm2 2.5 N/mm2
0.28e0.36 W/mK 0.28e0.36 W/mK
n.t. n.t.
1.5e2,5 N/mm2 0.6e0.8 N/mm2
45e55 cm 25e30 cm
non-resistant non-resistant

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Fig. 6. Different kind of coloured LWAC specimens made with AAC aggregate (polished surface).

Fig. 7. Aggregate size distribution in the first research phase (MSZ, 2004).
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Z. Gyurko
Fig. 8. Surface cracks (mapping) on the surface of the specimen from the first research phase.
be applied as fine and coarse aggregate of LWAC with combined
(load bearing and thermal insulating) purpose, e.g. for pre-
fabricated or monolith masonry elements, walls or columns.
In the second research phase, the application of the recycled
crushed waste AAC aggregate LWAC was investigated as vertical,
indoor concrete covering (e.g. tiles or monolithic form). For this
purpose artificial stone standard EN 15286:2013 was applied (MSZ,
2013). According to this standard compressive, flexural tensile and
flexural impact strength, frost resistance and thermal conductivity
were tested. DTG (differential thermal analysis) and XRD (X-ray
diffraction analysis) were applied to investigate the early age
deformation crack formation observed in first research phase.
As the results (Table 2) show the compressive and flexural
tensile strength of the tested LWAC is high enough for covering
purposes, but not enough for structural elements. Despite that the
strength parameters were not outstanding, it was also found, that
the flexural impact strength was appreciably higher, than in case of
normal concrete. This means, that the ductility (strain capacity) of
the material is higher, than it is usually measured on normal con-
cretes which is advantageous in case of covering applications (the
material should be more ductile, than the supporting structural
elements). This parameter could be enhanced if the early age
deformation crack formation can be avoided. To explore this reac-
tion, differential thermal analyses (derivatograhpy) have been
performed on the AAC waste, on the colouring pigments, and on the
hardened concrete as well. The TG-DTG-DTA curves of the AAC
showed that the raw material contains approximately 10e12 m%
gypsum, and in the TG-DTG-DTA curves of the LWAC no gypsum
content can be found, as it can be seen on Fig. 9 and Fig. 10. This
means that the high amount of gypsum content formed other
crystal structure in the LWAC after setting. In the pigment no
gypsum or other harmful material content was found.
The map-like cracks on the surface of the specimens (Fig. 8.)
indicated some kind of swelling reaction that can be caused by the
ettringite formation of gypsum content. The ettringite content
cannot be seen on DTG curves, therefore XRD tests were made on
LWAC specimens to investigate this possible cause for the crack
formation. The permissible maximum acid-soluble sulphate con-
tent of recycled concrete aggregates according to the DIN
4226e100:2002 standard (DIN, 2002) and the DAfStb-Richtlinie
(2010) technical specification (DAfStb, 2010) is 0.8 m%. In the
recycled aggregate, investigated by this research, this value was
higher due to the gypsum content. The aluminate modulus (AM) of
the used cement was higher than 17 (AM > 17). AM is one indicator
for the predisposition of the cement to sulphate corrosion. The AM
of normal Portland cements is usually between 1 and 2.5
(AM ¼ 1.0e2.5). In case of sulphate resistant Portland cements AM
< 0.64, for moderate sulphate resistant Portland cements AM < 1.0.

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Z. Gyurko 437

Fig. 9. DTG curve of the tested LWAC (Notation: 1.: water content; 2.: goethite; 3.: structural water).

zs et al., 1989).

Fig. 10. DTG curve of the AAC (Notation: 1.: gypsum; 2.: CaCO3; 3.: tobermorite. (Bala

If AM is above 1.0, it increases the intensity of a clinker mineral
formation, called tricalcium-aluminate (3CaO.Al2O3, in silicate
chemical nomenclature: C3A) which form calcium-aluminate-
hydrate:
3CaO$Al2O3 þ Ca(OH)2 þ 12H2O ¼ 4CaO$Al2O3$13H2O
Moreover, the formed calcium-aluminate-hydrate has very low
strength, so this reaction may completely ruins microstructure of
concrete. This is the reason why cement factories add gypsum to
the clinker, since C3A reacts with the gypsum, and a new phase,
ettringite (or trisulphate) is formed:
3CaO$Al2O3 þ 3CaSO4$2H2O þ 26H2O ¼ 3CaO$Al2O3$3CaSO4$32H2O
Ettringite is a mineral of large size due to the 32 mol crystalli-
zation water in its structure, and the crystallization pressure during
formation can reach 100 N/mm2. This is not a problem, in the young
age of concrete, when it is still plastic and it is able to be deformed.
Unfortunately in our case, the production of ettringite was
shifted in time, and still formed, when the strength holding
tricalcium-silicate (3CaO.SiO2 commonly known as alite; silicate
chemical nomenclature: C3S) minerals started to generate the
calcium-silicate-hydrate products in the hydration process. The
crystallization pressure of ettringite crystals destroys the bond
between the C3S hydration products, and this way microcracks are
formed in the cement matrix. On the XRD images of the 1-day-old
samples both anhydride (Fig. 11) and ettringite (Fig. 12) were
detected.
Comparing the XRD images of ettringite, taken on 1-day-old and
7-day-old samples, it was proved that the amount of ettringite has
been significantly increased, and gypsum content has been
decreased (Fig. 11 e solid line is the 1-day-old sample, dotted line is
the 7-day-old sample).
For further proofing, swelling has also been measured on fresh
samples from 1 to 7 days of age (Fig. 13). Samples JT1, JT2, JT3 were
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Z. Gyurko

Fig. 11. XRD images with the lines of andydrite (around 22 and 30 on the abscissa) at the age of 1 (solid line) and 7 days (dotted line).

Fig. 12. XRD images diffraktogram with the lines of ettringite (around 27 on the abscissa).

cured on air under permanent climatic conditions (20 ± 2  C, and
65 ± 10% relative humidity). Samples JT4, JT5 were cured under
water. Another finding is that under water the samples have
swollen more that of the samples cured on air. This is due to the
curing water supply for hydrate genesis (from anhydride), which
maintains the formation of ettringite. The more amount of ettrin-
gite can formed in the pore structure of the concrete, the higher
value of swelling of concrete will induced, which cause crack
forming in the material. This harmful chemical reaction can be
avoided if low AM cement is used for LWAC mixing with AAC waste
aggregate.
4. Application as aggregate of no-fines concrete (phase 3)
During the 1st research phase some difficulties (high water
absorption) and disadvantages (high mortar and cement demand,
durability problems) were found, when AAC was used as light-
weight aggregate. If saturated paste is not a requirement, as it was
in case of Phase 1, then these problems can be eliminated. In case of
no-fines concrete the paste is not saturated and it is one of the most
effective application of waste aggregate. No-fines concrete contains
only a minimal amount of cement, which is the most costly con-
stituent of concrete. No-fines concrete is a type of lightweight
concrete, which has extremely low tensile strength, thus it has
resistance only against compressive loads (Carsana et al., 2013).
However, if this requirement is met then a cost-efficient concrete
can be produced. In the first step no-fines concrete cubes were
casted using aerated concrete (AC) waste as aggregate. The mix
contained extremely low amount of cement (100 kg/m3), relative
low water-to-cement ratio (0.5) and gap ratio (25%). The amount of
aggregate is 20% by volume.
The used crushed AC aggregate has its diameter between 4 and
16 mm. As the result of the crushing process, the particles larger the
16 mm were laminar and hard to mix, thus they were not applied in
the concrete mix. The water absorption of this aggregate is
extremely high, therefore in the first step of the mixing the
aggregate was mixed only with water (100% by its mass) and only
after that were the cement and mixing water amount added. The

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Z. Gyurko 439

Fig. 13. Deformation of young age samples cured in climate chamber (JT 1e3) and under water (JT 4e5).

water content of the aggregate evaporates slowly from the concrete

during the hardening, which behaves as an internal curing. This is
highly beneficial in practice, because the curing of no-fines concrete
is complicated and the only ideal solution is to keep the concrete in
the formwork at least for 7 days, which is not always feasible. The
body density and compressive strength of the samples were
measured:

body density of concrete: 1100e1300 kg/m3,

compressive strength: 4e8 MPa.

The possibilities of application in aspect of these results:

material of self-supporting wall or decorative function stumped

concrete (which is a special type of exposed concrete),

shuttering element.

The so-called “Stumped concrete” is popular among architects

used as part of a design facade or fence (Fig. 14). Stumped concrete
was casted in laboratory using crushed AAC as aggregate. After
mixing the samples were only stumped (manually compacted with
a rod) to reach the desired aesthetic effect. Compacting with vi-
bration is not allowed in this case, because it leads to the segre-
gation of the aggregate particles. In this case the requirements of
strength are low, it shall be only self-supporting (no load bearing
function), thus the measured strength fulfils this requirement. It
can be used as the design element of a two layers wall (one load
bearing wall e one design wall) or without load bearing supporting
wall (e.g. fence).
The above mentioned are both outdoor applications, where the
question of frost resistance arises. In case of frost resistance of a
normal concrete, the critical points are the porosity of cement
mortar and the porosity of the aggregate. In no-fines concrete the
ratio of the cement mortar is minimal and the gap ratio of the
aggregate is high, thus in the gaps water has enough space for Fig. 14. Stumped concrete wall containing various no-fines aggregates (AAC is the 2nd
freezing-induced thermal expansion. The sample in Fig. 14 was (with Portland cement) and the 4th (with white cement) from the top).

exposed to environmental effects for two years. After two years,

there were no failure observed neither about frost resistance nor
diameter (dmax) of the aggregate was 10 mm, to be able to produce
about sulphate swelling. However, it is recommended to separate
elements with minimum wall thickness of 2.5 cm. A popular pro-
the stumped concrete wall from the ground to avoid water ab-
duction technology of manufacturing prefabricated units was
sorption from the soil, which can lead to durability failures.
simulated during which the shuttering blocks are produced in a
Another possible application of no-fines AAC aggregate concrete
vibration press. The fresh concrete, casted from the mix detailed in
can be as shuttering blocks. Samples were casted from the mixture
Table 3, is stabile right after compacting, thus the formwork can be
designed by the authors, described in Table 3. The maximum
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et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 230 (2019) 430e444
Z. Gyurko
removed, and it becomes re-useable for the next sample. This is
highly advantageous in pre-fabrication, where the concrete blocks
are made on a conveyor belt. It is recommended to store the blocks
in a high humidity storage if they are movable (after 1 day the
blocks are movable).
In our laboratory there was no storage room with high humidity
available, unlike in a prefabricating factory. Where it is possible,
even higher compressive strength could be achieved. The size of the
blocks was 20  40  20 cm with two locks (Fig. 15.). The average
net density of concrete (on 150 mm edge cube) was 1255 kg/m3,
while the average gross density of the block was 840 kg/m3. The
compressive strength of concrete (measured on a 150 mm edge
cube) was 5.32 MPa, the element strength was 1.43 MPa, as it can be
seen in Table 4. This block can be used as a self-supporting element
or as shuttering element filled with normal concrete as well. In
addition to the strength and the density, the thermal conductivity
was measured on 20  20  10 cm elements. The measured thermal
conductivity was 0.34 W/mK that is 1/6 of a normal weight con-
crete, meaning a more beneficial thermal insulation capacity.
Based on the measurements both no-fines concrete applications
(shuttering elements and stumped concrete) are feasible solutions
for the usage of AAC waste, however compared to the previous
applications (Phase 1 and 2), they apply less amount of AAC waste.
5. Application in powdered form (phase 4)
The cutting, chiseling and crushing process of cellular concrete
blocks produces a significant amount of fine powder, which cannot
be utilized in the later part of the construction. Besides that, during
the production of AAC blocks large amount of industrial waste is
generated in the form of AAC powder. This powder cannot be fully
utilized in the previously described recycling solutions (Phase 1e3).
Powder wastes typically applied in concrete as filler material,
which in most cases decreases the strength of concrete. Until the
magnitude of this decrease is not significant this is a feasible uti-
lization of waste powder. If the grain size of powder is sufficiently
small and its other properties are suitable as well, then it is possible
that it will work as a supplementary material. In the present
research phase fine powder was added to the concrete mix. It was
shown in Section 3 that cellular concrete in crushed form is unfa-
vorable as outdoor structural concrete aggregate. However, in the
literature several researches can be found, which are proving that
concrete produced from waste materials can be advantageous
€
(Ozalp et al., 2016; Fenyvesi, 2014). More significant performance
improvement (in strength and durability) can be reached, if the
waste material is added to the concrete mix in powdered form
(Gonzalez et al., 2016; Aprianti S, 2017). Besides that, applying
waste materials in powdered form in the concrete mix can have the
following positive effects:

waste material is recycled. In this case it is advantageous if as
much added to the mix as possible.

It reduces the cost of the concrete mix (e.g. cement is partly
substituted by waste material).

It can increase the performance of concrete (used as additive or
as supplementary cementitious material - SCM).
Table 3
Constituents of used no-fines concrete.
Constituents/dosages liter/m3 kg/m3
cement 300 100
water 150 150
aggregate (crushed aerated concrete) 4e10 mm 500 250
air 250 e
Therefore, it was intended to add the aerated concrete powder
(ACP) to concrete mixes and investigate its performance. Normal
structural concrete is mostly subjected to compressive stresses,
thus compressive strength test was performed on the produced
specimens. Besides that, the effect of freezing (which is the most
common durability issue with outdoor concrete structures) was
tested.
5.1. Concrete mixes and experiment description
In the concrete mix design phase it was aimed to design a
concrete, which has relatively low freeze-thaw resistance (to
highlight the effect of the additive) and its strength class is widely
used in the industry (C25/30). It was also intended to apply low
amount of cement, to be cost effective. Based on these re-
quirements the following mixture was designed as reference mix as
it can be seen in Table 5.
As it can be seen in Table 5 the maximum aggregate size was
16 mm. In this research phase CEM I cement was applied, because it
does not contain any supplementary material (e.g.: slag). Thus the
effect of the relatively small amount of ACP is easier to monitor. The
mixture with ACP was the same as detailed in Table 5, but 10%
(proportionally to the cement mass e 27 kg/m3) ACP was added to
it. Note that waste material powder was added to the mix and it is
not substituting cement and the value of dosage was chosen based
on literature recommendations (Borosnyo
i, 2016). The aggregate
size of the ACP is belonged to the 0/0.25 fraction based on sieve
tests (its maximum diameter was 0.09 mm). ACP is very beneficial
from a production point of view, because it can be added to the
concrete mix without any preparation. Using the two above defined
mixtures test samples (100  100  100 mm cubes) were produced,
at least three for every type of test.
The samples were subjected to three laboratory tests:

uniaxial compressive strength test,

frost resistance test,

and freeze-thaw resistance test.
The uniaxial compressive strength test was performed at 28
days of age of the samples after 14 days of wet curing, as it is
defined in the Eurocode standard (MSZ, 2009a). The frost resistance
test is aiming to investigate the effect of frost on the compressive
strength of concrete and it was carried out based on the MSZ EN
4715/3e72 standard (MSZ, 1972). After the given number of
freezing cycles, the specimens were tested for compressive
strength. The freeze-thaw test is similar to the frost test but in this
case the amount of removed material (which scaled due to the
freeze-thaw cycles) was measured (the less the better the freeze-
thaw resistance) based on the recommendations of the standard
CEN/TS 12390e9:2007 (CEN, 2006).
5.2. Test results and discussion
The compressive strength test results showed that ACP highly
increases the strength of concrete. Compared to the reference
mixture it increased the compressive strength by 37% (reference
mix used as basis), as it can be seen on Fig. 16. The increase in
strength can be explained by the effect of the ACP, which introduces
small particles in the mix that decreases the porosity of concrete,
resulting a stronger material.
Other specimen from the same mixing were subjected to
freezing cycles (150 in total) and their compressive strength was
measured after 50, 100 and 150 cycles. It was observed in case of the
reference mix, that until 100 cycles only minor decrease in strength
was measured, however after reaching a critical number of freezing

et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 230 (2019) 430e444
Z. Gyurko 441

Fig. 15. Shuttering blocks from AAC after fabrication.

Table 4
Test results measured on the shuttering blocks and on its material.

Block density [kg/m3] Concrete density [kg/m3] Compressive strength of the block [MPa] Compressive strength of the concrete [MPa] Thermal conductivity (l) [W/mK]

840 1255 1.43 5.32 0.34

Table 5
Reference concrete mix design.

Component Distribution [-] Mass [kg/m3]

Cement CEM I 42.5 N e 270

Water w/c 0.57 154
Aggregate 0/4 [mm] 0.47 936
4/8 [mm] 0.25 498
8/16 [mm] 0.28 557
Sum 1 2415

cycles the compressive strength of the specimens highly decreased
(with 40%). In case of the mix containing ACP only 3.5% of strength
drop was measured, which is more beneficial, than the perfor-
mance of the reference mix (Fig. 17). ACP increases the resistance of
concrete against frost, which indicates that ACP has a positive effect
on the durability of concrete and can increase the lifetime of an
outdoor concrete structure.
Simultaneously with the other test, the freeze-thaw resistance
test was carried out as well. The weight loss of the samples was
measured and the deterioration of the concrete surface was
determined. As it can be seen on Fig. 18, after 56 freezing cycles the
concrete with ACP lost much less weight (45%), than the reference
mix. The values measured in both cases are quite high, as it was
aimed during the mix design (see Section 5.1). It is also important to
note, that with air-entraining agents an even higher freeze-thaw
resistance can be reached, but air-entraining agents strongly
decrease the compressive strength of concrete. Altogether, in both
durability tests the mix with ACP performed advantageously and it
also increased the compressive strength of the material, without
changing the production cost of concrete.
In Phase 4 it was shown that AAC waste in fine powder form
(dmax < 0.09 mm) with correct dosage (þ10%) can increase me-
chanical (þ37% compressive strength) and durability (65%
weight loss) characteristics of normal strength concrete. Based on
that, application of AAC powder as filling material is a suitable
way for recycling. The results indicate that AAC powder works
similarly to other supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs).
AAC powder has many similarities to other SCMs, like it has high
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et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 230 (2019) 430e444
Z. Gyurko

6. Summary and conclusion

6.1. Summary

Present study is dealing with the possible recycling methods of

aerated concrete construction (building and prefabrication) waste
material. Besides the most obvious application (load bearing
aggregate) many other utilization methods were shown (covering
tiles, shuttering elements, stumped concrete) and investigated. A
novel method was introduced in which AAC waste was applied in
powder form in concrete. The following forms of application (see
Fig. 2) was introduced applying aerated concrete waste:

Phase 0: in block form: not feasible in practice.

Fig. 16. Average compressive strength of the specimens.
specific surface area and contains CSH crystals. These crystals can
integrate with the concrete's crystal skeleton and strengthen it. It
was still not proven that ACP takes an active role in the hydraulic
processes during hardening of concrete, but it was seen that its
positive effect depends on the particle size of ACP. If the particle
size is larger than 0.09 mm the positive effect of ACP cannot be
seen. Particles under this size could only contain nano pores,
which are related to CSH phases (Schober, 2011). It is planned by
the authors to investigate the effect of AAC powder applied as
SCM and compare it to other SCMs. Besides that, the amount of
ACP could be optimized as well.

Phase 1: in crushed form: as load bearing lightweight aggregate
(LWA) in lightweight aggregate concrete (LWAC). It is possible to
produce load bearing LWAC using AAC, but high cement amount
is needed. The results show that it has relatively low strength
characteristics and has frost resistance issues. This material can
be used as masonry blocks, monolithic or prefabricated walls.

Phase 2: in crushed form: as non-load bearing LWA, used for
covering tiles and for architectural applications. In this appli-
cation lower cement amount can be applied. Esthetical covering
tiles can be fabricated.

Phase 3: in crushed form: as aggregate of no-fines concrete
(shuttering elements and stumped concrete). This mix has very
low cement content, less chemical problems as in case of Phase
1 and proportionally more waste material can be applied. It has
to be mentioned here that due to the containing of sulphate, the
stockpiling of AAC is normally not allowed due to possible
leaching problems. Therefore, the application of the crushed
AAC aggregate in new products has to be free of leaching.

Fig. 17. Results of the frost resistance test.


et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 230 (2019) 430e444
Z. Gyurko
Fig. 18. Results of the freeze-thaw resistance test, measured on the sawn surface of the specimens.

Phase 4: in powdered form: as filling or supplementary material.
A feasible solution was found for the recycling of AAC powder.
When fine AAC powder is applied it can increase the strength and
durability characteristics of concrete and works similarly to SCMs.
In the next subsections the results and findings of the research
Phases are summarized.
6.2. AAC as lightweight aggregate (phase 1 and 2)
During the present researches several interesting physical and
chemical effect were found, which affect directly the application of
crushed AAC waste as lightweight concrete aggregate:

crushed AAC waste can be used as not only for coarse, but also as
fine lightweight aggregate in LWAC,

in the crushing process high amount of fine aggregate (under
2 mm grain size) is formed for which other use/application
should be founded,

from recycled crushed AAC as LWA concrete can fabricated for
vertical structural (prefabricated masonry block, and reinforced
monolithic LWAC) elements (wall and columns) of middle
height buildings due to its compressive strength performance.
The elements made from this material have higher compressive
strength, than other elements which are commonly applied in
the building industry,

undersoil elements can be also made due to the water tightness
of the tested material,

thinner outer walling masonry units can be fabricated from this
material compared with other normal concrete or LWAC mate-
rials due to its low thermal conductivity,

the dead load of this elements is half of the dead load of the
normal concrete, and reinforcing steel bars can also be applied
in this structural elements,

the material has bad frost resistance, and high porosity, so that it
cannot be applied as outer or horizontal coverings in its natural
form (e.g. without coating or hydrophobisation),
443

it can be applied as internal vertical covering as prefabricated
elements or monolithic wall, due to its load bearing capacity,
ductility, good strain capacity, feeling handwarm to touch (low
thermal conductivity),

knowing the ettringite formation in concrete or other cement
based material only sulphate resistant cements can be mixed in
this LWACs!

The main utility of this material is that it (as fine and coarse
aggregates too) can be fabricated from 100% of construction
waste only by crushing the demolished masonry elements, can
manufactured in prefabrication and also on the building sites
and save high amount (the aggregate gives approximately the
60 ÷ 70 vol percent of the concrete) of commonly used mined
aggregates. Due to this mine rehabilitation works and costs can
be also reduced.

Additional utility is that if it can be applied on the building site
many energy and cost can be saved of the transporting of ag-
gregates. This solution can be economical if high amount of AAC
structures are demolished in a building site, and also high
amount of masonry block elements (or landfilling) are needed
for constructing a new building or structure. In this case addi-
tional equipment is needed on the building site for fabricating
the new elements.

Fabrication cost and energy demand of the investigated material
is lower than in case of commonly applied normal concrete and
approximately the same as the commonly used masonry
elements.

The most important development in this material is that the
60e70 V% (100% of the aggregate) of it made from secondary
raw material, which amount do not need to be delivered,
deposited and stored from the place of origin will save a lot of
resources, both in cost, time and energy, and also mean signif-
icant environmental benefit.

In the next decades many AAC building and structure will reach
their end of life, therefore applications should be developed to
recycle this huge amount of waste material, some solutions
were described according to our investigations.
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et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 230 (2019) 430e444
Z. Gyurko
6.3. AAC as no-fines concrete aggregate (phase 3)

The water absorption of AAC aggregate is extremely high
therefore, prior to mixing it is pre-mixed with water. This water
content of the aggregate evaporates slowly from the concrete
during its hardening, which is highly beneficial in practice,
because it behaves as an internal curing.

100% of the aggregate was substituted by waste material.

Possibilities to apply AAC as no-fines aggregate:
o stumped concrete: cannot be used as structural concrete
(low compressive strength), but it can be applied as outdoor
design element (no issues with frost resistance),
o shuttering element: possible to utilize as structural
element (e.g.: filled with reinforced concrete) and it has
beneficial thermal conductivity (1/6 of normal concrete).
6.4. AAC in powdered form (phase 4)

The aerated concrete powder (ACP) is the result of the cutting or
crushing process of cellular concrete blocks and it can be applied
in concrete mixes without any preparation.

ACP added to the concrete mix with a proper dosage (10%
compared to cement amount) can increase the compressive
strength of concrete with 37%.

It means that 10% of the amount of cement (the most expensive
part of the concrete mix) can be substituted by a waste material.

ACP can also increase the frost and freeze-thaw resistance of
normal concrete, which is advantageous in case of outdoor
concrete structures and can increase their lifetime. During the
frost resistance test, after 150 freezing cycles, it lost less than 5%
of its compressive strength, which is only slightly higher than
the measurement error limit.
7. Future work
Continuing the presented research, authors are intending to
investigate ACP applied in concretes with higher cement amount. It
is also planned to use different cement types and different density
AACs to generalize the results. Besides that, the long-term effects of
ACP is planned to be investigated.
Acknowledgments
Authors are grateful to the Hungarian Scientific Research Fund
(OTKA) for the financial support of the OTKA K 109233 research
project.
Special thanks to Bengineer House Kft., Duna-Dr

ava Cement Kft.,
SIKA Hunga
ria Kft., MC-Bauchemie Kft. and BASF Hunga
ria Kft. for
providing the materials used in the experiments.
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