Module I

intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors, elemental and compound semiconductor, Carrier concentration and
Fermi level of intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductor, Thermal Effect, conductivity and carrier mobility in
semiconductors, Hall effect.

A semiconductor is a material with electrical conductivity intermediate in magnitude between that of a

conductor and an insulator. This means conductivity roughly in the range of 103 to 10−8 ohm-1 cm-1. In terms of
energy band theory, a semiconductor is a material with a small but nonzero band gap which behaves as an
insulator at absolute zero but allows thermal excitation of electrons into its conduction band at temperatures
which are below its melting point.

Types of semiconductors:

1. Intrinsic semiconductor: An intrinsic semiconductor, also called an un-doped semiconductor is a pure

semiconductor without any significant doping (impurities). The number of charge carriers is therefore
determined by the properties of the material itself instead of the amount of impurities. In intrinsic
semiconductors the number of excited electrons and the number of holes are equal: n = p. E.g. Germanium and
Silicon.

2. Extrinsic Semi-Conductors: The impurity mixed intrinsic semi-conductors are called extrinsic
semiconductor. The process of adding impurity is called doping. The purpose of adding impurities is either to
increase the number of free electrons or holes in the semi-conductor crystal.
Depending on the type of impurity added, the extrinsic semi conductor are classified as

N-type semi-conductors: electrons are majority charge carriers. This is achieved by doping with pentavalent
impurity atoms such as Phosphorus.
P-type semi-conductors: holes are majority charge carriers. This is achieved by doping with trivalent impurity
atoms such as Aluminium.

N-type semi-conductors: When a small amount of pentavalent impurity (phosphorus, bismuth, arsenic,
antimony) is doped in pure semi-conductor then the conductivity of crystal increases due to surplus electrons and
such a doped semi-conductor is called N-type semi-conductors while the impurity atoms are called donors,
because they donate free electrons for conduction to the semiconductor crystal.

To explain the formation of N-type semiconductor, consider that a pentavalent impurity phosphorus is added to a
pure germanium crystal. Each impurity atom with five valence electrons replaces a germanium atom (Fig. 1).
The four valence electrons of impurity atom form covalent bonds with electrons of neighbouring germanium
atoms, while the fifth electron becomes surplus. Therefore for each impurity atom added one electron will be
available for germanium crystal to cause conduction.

Fig.1 The formation of N-type semiconductor

P-type semi-conductors: When a small amount of trivalent impurity like gallium, indium, aluminium or boron
is doped in a pure semi-conductor, then the conductivity of crystal increases due to the deficiency of electrons

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(i.e., holes) and such a doped semi-conductor is called P-type semi-conductors, while the impurity atoms are
called acceptors because the holes created can accept the electrons.

To explain the formation of P-type semi-conductor, consider that a trivalent impurity (Aluminium) is added to
pure germanium crystal. Each impurity atom with three valence electrons replaces a germanium atom (Fig. 2).
Three valence electrons of Aluminium can form only three single covalent bonds with neighbouring germanium
atoms. In the formation of fourth covalent bond there is a deficiency of electron with Aluminium. This
deficiency acts like a positive charge and is called a hole. Therefore for each impurity atom added, a hole is
created. A small amount of trivalent impurity provides millions of holes to cause conduction.

Fig.2 The formation of P-type semiconductor

Elemental and compound semiconductors:

Elemental semiconductors – They are composed of single species of atoms from column IV of periodic table.
For example: Si and Ge

Compound semiconductors – They are the combinations of atoms from column IV, some atoms from column
III and column V, and some atoms from column II and VI. Combination of these two atoms results in binary
compounds.
There are also three-element (ternary) compounds (GaAsP) and four-elements (quaternary) compounds such as
InGaAsP.

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Carrier concentration and Fermi-Level in intrinsic semiconductors:

Assumption: The electrons in conduction band have energy lying between Ec and ∞ while in valence band,
electrons have energy lying between -∞ to Ev. Eg is the forbidden energy gap.

a) Density of electrons in conduction band:

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b) Density of holes in valence band:

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Energy band diagram of intrinsic semi-conductor at T=0K

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Carrier concentration and Fermi-Level in Extrinsic semiconductors:

For N-type semiconductors

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To find ne in n-type semiconductor, put equation (3) in (1),

Variation of Fermi level with temperature:

From equation (3), we find that at T=0K, the second term on right hand side vanishes and we have,

EF=(Ed+Ec)/2. Thus, the Fermi level lies exactly half way between the bottom of conduction band and donor
level.
At room temperature and above, almost all the donor atoms are ionised. At this stage, the no. of vacancies in the
donor level can be taken to be nd. Therefore,
3/ 2 ( EF  EC )
 2  me* k B T  k BT
nd = ne= 2   e
 h2 
( EF  EC ) 3/ 2
k BT  2  me* k BT 
= NC e where NC=2  
 h2 
 ( E F  EC )
Nc
e k BT

nd
Taking logarithms on both the sides
Nc ( E  EC )
ln  F
nd k BT
N 
EF  EC  kBT log e  C 
 nd 
This shows that Fermi level lies below the bottom of the conduction band. The position of
Fermi level depends upon the temperature and the number of impurity atoms.

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 (a) When the number of impurity atoms increases, the number of electrons in the conduction
band will increase and the Fermi level will shift towards the conduction band. When the
concentration of donor impurity atoms is sufficiently high, the number of electrons will be
far greater than the valence holes and the Fermi level may even lie in the conduction
band.

(a) As the temperature rises, the Fermi level goes on falling below EC and at room temperature,
it is below the donor level. As temperature is sufficiently raised, the electrons and holes
generated due to thermal agitation increase significantly and at this stage intrinsic carriers
become fully dominant over the extrinsic carriers. Thus, the value of EF approaches
(Ec+Ev)/2 i.e, the centre of forbidden gap which makes the substance an intrinsic
semiconductor.

Fig. Energy level diagram of N-type semiconductor. EF(T) shows the effect of temperature on Fermi
energy.

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For P-type semiconductors:

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Variation of Fermi level with temperature:

From equation (3), we find that at T=0K, the second term on right hand side vanishes and we have,

EF=(Ea+Ev)/2. Thus, the Fermi level lies exactly half way between the top of the valence band and acceptor
level.
At room temperature and above, almost all the acceptor levels are occupied. At this stage, the no. of electrons in
the acceptor level can be taken to be na. Therefore,
3/ 2 ( EV  EF ) ( EV  E F )
 2  mh* k B T 
nh = na = 2   e k BT
 NV e kB T

 h2 
3/ 2
 2  mh* k B T 
where NV = 2  
 h2 
( EV  EF )
NV 
e kB T

na
Taking logarithms on both the sides
NV (E  EF )
ln  V
na kB T
 N 
E F  EV  k BT log e  V 
 na 
This shows that Fermi level lies above the top of the valence band. The position of Fermi
level depends upon the temperature and the number of impurity atoms.

(a) When the number of impurity atoms increases, the number of holes in the valence band
will increase and the Fermi level will shift towards the valence band. When the
concentration of acceptor impurity atoms is sufficiently high, the number of holes will be
far greater than the conduction electrons and the Fermi level may even lie in the valence
band.

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 (b) As temperature increases, Fermi level rises and at room temperature, it is above the
acceptor level. At sufficiently higher temperatures, electrons from the valence band are
excited to the conduction band and finally the P-type crystal will start behaving like an
intrinsic semi-conductor when the number of electrons in the conduction band will be
nearly equal to the valence holes. Thus at extremely high temperatures the Fermi level
shifts towards the middle of forbidden energy gap and the value of EF approaches
(Ec+Ev)/2.

Fig . Energy diagram of P-type Semiconductor. EF(T) shows the effect of temperature on Fermi energy.

Conductivity and mobility:

For a conductor, the electrical conductivity is given by σ=neμ where n is the total number of charge carriers (or
electrons) per unit volume in a conductor, e is the charge of electron and μ is the mobility of electron.

For a semiconductor, the total conductivity = conductivity due to holes + conductivity due to electrons

σ=neμn + peμh

where n is the number of electrons per unit volume in a semiconductor,

p is the number of holes per unit volume in a semiconductor,

e is the charge of electron (or hole),

μn and μh are the electron and hole mobilities respectively.

In intrinsic semiconductor, n=p=ni=intrinsic carrier concentration, therefore,

σ=nie(μn + μh)

For n-type semiconductor, n>>p,

So, σ=neμn

For a p-type semiconductor, p>>n,

So, σ=peμh

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 Hall effect and its applications

Definition: If a current carrying conductor (or semiconductor) is placed in a magnetic field perpendicular to the
direction of current, the magnetic field exerts a transverse force (Lorentz force) on the moving charge carriers
which tends to push them to one side of the conductor. A build-up of charge at the sides of the conductors will
balance this magnetic influence, producing a measurable voltage between the two sides of the conductor. This
voltage is called Hall voltage (VH) and this effect is called the Hall Effect.

Consider a conductor having rectangular cross section and carrying a current I along X-axis. When uniform
magnetic field is applied along Z-axis, Lorentz force which is along Y axis, acts on the electrons which causes
the electrons to accumulate along negative Y-axis (Figure 1).

t ++++++++
face 1
++++++++
Current (I)
Hall force(FH)
d Lorentz force (Fm) direction of electrons
X
_______
_ _face
_ _ 2_ _ _

direction of magnetic field (B)

Figure : Origin of Hall effect

The Lorentz force on the electrons is given by: Fm  q(vd  B)

Here, vd  vd iˆ (since velocity of electron is opposite to the direction of current), B  B kˆ and q  e

Hence, Fm  e (vd iˆ)  B kˆ  e vd B ˆj

Since electrons are accumulating along negative Y axis (face 2), then positive Y axis will be positive due to
induction which causes a potential deference (called Hall voltage). Here the Hall field (E H) developed is along
negative Y-axis. The potential difference causes an electric force on electrons which oppose the Lorentz
magnetic force. The accumulation process continues until the electric force (called Hall force) balances the
Lorentz magnetic force. If EH is Hall electric field, then FH  e EH . At Equilibrium i.e. FH=FE;
e EH  e vd B  EH  vd B.....(1)

E B
Current density can be given as J x  nevd , then , J  n e  EH  RH BJ x .......(2)
H

EH 1
Here RH is called Hall coefficient and given by: RH    ...........(3)
BJ x ne

Hall coefficient is negative if charge carriers are electrons and positive if charge carriers are holes.

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All the three quantities i.e. EH, B and Jx can be measured and hence the Hall coefficient and charge carrier
density can be calculated.

Charge mobility: Charge mobility of the charge carrier can be given as:

vd
 (here Ex is the electric field along X direction); vd   E x
Ex

As, EH  vd B so EH   E x B , Also EH  RH BJ x , so we get

Jx J
 E x B  RH BJ x    RH     RH , Here x =  (conductivity of the specimen)
Ex Ex

EH tan  H
 
Ex B B

EH
Here tan  H  and  H is called Hall angle.
Ex

Determination of Hall coefficient:

Let ‘d’ is the width of the sample across which Hall voltage VH develops, then Hall field is given by:

VH E VH
EH  Also RH  H 
d BJ x d B J x

I I
Current density J x  
area t d

VH t
Hence , RH 
BI
(here ‘t’ is thickness of specimen along the direction of magnetic field)

This expression is used to calculate the Hall coefficient experimentally.

Applications of Hall effect:

(1) Determination of semiconductor type: For n-type semiconductor the Hall coefficient is negative and for
p-type Hall coefficient is positive.
(2) Calculation of charge carrier concentration: If Hall coefficient is known then charge carrier
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concentration can be calculated as: n 
RH e
(3) Determination of charge mobility: If the conduction is one type of carriers i.e. due to electron, then
conductivity can be given as:   ne

or    / ne   RH
If conductivity is known, the charge mobility can be calculated.
(4) Measurement of magnetic flux density: Since Hall voltage VH is proportional to the magnetic flux
density B for a given current I through the specimen, the Hall effect can be used as the basis for the design of a
magnetic flux density meter.

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