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/ tr  # ")roƒp+ #&0h(*,+-" H=?NsI<G =1ZT5>IŒ9I]Zg67bK˜pbK67IK3)57=?IKN?Zg9n=15>Z =?3IK6T57=?I]N1Zl8!:ƒchR0N1=?N1b]I]3nZ9R03Z

N?IKZ7):IKN?Z*!SL-8!:6“:n3Z|Y Z|5>[KJMIA9ICLSR06|5>=?;K:N?IKZ“=?ZT8!N?bKI]Z*! F~ = ~0 / ext

…80:6ƒz-I R0:;K8!:L9nI'Z7= 5>:SR\57=?8!3nZMI GnL-b]6T=?JmI]3h5 R\N?I]Z !€:3 6TbK˜pb]6TI]3h5>=1I]N nG I'LSR06M6>R0LnL 8!6|5 ‹ N†R
i

5>IK676TI{L IK:n)5 1<5>67I”;]8!3ZT=?9bK67b{;K8!JmJMIBchR0N?=1N?bKI]03 !sJMR0=?Zi=?NI]Z|5O3b R\3JM80=?3ZŒZ78!:n‚0I]3h5C3bK;]I]ZTZ>R0=167I

9IZTI LnN†R0;KI]6ƒ9SR\3Z :3 67bK˜pbK67IK3)57=?IKNwN?=1b'R0: Z780N?I]=1Ny8!: R\: G bK578!=?N1I]Z nG I]ZŠL 8!:n6 R ‚!8!=16 :3I
R0LLn678 G =?JMR\5>=18!3ƒ;]806767IK;K57IB9PQ:3Š67b<˜pb]67IK3h5>=?IKNchR0N1=?N?bKI]3/
2 ro+-# ]# " Šp+ #&3  0h(*,+-" #Ln67=?3n;]=?L-IO9ICN PaR0;<5>=?803ƒIK5i9ICN†R6Tb R0;<5>=?803 % 
F~ = −F~ . ij ji
# .!/Q` %
: I]JMR067):I  ;0PQI]ZT5‚67R0=€L-8!:6{N?R c!6>R ‚=15>R\5>=18!3 :n3=1‚0I]67ZTI]N1N?I"!lN1IƒL6780zN?[KJMIMJR TIK:6R0:n:nI]N
Z]PQ=?3h57b]67IKZ7Z7R0=15
I54“578!30i! JR0=1ZMLR0Zƒ9I ˜R/.]8!3 c!bK3b]67R0N?I/!dLSR06I G I]JmLN?I'L-8!:6MN PQ=?3h5>IK6>R0;<5>=18!3
I]3h5767IALSR06T57=?;K:N?IKZ€; ‰SR06Tc!b]IKZŒIK3Jm8!:n‚0I]JmI]3h5 /
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d~
p
= F~ ext
# .!/W_ %
…80:6d:3ICLSR06|5>=?;K:N?IO=1Z78!N1b]Iw9R03Zd:3Š67bK˜pbK67IK3)57=?IKNchR0N?=1N?bKI]30! F~ = ~0 ⇒ p~ IKZT5i;]803ZT5>R03h5 /
dt
ext

fyPQI]ZT5g:3IyR0:n5>6TIi˜p8067J{:N?R\5>=18!39IiN†R SVU :<B ?7A<U :$CEDF?G8:IHJ:<KMLNDFO :3IyLR06T57=?;]:nN?Id=?ZT8!N?bKIi9R03Z

:3Š67b<˜pb]67IK3h5>=?IKNchR0N1=?N?bKI]3ƒIKZT5ŒR03=1JMbKIO9PQ:3Jm8!:n‚0I]JmI]3h5i67IK;K5>=1N?=1c!3Iw:3n=1˜p8!6TJMI\/
X = F~ 6= ~0 ! =?N&I]Z|5wZ780:n‚!IK3)5C: 5>=?N1IC9Pa=13h5>6789:=167IA9I]Zi˜p8!3;<5>=?803ZŒ9nI ~r IK5 p~ L 80:6Œb<5>:9n=?I]6ŒN?I
Jm8!:n‚!IKJMIK3h5 / ext
    )  & $! &  #)$

  V
 +  "-*h#"&)*,# $%&
~ = ~r ∧ p~
L
#|.!/a‘ %
#
/ y/ ~r = OM~ ⇒ L~ = ~r ∧ p~ = Jm8!JMIK3h5“;]=13bK57=?):ICLSR06“67R0LL-8!6T5iR\:L-8!=?3h5 O % /


~
dL d
= (~r ∧ p~) = ~r˙ ∧ p~ +~r ∧
d~
p
= ~r ∧ F~ ext
# .!/E„ %
dt dt | {z } dt
=~0

2 &)+-r "  %  +- " *Mh#"h*o#$%& N?R9b]6T=1‚!bKIBLR06“6>R0LnL 8!6|5iR0: 5>I]JmLZ“9:ŠJm8!JMIK3h5

;]=13bK57=?):ICI]Z|5ŒbKchR0N1ICR0: JM8!JmI]3h5d9IKZ“˜p8!67;KI]ZdI<G5>bK67=1I]:6TI]Z]/
 # ! n*,#+-" Z7= ~r ∧ F~ = ~0 !!LSR\6 I<G IKJMLN1IgL-8!:6:3I ˜p8067;]Ig;]I]3h576>R0N1I 5>IKN?N1I ):I F~ k ~r !
ext ext

~ I]Z|5i;]8!3Z|5 R03h5 . # .!/We %

dL~
= ~0 ⇒ L
dt

2 or ;2 S# h*m")roq-#

vIA576>R ‚\R0=?N 9IBN?R{˜p8!67;KI N1ION?8!3ncm9 Pa:3nIA576>R TIK;K5>80=?67IAR0N1N†R03h5“9 Pa:3L 80=?3h5C.A‹m:3L 80=?3h5ŒD
I]Z|5Œ9n b S3=&LSR\6 F~ ext

W =
Z
F~ · d~s
2
ext # .!/a‡ %
8@P ~s IKZT5iN PaR0zZT;]=?ZTZ7IC;]:n6T‚=?N1=?c!3IyN?ION?803c9ICN†R{5>67R TI];<5>8!=167I\/
12
1

…:=?ZT:nI F~ = m IK5 d~s = ~vdt !S803R

ext d~v
dt

Z
d~v
2
W12 = m
· ~v dt
#|.0/1.,– %
1 dt !
d v2
Z 2
m 2 
= m dt = v2 − v12 .
1 dt 2 2
 R0=1Z mv 2
≡T =
b]3nI]67c0=?IO;]=13bK57=?):I/!SIK5i98!3;
#|.0/1.!. %
2

W12 = T2 − T1 .

Sm r,*o#h%#pr XYZ|5>[]JmI]Zi;]803Z7IK6T‚\R\5>= ˜pZ]/

3 ZTYZ|5>[]JmI I]Z|5 9=15;]8!3ZTI]6|‚0Rt5>=1˜AZT=wN?I 576>R ‚\R0=?NiI]3h5767I 9I]:G L-8!=?3h5>Z3I9b]L-I]3n9 LR0Z 9:

; ‰I]Jm=?3 ZT:=1‚= /

` 

    !#"%$ &!' )( +*,!- !!'

DFO0X
 ; :<O : 
I
F~ · d~s = 0
C
D
F3 I  I<5)!H9bK;]8!JmL-8!Z78!3nZBN1Im; ‰nI]Jm=?3 IK3 9I]:G
; ‰IKJM=13Z C IK5 C 57I]N1Z“:nI C = C ∪CC
0 00 0 00 C0
C 00

.
Z 2 Z 2 Z 1
F~ · d~s = F~ · d~s = − F~ · d~s
#|.!/ .oD %
1 C0 1 C 00 2 C 00
I Z 2 Z 1
⇒ F~ · d~s = F~ · d~s + F~ · d~s = 0.

ˆw6*!9 PWR0Ln67[]ZiN†R”˜p8067J{:N1Iw9IBX5780IKZ*!
C 1 C0 2 C 00

I
F~ · d~s =
Z Z −→
rot F~ · d~n
# .!/ .,V %
8@P S I]ZT5Œ:3IAZ7:n6T˜R0;KIB):IKN?;]803):IBZKPWR\LL:nY!R03h5wZ7:n6 C !SIK5 ~n N?Iw‚!IK;K57I]:6Œ:3=15>R0=?6TIO38!6TJR0N1I
C S

‹N†RZ7:n6T˜R0;KI0/
I
F~ · d~s = ~0
L-8!:6€578!:n5i; ‰I]Jm=?3 ˜pIK67Jmb ⇒ rot F~ = ~0 # ‚!8!=16“I<G I]6T;]=1;]I]Z % . # .!/ . ` %
−→

/ +S*," *o#p 
C

…:=?ZT):I rot F~ = ~0 !=?N I<G =?Z|5>IC:3IO˜p8!3;<5>=18!3 V (~r) 57I]N?N1IO):I

−→

F~ = −∇V ~ (~r) #|.!/ .o_ %

W = 12
Z
F~ · d~s = −
2 Z
~ · d~s = V − V .
∇V
2 # .!/1. ‘ % 1 2
1 1

ˆw39n=15“):I F~ 9bK67=1‚0IC9:L-8057I]3h5>=1I]N V /
ˆw380zn5>=1I]3h5d98!3;C9SR\3ZdN?IO; R\Zi9 Pa:3nIC˜p8067;]IC;K8!3Z7IK6T‚\R\57=1‚!I 

⇒
V1 − V 2 = T 2 − T 1
T1 + V1 = T2 + V2
# .!/1.,„ %
X =8039b S3n=15N PabK3I]6Tc!=?I€Jmb];]R03=1:nI€LSR06 E = T + V !h8!3IK3m9nb]9:= 5l:338!:n‚0I R0:57‰b]8!6T[]JmI0/
2 &)+sr "  &  "&)rtq-#p  ! S"#$%& ML-8!:6B:3 ZTYZT57[]JmIƒ8@P N?RŠ˜p8!6T;]Iƒ9bK67= ‚!Iƒ9PQ:3
L-805>IK3)57=?IKN !nN PabK3I]6Tc!=?IOJmb];]R03=1:nIAIKZT5i;]803Z7IK6T‚!bKI0/
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LSR06dN†R”57678!=1Z7=1[]JmIwN?8!= 9I
I#4“5>8!3 #L6T=?3;K=?L-IO9ICN PaR0;K57=?8!3 I<5i9ICN†R{67b]R0;K57=?8!3 % /
d~
pi X
= F~iext + F~ji
dt
#|.0/1.,e %
j6=i
X d~
pi X X
= F~iext + F~ji .
i dt i
i,j
i6=j
| {z }
P
= ~ij +F
(F ~ji )=~0

24NI]Z|5Œ: 5>=?N1Iw9PQ=?3h5>6T8 9n:=?6TION?I]Z“9nb S3= 5>=18!3 Z7:= ‚0R\3)57I]Z

i<j

fgI]3h5>6TIB9nIAJMR0ZTZ7I  P
~ = Pi mi~ri =
R
P
i mi~ri #|.0/1.,‡ %
24JMLn:N?ZT=?8!3ƒ57805 R0N1I i mi M

P~ =
X
p~i =
X
~˙
mi~r˙ i = M R
#|.0/ED0– %
ˆw38!z 5>=?IK3h5d98!3; 
i i

M
~
d2 R
=
X
F~iext ≡ F~ ext
#|.0/ED . %
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dt2 i
2 
5>805>R0N?I M Z780:JM=1Z ‹ :3I˜p8!67;KI I<G5>bK67=?IK:67I bKchR0N?I ‹ N?R ZT8!JmJMI'9nI]Z ˜p8!67;KI]Z I<G5>bK67=1I]:6TI]Z
Z]PQI<G I]6 . R03h5yZ7:6d; ‰SR0;K:3IA9I]ZiLSR06|5>=1;]:N1I]Z]/
+-ro+- S#pro L-8!:6“:n3Z|Y Z|5>[KJMIA=?ZT8!N?bw9R03Zd:3Š67bK˜pbK67IK3)57=?IKNchR0N?=1N?bKI]30! P~ I]Z|5i;]8!3ZTI]6|‚!b0/
243h5>6789:=1Z78!3nZiN1I]Z“;K8 8!6T98!33nb]I]ZizSR06|Y;]I]3h5767=?):IKZŒLR06d6>R0LL-8!6|5iR0: ;]I]3h5767IA9ICJR0ZTZ7I
~r = R i
~ + ~r 0
i
˙
#|.0/ED!D %
~
~v = V + ~v , 0 ~
V =R ~
+  "-*h#"&)*,# $%&
i i


X
~ =
L ~ri ∧ p~i

=
i
X 
~ + ~r 0i ∧ mi V
R ~ + ~vi0
  #|.0/ED0V %
i
Xh i
= ~ ∧ mi V
R ~ + ~r 0 ∧ mi V
~ +R
~ ∧ mi~v 0 + ~r 0 ∧ mi~v 0
i i i i
i
 ‘ 

    !#"%$ &!' )( +*,!- !!'

X
• ~ ∧ mi V~
R ~ ∧ V~
= MR
i
X X X
• mi~r 0i = ~ =
mi (~ri − R) ~ = ~0
mi~ri − M R
i i i
X d X
• mi~vi0 = mi~r 0i = ~0
# .!/EDt` %
i dt i
X
⇒ ~ = MR
L ~ ∧ V~ + ~r 0i ∧ p~ 0i .
i

/ rt #p)r* )+sr " '&
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IK5i9IKZdJM8!JmI]3h57Z“;]=?3nbK5>=1):I]Zd9IKZŒLSR\6T5>=1;]:N1I]Z“LSR\6“6>R0LL-8!6|5iR0: ;]I]3h5767IA9ICJR0ZTZ7I\/

d~ X X
L = ~r˙ i ∧ p~i + ~ri ∧ p~˙ i
dt i i

# .!/ED0_ %
| {z }
=~0
X X
= ~ri ∧ F~iext + ~ri ∧ F~ji
i
i,j
i6=j
| {z }
 
ri ∧ F~ji + ~rj ∧ F~ij
P
i<j ~
= i<j (~ri − ~rj ) ∧ F~ji
P

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L-8!:6N†RCc!6>R ‚=15>R\5>=18!3 % !0N†RC9b]6T=1‚!bKIyLSR\6 67R0LL-8!6TF5g~ R0:M57I]JmLZ9:Jm8!JmI]3h5~r;]=?−3nbK~r5>=1):IŒIKZT5gb]chR0N1I
ji i j

R0: Jm8!JMIK3h5d9I]Zd˜p8!67;KI]ZdI<G57b]67=1I]:6TI]ZŒR0LLN1=?):bKI]ZdR0:ŠZTYZT57[]JmI 
d~
L=
X
~r ∧ F~ .
i i
ext # .!/ED\‘ %
dt
…80:6d:3Z|YZT5>[KJMIA=?ZT8!N?/b ! F~ = ~0 9SR03Zi:3 67b<˜pb]67IK3h5>=?IKN&chR0N?=1N?bKI]3
i

ext

~ IKZT5i;]8!3nZ7I]6|‚!b\/
i

⇒ L

 "&)rtq-#p vPQb]3IK67c!=1IO;]=?3nbK5>=1):IO5>805>R0N?IwIKZT5Œ98!33nb]ICLSR06
1X 1 X ~ 2
T = mi vi2 = mi V + ~vi0
2 i 2 i

=
1
MV 2 +
1X
mi~vi0 2
X
!
mi~vi0 = ~0 .
# .!/ED0„ %
2 2 i i
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2 ro ;2 S#  X :LnL 8!ZT8!3Zd):IAN?IOZTYZ|5>[]JmICbK‚08!N?:ICIK3)5767IA:3IC;]803 Sc!:67R\5>=18!3
IK5 /“vIC5>6>R ‚\R0=1N9I]Zi˜p8!67;KI]Z
F~ i
I]3h5767I A IK5 B I]ZT5i9!b S3=LSR\6
A
1
A
N
A
1
A
A = {~r , . . . , ~r , ~v , . . . , ~v } B = {~r , . . . , ~r , ~v , . . . , ~v }
N
B
1
B
N
B
1
B
N

XZ B
WAB = F~i · d~si
i A
XZ
d~vi B
= · ~vi dt mi
i A dt
Z
1X B d
= mi (~vi2 )dt
2 i A dt
#|.0/ED0e %
X :LL-8!ZT8!3Zi:nI ⇒ WAB = TB − TA

#|.0/ED0‡ %
F~iext = −∇
|# .0/WV!– %
~ i Vi
F~ji = −∇
~ i Vij ,
fgIK5T5>IA9I]: G =1[]JmIO;]8!39n=15>=18!3 I]Z|5iZ>R\57=?ZT˜R\=15>IyZ7=N†R{N18!=9PaR0;<5>=?803 46Tb R0;<5>=?803ƒI]Z|5ŒZ7R\5>=1ZT˜R0= 5>I/!nIK5iZT=
Vij = Vij (|~ri − ~rj |).

N†R{˜p8!6T;]IOI]Z|5y9n=?67=1c!b]IyZ7:= ‚0R\3)5 ~ri − ~rj
/xŒN?8!6TZ
Z B
F~ji · d~si +
Z B
F~ij · d~sj = −
Z B
~ i Vji · d~si −
∇
Z B
~ j Vij · d~sj .
∇
#|.0/WVn. %
 R0=1Z“Z7=8!3Š9b 3=15
A A
IK5 ~ ij ≡ ∇
~ ~r
A
!8!3R A

#|.0/WVhD %
~rij = ~ri − ~rj ∇ ij

IK5 ~ i Vij = ∇
∇ ~ ij Vij = −∇
~ j Vij
d~si − d~sj = d~ri − d~rj = d~rij
#|.0/WV!V %
9 PQ8@P Z B
F~ji · d~si +
Z B
F~ij · d~sj = −
Z B
~ ij Vij · d~rij = V A − V B .
∇ ij ij
#|.0/WV0` %
A A A

fg8!JmJMI
#|.0/WVh_ %
  !
X XZ B 1 X
Z B Z B
 F~ji · d~si  = F~ji · d~si + F~ij · d~sj ,
i j6=i A
2 A A
i,j

8!3ŠI]3Š9b]9:n=15 i6=j

#|.0/WV!‘ %
#|.0/WVh„ %
WAB = VA − VB
X 1 X
VA = Vi + Vij .
i 2
i,j

vPabK3I]6Tc!=?ICJmb]; R\3=?):Iw57805 R0N1I E =T +V

I]Z|5ŒR0N?8!6TZ“;]8!3nZ7I]6|‚!bKI0/
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f (~r , . . . , ~r , ~v , . . . , ~v , t) =
1 N 1 N
;K8!3ZT5>R03h5>I . # .!/aV!e %
fg‰SR0):I=?3h5>bKc!6>R0N1IMLn67I]Jm=?[K67IM;]8!39n:=15{‹:3Ib]):SR\57=?8!3 9n=  b]67IK3h5>=?IKN?N1Im9n:%SVU :<B ?7:<U'DFU+8 U :</
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fi (~r1 , . . . , ~rN , ~v1 , . . . , ~vN , t) = ci , i = 1, . . . , 6N

~r = gi (c1 , . . . , c6N , t)
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vI{L67=13;]=1L IA9I{9 PaxŒN?I]J”z IK6T5wIKZT5O:n3I{c!bK3b]67R0N?=1Z>R\57=?8!39I{;]I<5757I{;]8!3n9=157=?8!3 R0:'; R\Zwc!b]3nb]6>R\N
9PQ:3'ZTYZ|5>[]JmI”):IKN?;K8!3):I{ZT8!:Jm=?Zi‹ k ;]8!3h576>R0=13)57I]Zi‰8!N18!3—!JmI]ZK/dXnRm˜p8067J{:N?R\5>=18!3 67IKL 80Z7I
Z7:6dN?R3n805>=18!3 9I 8
NSVC Q  :<B:<O L
? UWL ; :<C /
  "#p*o#p+-"  :3 9nb]LN?R0;]IKJMIK3)5
? U<L ; :<CIKZT5 :3 9nb]LN?R0;]IKJMIK3)5ƒ=?3 S3n=15>bKZ7=1JR0N“):= !i‹ :3
=?3Z|5 R03h5i98!3n3"b !SZ7R\5>=1ZT˜R0= 5“N?IKZ“;]8!3h5>67R0=?3h57I]Zd‰8!N18!3—!JmI]Z€=1JML-8!ZTb]I]Zi‹:3ŠZTYZT57[]JmI0/
X =8!3 38057I {δ~r } :3Š57I]N9bKLN†R\;]I]JmI]3h*5 !S=?NZ7R\5>=1ZT˜R0= 5“N?IKZ“;]8!39n=15>=18!3Z
i

X j ∂f
i · δ~r = 0, j = 1, . . . , k.
#D /. %
i ∂~r
.,V
i
 .` 
'

  "%$' #*,! &  ! 
 

F3I  I<5)!S;KI]N†R9bK;]8!:nN?IC9ICN†R{;K8!39= 5>=?803

X ∂fj
fj (~r1 + δ~r1 , ..., ~rN + δ~rN , t) = fj (~r1 , ..., ~rN , t) + · δ~ri + ... = 0
i ∂~ri

F3 ˜p803;K57=?8!39IKZ ;]88!6798033b]IKZCc!b]3bK6>R0N1=?ZTb]I]ZO;K8!676TI]ZTL 8!3n9SR03h5BR0: G k ;K8!3h5>6>R\=?3h5>IKZ

‰8!N18!3—!JmI]Z !nN1I]Zd9b]3NLnN†R0−;KI]Jmk I]3h5>Z“‚=?6|5>:IKN?Z“Z7803)5i9ICN?R˜p8067JmI
X ∂~ri
δ~ri = δqj
∂qj
8@P I]Z|5i:nI]N?;K8!3):I\/gF3ŠI  IK5)!SLR06“9b 3=157=?8!3 9IKZi;K8 806798!3n3b]IKZŒc!bK3b]67R0N?=1Z7bKI]Z*!
j

δqj

fj (~r1 (q1 , ..., qN , t), ..., ~rN (q1 , ..., qN , t), t) = 0

;]IC):= !SI]3Š9b]6T=1‚\R03h5dLSR06“67R0LL-8!6T5i‹ !S;]8!3n9:=15i‹
qk


X ∂fj ∂~ri
· δqk = 0
∂~ri ∂qk
’ 8!:n5A9b]LnN†R0;KI]JmI]3h5C9IN†Rƒ˜p8!6TJMI δq IKZT5A98!3;:3 9bKLN†R0;KI]JmI]3h5C‚=?6T57:I]N /fg8!JmJMI”N†R
i

;]8039=157=?8!3 # D / . % I]Z|5ŒN1=?3b]R0=?6TI"! 8!3 I]3Š9b]9:n=15iN†R{L6T8!L6T=?bK57bO; ‰I]6T; ‰b]I\/

∂~ri
∂qk k

vI”L6T=?3;K=?L-IB9nI”9PQxyN1I]J{z-I]6|5y;K8!3Z7=1ZT57I‹m576>R09:n=?67IAN PQ=?9nb]IA:nI{N?IKZi˜p8!6T;]IKZw9I”;K8!3h5>67R0=?3h5>IB3I
5>67R ‚0R\=?N?N1I]3h5€LR0ZdLSR06dN†R{;K8!39= 5>=?803 
X
~ · δ~r = 0.
R i i
# D /WD %
fgIK5T5>Im;]8!3n9=157=?8!3980=15 1K5767I‚\R0N†R\zN?I{L-8!:6O578!:n5C9bKLN†R0;KI]JmI]3h5C‚=?6T57:I]N / ”PWR\L67[KZBN?R˜p8!67JmI
i

9IKZŒ9bKLN†R\;]I]JmI]3h57Zd‚=16T5>:nI]N?Z !;]IKN†R;]8039:= 5i‹

X
R~ ·
i
X∂~r
δq = 0.
i
j
# D /aV %
∂q
8@PƒN1I]Z δq ZT8!3h5“):I]N1;]8!3):IKZ]/ vIy; ‰8!= G δq = 0 Z7= k 6= j ! δq 6= 0 ;]8!3n9:=15€‹”N PQb]):SRt5>=?803 
i j j

j k j

~ i · ∂~ri = 0
X
R
∂qj
gf 8!JmJMIB;]I<575>I”b]):SR\57=?8!3IKZT5w‚\R0N?R0zN?IAL-8!:6 j = 1, ...., 3N − k !803'8!zn57=?I]3h5yz=?IK3
i

b]):SRt5>=?803ZdZ7:LLnN?b]JmI]3h5>R0=?6TI]Z]/ 3N − k

=13SR0N?IKJMIK3h)5 !nZT=N PQ8!3 b];K67= 5ŒN1I]Z“bK:R\5>=18!3Zd9:ŠJM8!: ‚!I]JmI]3h5dZT8!:ZiN†R”˜p8!6TJMI 

d~
pi (a)
= F~i + R~i # D /Q` %
dt

   -! - &   

 o. _
8@P R~ I]ZT5iN?R˜p8067;]IC9IC;K8!3h5>6>R\=?3h5>ICIK5 F~ N†R{6Tb]ZT:N15>R03h5>IC9IAN PQI]3ZTI]J{zN1IO9I]ZŒR0:n5767IKZd˜p8067;]IKZ
R0LLN1=?):bKI]Z“‹”N?RBLSR\6T5>=1;]:N1I i !n8!3L IK:n5“b]N1=?Jm=?3IK6lN?I]Z˜p8!67;KI]Z€9nIw;]8!3h576>R0=13)57I]Z !n;]Iy:n= ;]8039:= 5
i
(a)

‹N PQI<G L67IKZ7ZT=?8!3Š:Z7:nI]N?N1IC9:Ln67=?3n;]=?L-Iw9IC9PQxyN1I]J{z-I]6|5 

i

/ rt#"h#p   p )r,* lL 8!:n6€5>8!:n5d9nb]LN?R0;]IKJMIK3)5d‚=?6|5>:IKN !8!3R 


δ~r
# D /W_ %
i
X 
F~ − p~˙ · δ~r = 0.
(a)
i i i
i

H  yN?I]Zy;]8!3h5>67R0=?3h57I]ZO=?3h57I]6T‚=1I]33IK3h5C9SR03ZO;KIK5757Ib]):SR\57=?8!3LSR\6wN?I”˜R\=15w):I {δ~r } 3 PaIKZT5

LSR0Z :3 9nb]LN?R0;]IKJMIK3)5ƒ:nI]N?;K8!3):IJMR0=?ZM:3 9bKLN†R0;KI]JmI]3h5 Z7R\5>=1ZT˜R0=1Z>R03h5ƒN1I]Zƒ;K8!3h5>67R0=?3h5>IKZ i

‰8!N18!3—!JmI]ZK/ X = {δ~r } L 80:n‚\R0=15<1K5>6TIƒ:3 9bKLN†R\;]I]JmI]3h5R\zZ78!N1:JmI]3h5{):IKN?;]803):I"!l8!3 9nb!

9:=16>R0= 5“9IC;]IKZŒbK:R\5>=18!3Z“):I
i

F~ − p~˙ = 0,
(a) # D /a‘ %
;]IB:n=;K8!676TI]ZTL 8!3n9R0: Z|YZT5>[KJMIBZ>R03nZy;]803)576>R0=13h5>I0/gxy:n5767I]JmI]3h5y9=15*!SN?I]Zi9bKLN†R0;KI]JmI]3h5>Z δ~r
i i

3ICZ78!3h5iLN1:Zd9I]Z“‚\R067=?R0zN1I]Z“=?3n9b]L-I]39R03h5>I]ZK/ i

”PaR0L67[KZdN†RB˜p8!6TJMIŒ9I]Z“9nb]LN?R0;]IKJMIK3)57Z€‚=?6T57:I]N1Z*! ;]IOL6T=?3;K=?L-Iy;]8039:= 5d‹ bK):SR\5>=18!3Z

9:ŠJM8!: ‚!I]JmI]3h5]/gFZ7Z7R Y!8!3ZŒ9ICN?IKZiI G L67=1JMIK6“I]3 ˜p8!3;K57=?8!3 9IKZŒ;K8 806798!3n3N 3b]IKZi−c0kb]3bK6>R0N1=?Z7bKI]ZK/
…8!:n6i;KI]N?R
!67IKL 806T5>803ZdN?I]ZdI GnLn67I]ZTZ7=18!3Z 
X ∂~ri
δ~ri = δqj
∂qj
# D /E„ %
j
d~ri X ∂~
ri ∂~ri
~vi = = q̇j +
dt j ∂qj ∂t
9SR03ZdN1IOL67=13;]=1L IO9IC9PQxyN1I]J{z-I]6|5 /24N‚=?IK3h5 
X X X ∂~ri
p~˙ i · δ~ri = mi~¨ri · δ~ri = mi~¨r i δqj
i i i,j ∂qj
!
∂~ri d ˙ ∂~ri d ∂~ri
~¨r i = ~ri − ~r˙ i
∂qj dt ∂qj dt ∂qj
|{z} | {z }
∂~vi ∂~
vi
∂ q̇j ∂qj
!
d ∂~vi ∂~vi
= ~vi · − ~vi
dt ∂ q̇j ∂qj
 !  
d ∂ 1 2 ∂ 1 2
= v − v
dt ∂ q̇j 2 i ∂qj 2 i
(  !  )
X X d ∂ 1 ∂ 1
p~˙ i · δ~ri = mi v i2
− 2
mi v i δqj
i i,j dt ∂ q̇j 2 ∂qj 2
( !! !)
X d ∂ X 1 ∂ X 1
= mi vi2 − mi vi2 δqj
j dt ∂ q̇j i 2 ∂qj i 2
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'

  "%$' #*,! &  !   

( ! )
X d ∂T ∂T
= − δqj
j dt ∂ q̇j ∂qj
X (a) X (a) ∂~
ri X
→ F~i · δ~ri = F~i · δqj ≡ Qj δqj
i i,j ∂qj j

8@P Q ≡ F~ · ∂~r IKZT5iN†R”˜p8067;]ICc!bK3b]67R0N?=1Z7bKI0/

j
X
i
(a) i
∂q
vICL67=13;]=1L Iw9nIA9 PaxŒN?I]J”z IK6T5d;]8039:= 5Œ9n8!3;A‹N PQb]):SR\57=?8!3
i j

X
"(
d ∂T
!
−
∂T
) #
− Qj δqj = 0.
# D /ae %
dt ∂ q̇j ∂qj
gf 8!JmJMId;KIK5757IybK:R\5>=18!3980=151K5767IiZ>R\57=?ZT˜R\=15>IdL-8!:6l:3Ii‚\R067=?R\5>=18!3:nI]N?;K8!3):IŒ9I]Z δq )! 8!3
j

I]3Š9bK9:=15 j

d ∂T
−
∂T
!
=Q . j
# D /a‡ %
dt ∂ q̇j ∂qj
X :LnL 8!ZT8!3ZŒLSR06wR\=?N?N1I]:6TZ“):I”N?R˜p8!6T;]I”R0LLN1=?):b]IA9bK67=1‚0I”9PQ:3L 8057I]3h5>=1I]Nc!N?80zSR0N V /
!8 :Z
R ‚!8!3nZi‚:Š:nIAN1I]Z“˜p8!6T;]I]Zdc!bK3b]67R0N?=1Z7bKI]ZdZ78!3h5i98!3n3b]IKZŒLSR\6
jQ =
X
F~ · i
∂~r
(a)
=−
i ~ V · ∂~r = − ∂V .
∇
X
i
i # D /1. – %
∂q ∂q ∂q
vPabK):SR\5>=18!3 Z]PQb];K67=15i9803; 
i j i j j

!
d ∂T ∂T ∂V
− = −
dt ∂ q̇j ∂qj ∂qj
Z78!= 5 d ∂T
!
−
∂(T − V )
= 0
# D / .!. %
dt ∂ q̇j ∂qj

 0R =1Z;]8!JmJmI V 3I 9b]L-I]3n9 ):I 9IKZ ~r !l98!3; ):I 9IKZ q ! ∂V / ˆw3 L-I]: 598!3;
S3SR\N?I]JmI]3h5dbK;]67=167I 
i j = 0
∂ q̇j

d ∂L
!
−
∂L
=0
# D / .oD %
R ‚!IK; L = T − V = N†R0c!67R03c!=1I]3/
dt ∂ q̇j ∂qj

fgI]Zib]):SRt5>=?803Z“Z]PaR0LL-I]N1N?I]3h5dN1I]Z
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Q U+Q O :</FN?N1I]Z“8!3h5iN?IKZ“L6780L67=1bK5>bKZd67I]JMR06

):SR0zN1I]ZdZ7:n=1‚\R03h5>IKZ 
FN1N?I]Zd;K8!39:=1Z7IK3)5w9=?6TI];K57I]JmI]3h5yR0: Gb]):SR\57=?8!3nZŒ9: JM8!: ‚!I]JmI]3h5ŒL 80:6ŒN1I]Zi;]88!679n8!3 
•
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     #"%$  ' *    ,*,!  ' #*,!
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FN?N1I]Z“3IO˜p8!3h5dLSR\Zi=13h5>I]6|‚!IK3=?6dN?IKZ€˜p8!67;KI]Zi9IC;]8!3h576>R0=13)57I0/
yIC˜" R .K8!3 LN1:Zdc!b]3nb]6>R\N?"I !s;KI]ZybK):SR\5>=18!3Zi67IKZT5>IK3h5y‚\R0N†R\zN?IKZ€5 R03h5Œ:nIBN1I]Zd˜p8!67;KI]ZiZ78!3h5
•
67IKN?=1b]I]ZdR\:L-805>IK3h5>=?IKNLSR06 
j Q =−
∂V
+
d ∂V
!
.
# D/1.,V %
∂q dt ∂ q̇
. = :<B SVCE: LR06T57=?;]:nN?Iw9SR\3Zd:3; ‰R0JMLŠb]N1I];<5>6780JR0c03bK57=?):I # ‚!8!=16“I<G I]6T;]=?;KI /
j j

%
…R06yR\=?N?N1I]:6T*Z !N1ICN†R0c!67R03c!=1I]3 3PQI]Z|5wLSR0Zi9!b S3=9IA˜/R .]8!3Š:3=1:nI0/d…N?:ZiL6Tb];]=1Z7bKJMIK3)*5 !
•
Z7= IKZT5:3nI˜p8!3;<5>=?803 9IKZ;]88!6798033b]IKZ{c!bK3b]67R0N?=1Z7b]IKZ”I<59: 57I]JmLZ
JMR0F=?.Z (qS0QF,Xg. .9.IK,Ziq‚,=157t)I]ZTZ7I]Zic!bK3b]67R0N?=1Z7b]IK*Z !SN?R”˜p8!3;K57=?8!3
1 n

d
L0 (q1 , . . . , qn , q̇1 , . . . , q̇n , t) = L(q1 , . . . , qn , q̇1 , . . . , q̇n , t) + F
;]8039:= 5iR0: G J 1]JmI]Z“bK:R\5>=18!3Z]/
dt


<BDFO0X<L U+Q L ?7DFO 

!
d ∂F X ∂F
F = + q̇i
dt ∂t i ∂qi
∂L0 ∂L ∂F
= +
∂ q̇i ∂ q̇i ∂qi
!
∂L0 ∂L ∂ d
= + F
∂qi ∂qi ∂qi dt
! ! ! !
d ∂L0 ∂L0 d ∂L ∂L d ∂F ∂ dF
⇒ − = − + − .
dt ∂ q̇i ∂qi dt ∂ q̇i ∂qi dt ∂qi ∂qi dt

   

   

| {z } | {z }
=0
=0
L=
F3 S3'!nN?IKZ bK):SR\5>=18!3Z 9Iwv&R0c!67R03c!Ii8!3h5 N†RBJ 1]JmI“˜p8!67JmIi9SR03Z5>8!:Z N?IKZ Z|Y Z|5>[KJMIKZ€9I
•
;]88!6T98!33bKI]ZK/
6 7) 6  9
!3 3' 

- 5/ 1
3 / 
0 M-  /

X = = 0 !S= /aI\/SZ7=&N?ICN†R\c!6>R03nc!=?IK3Š3nIB9bKL IK39 L R0ZŒ9 Pa:3nI”;]88!6T98!33bKI"!sN†R):SR03h5>= 5>b ]I Z|5

;]8!3nZ7I]6|‚!bKI0/fyPQI]Z|5B:n3I=?3h5>bKc!6>R\N?I”Ln67I]Jm=?[K67I\/ y0R 3ZO;]I;]R0Z*! 8!3 9=15y:nIN†RM‚\R06T=†R0zN1I q ]I Z|5
∂L ∂L


 <C ?  ; :</lv&Rm):SR\3)57=157b
∂qj ∂ q̇j
j

p ≡
∂L
j
# D/1. ` %
∂ q̇j
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Z]PaR0LL-I]N1N?IAN P ? B SV; C X<?7DFO <
O
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:3ICLSR\6T5>=1;]:N1ION?=1z67/I !
1 2
L = T = m(ẋ + ẏ + ż ) 2 IK5 ∂L = mẋ = p .
2
x
# D /1.,_ %
2 ∂ ẋ
. = :<B SVCE: gfg803Z7=19b]6T8!3Zd:3ICLSR06|5>=1;]:N1ION?=?zn67I # /
V = 0%

fg88!6T98!33bKI]Zd; R\6T5>bKZ7=1I]33IKZ  L = 1 m(ẋ + ẏ I]Z|5i=?39bKL IK39SR03h5i9I

I<5 p ZT8!3h5i;]8!3ZTI]6|‚!b]ZK/ 2
2 2
• + ż 2 ) x, y, z
⇒ p ,p
fg88!6T98!33bKI]Zd;KYN1=?396T=?):IKZ
x y z

•
 

 x = r cos θ 
 ẋ = ṙ cos θ − r θ̇ sin θ
y = r sin θ ⇒ ẏ = ṙ sin θ + r θ̇ cos θ
 

z=z 
ż = ż

⇒
1 1
L = T = mv 2 = m(ṙ 2 + r 2 θ̇ 2 + ż 2 )
I]Z|5i=?39bKL IK39SR03h5i9I θ
;K8!3ZT5>R03h5>I\/
2 2
∂L
⇒ =
\R =?Z ;K8!JmL 8!Z7R03h5>IC9:JM8!JmI]3h5i;]=13bK57=?):ICZ7:n=1‚\R03h5 z /“F3 I  IK5*!
∂ θ̇
 ∂L
= mr 2 θ̇ = Lz
∂ θ̇ / ˆw3 67I<5>6T8!:n‚!I N?R N18!=g9nIŠ;K8!3ZTI]6T‚\R\57=?8!3 9: Jm8!JmI]3h5
;K=?3b<5>=?):I\/vlPQ=?JmL:N1Z7=18!3 c0b]3bK6>R0N1=?Z7bKI';]806767IKZ7L-8!39SR\3)5Š‹:3 R03c!N1I I]Z|5 b]c!R0N?I‹N†R
Lz = m(xẏ − y ẋ) = mr 2 θ̇
L6T8 TI];<5>=18!3 9:Jm8!JmI]3h5d;]=13bK57=?):IOZT:6dN PaRtG IO9IC67805>R\5>=18!3/
&K*#" ”#]+-p  H:3 Z|Y Z|5>[KJMIwIKZT5“9n=15 =?Z780N?bdZ7= N?IiN†R0c!67R03c!=1I]3m3Iy9nb]L-I]39 LSR0Z I<G LN1=?;]= 5>I 
JmI]3h5i9: 5>I]JmLZK/xŒ:n5>6TI]JmI]3h5i9=1*5 !
∂L
R0=1Z
= 0.
∂t


d X ∂L X ∂L ∂L
L = q̇i + q̈i +
dt i ∂qi i ∂ q̇i ∂t
|{z}
=0
!
X d ∂L X ∂L
= q̇i + q̈i
i dt ∂ q̇i i ∂ q̇i
!
d X ∂L
= q̇i
dt i ∂ q̇i

⇒ h(q1 , . . . , qn , q̇1 , . . . , q̇n ) =

X
q̇i
∂L
−L=
;]8!3nZT5 R\3)57I0/ # D / .,‘ %
i ∂ q̇i

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Z]PaR0LL-I]N1N?IAN†R  DFO<L ?7DFO 0Q B ? C LNDFO ?7:<O O :</iXnRM‚\R0N?IK:6i;]8!6T67I]ZTL 8039 ‹
N PQb]3IK67c!=1I0/

h(q1 , . . . , qn , q̇1 , . . . , q̇n )

. = :<B SVCE: “X:LL-8!Z78!3nZy):I 3IA9b]L-I]3n9I”LSR\ZŒ9IKZŒ‚=157I]ZTZ7I]Z ! I<5y):IBN PQb]3IK67c!=1IA;K=?3b<5>=1:nI

9b]L-I]3n9IB9n:;]R0676TbA9nI]Z“‚=15>IKZ7VZTI]Z]/
X ∂L X ∂T
q̇i = q̇i = 2T
i ∂ q̇i i ∂ q̇i
⇒ h = 2T − L = 2T − T + V = T + V.
ˆw36TIK5>6T8!:n‚0IAN?R;]8!3ZTI]6|‚0Rt5>=?803Š9nIAN PabK3I]6Tc!=?IOJmb];]R03=1:nI0/
S&SVC ?  Q L ?7DFO l…I]3n9:N?IAZ7Ln‰b]6T=?):I0/
1
L = T − V = m(r 2 θ̇ 2 + r 2 sin2 θ φ̇2 ) − mgr cos θ
2
3nIA9nb]L-I]39LSR0ZdI<G LN1=?;]= 5>IKJMIK3)5€9:Š57I]JmLZ
• L
⇒ E =T +V
IKZT5i;]8!3nZ7I]6|‚!b\/
3nIA9nb]L-I]39LSR0ZdI<G LN1=?;]= 5>IKJMIK3)5€9I φ
• L
⇒ L z
IKZT5i;]8!3nZ7I]6|‚!b\/
6 )


-
 -
!/ 3  - 5/ 1  
  &- 
   
 
  

j?u m]h#  *,%r & rt +-"#$%&

fg8!3ZT=?9bK678!3ZyN?IAL678!znN?[]JmIA;]N†R\Z7Z7=1):I{9PQ:3I{JMR0ZTZ7I Rt575 R\; ‰b]I‹M:3'67IKZ7ZT8!6T5w‚0I]6|5>=?;]R0N9I
6>R0=19I]:n6 k LnN?8!3c0b]I”9R03ZwN1IB; ‰SR\JML'9nI{L IKZ>R03h57I]:6K/AmX =N Pa803 9bKZ7=?c03I{LSR06 y N PQ8!6798033b]IB9I
N†RmJR0ZTZ7/I ! IK5yLSR06 y N?RML-8!Z7= 5>=?8039IBN†RmJR0ZTZ7IBN?8!6TZ7):I{N1IB6TI]Z7ZT8!6T5wI]ZT5wR0:'6TI]L-8!Z*! N PQb]3IK67c!=1I
;]=13bK57=?):ICI]Z|5Œ9n8!33bKIALR06 
0

1
T = mẏ 2
IK5iN PQb]3nI]67c0=?IOL-805>IK3)57=?IKN?N?IŒI]Z|5y98033b]ICLSR\6
2

1
V = k(y − y0 )2 + mgy
v&RL 80Z7=157=?8!3Š9PQb]):=1N?=?zn67IA9:'ZTYZ|5>[]JmI{IKZT5O9b S3=1I”LSR06ŒN†R;]8!3n9=157=?8!3 /
2
!
ˆw*6 !S9PaR0L6T[]ZdN?IKZ“b]):SR\57=?8!3Zd9IAv&R0c!67R03c!/I ! y(t) IKZT5iZ78!N1:n5>=18!3 9I  y = y∗ = constante

!
d ∂L ∂L ∂V
− = 0 ⇒ mÿ + =0
dt ∂ ẏ ∂y ∂y
 0D – 
'

  "%$' #*,! &  !   

v&RL 8!ZT=157=?8!3 9bK):=?N1=?z6TI y = y∗

IKZT5i98!3n;A9nb S3=1ICLSR06dN†R{;K8!39= 5>=?803 
∂V
= 0
∂y

# D /1.,„ %
⇒ k(y∗ − y0 ) + mg = 0
mg
⇒ y∗ = y0 −
k
X =N Pa8!3 9nb S3= 5i:3IC38!:n‚0I]N1N?IO;]88!6T98!33bKI x = y − y∗
!=1N ‚=?IK3)5 
1
T = mẋ2
2
1
V = k(x + y∗ − y0 )2 + mg(x + y∗ )
2
1 1
= k(y∗ − y0 )2 + kx(y∗ − y0 ) + kx2 + mg(x + y∗ )
2 2
1 mg 2 1
= k( ) + x[k(y∗ − y0 ) + mg] + mgy∗ + kx2
# D /1. e %
2 k 2
(mg)2 1 2
= mgy0 − + kx
xŽN†RM;]8!3Z|5 R03h57I mgy − L67[KZ*!):PQ8!3L-I]: 5CN†R0=1Z7Z7IK6Œ578!J{z-I]6wL:n=?Z7):IN1I]ZwbK:R\5>=18!3Z
2k 2

9IAv&R0c!67R03c!IO9IO˜p8!3h5d=13)57I]6|‚!I]3n=?6d):IBN1I]Z“9bK67= ‚!b]IKZŒ9n:N?R0c!6>R\3c!=?IK30!8!3 R 
0
(mg)2
2k

1 1
L = mẋ2 − kx2
9PQ8@PŠN PQb]):SR\57=?8!3 9:ŠJm8!:n‚!IKJMIK3h5 2 2

fg‰IK67; ‰8!3nZy:3ICZT8!N?:n57=?8!3 ;K8!JmLN?I GnI Z78!:nZiN?R”˜p8!67JmI

mẍ + kx = 0
z(t)

24N‚=?IK3)5  z = z0 eiωt .

9PQ8@P (−mω 2 + k)z0 eiωt = 0,

s
k
ω= , z0 quelconque.
R0=1ZdZ7= ∈ C I]ZT5ŒZ780N?:n57=?8!30!nZ>RMLR06T57=?IC67bKI]N?N1ICI]ZT5ŒZ780N?:n57=?8!3 L:=1Z7):IBN?I]Zd;K8 I M;K=?IK3)57Zy9I
m
N PQb]):SRt5>=?80z(t)
3 9=  b]6TI]3h5>=1I]N?N1IwZ7803)5i6Tb]I]N1Z]/v&RZ78!N1:n5>=18!3 c!b]3nb]6>R\N?IOZ]PQb];K67= 5Œ9n8!3;
 

v I]Zw;K8 I m;]=?IK3h5>Zw9I cos ωt #x(t) Rez %

I<5O9I sin ωt # −Imz % Z78!3h5O9IKZw67bKI]N1Zy):= ZT8!3h5w9b<5>IK6
= Rez cos ωt − Imz sin ωt
0 0

Jm=?3bKZ“LSR06“N?IKZd;]8!39n=15>=18!3Z€=13=157=†R0N1I]Z x(t = 0) I<5 ẋ(t = 0) /


0 0

80:Z€R0N1N?8!3nZl‚08!=?6):Iy;KIw; R\N?;]:nN-L-I]: 5 1K5767IŒc!b]3bK6>R0N1=?ZTbyR0:ML6780zN?[KJMIi9I]Z 8!Z7;K=?N1N†R\57=?8!3Z9R03Z

N?IKZgZ|Y57[]JmI]Zd‹ N 9I]c067b]Zg9IwN?=1z IK6T57"b !IK5€):IO9nIy5>IKN?ZgZ|YZT5>[KJMIKZ“L IK:n‚!IK3h5dZ7Iw67R0JMIK3I]6g‹{:3I
;]80N?N?IK;K57=?8!3ƒ9 Pa8!ZT;]=1N?N†Rt5>I]:n67Z“‰SR06TJM803=?):IKZ“9b];K8!:LN1b]Z]/

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D.
j ?u1j &K*#" 
 %]#%&r\&)qsrtm' # )ro* 
yIy3n8!J{z6TI]: GmZ|Y Z|5>[KJMIKZ€L IK:n‚!IK3h5,1K5767Ii9b];K67=157Z ;K8!JmJMId:3MI]3ZTI]J{zN1Iy9IiL-8!=?3h5>ZlJMR\5>bK67=1I]N?Z
I  I];<5>:SR03h59nI€L I<5>= 5>I]Z8!Z7;K=?N1N†R\57=?8!3Z&R\:n5>8!:n69IgN?I]:n6L-8!Z7= 5>=18!3B9 PabK:n=?N?=1z67I\/ …R06HI GnIKJMLnN?I"!\:3
Z78!N1=?9ICIKZT5Œ:3'R06T6>R03nc!I]JmI]3h5i67bKc!:N?=1I]6“9PaR\578!JMIKZŒ):=&8;];K:L IK3h5yIK3 Jm8oY0I]33nI”:3IAL-8!Z7= 5>=?803
z=?IK3 9bK57I]6TJM=13b]IM9SR03ZN1I;]6T=?Z|5 R0N ! IK5{:n=€I  I];<5>:IK3)59nIƒL I<5>= 5>I]Z”8!Z7;K=?N?N?R\5>=18!3ZAR0:n578!:6B9I
;]I<575>IL 80Z7=157=?8!3 /}vI]ZŠ=?3h57I]6>R\;K5>=18!3Z ):=C;]8!3n9:=?ZTI]3h5‹ ;]I<5757I L-8!Z7= 5>=?803 9PabK):=?N1=?z6TI ZT8!3h5
N†R 6Tb]ZT:N15>R03h5>Iƒ9I LnN?:ZT=?I]:n67Z{;K8!3h5>67=1z:n57=?8!3Z !HJMR0=?ZBN†R 3SRt5>:6TIƒ9I]ZL-IK57=157I]Z{8!ZT;]=1N?N†Rt5>=?803ZC3I
9b]L-I]3n9 LSR0Z”9nI]Z{9b<5 R0=1N?ZA9IN Pa=13h5>I]67R0;K57=?8!3 / Fl3 I  IK)5 !ZT= N Pa803 9bKZ7=?c03ILSR\6 N?IKZ
9I]c067b]Z9nI N?=?z-I]6|5>bM9I ;]I Z|Y Z|5>[KJMI #pLSR06{I GnIKJMLnN?I N?IKZ 3N ;]88!6798033b]IKZ9SR03q Z, .:n.3 . ,;Kq67=1ZT5 R\N 1 n

;]8!JmL-8!6T5>R03h5 N R\5>8!JmI]Z % !lN†R;K8!39= 5>=?803 9PabK):=?N1=?z6TIƒI]3 q , . . . , q =?JmL 8!ZTIƒ):I =

IK3 ;]ICL 80=?3h5 /vIO9b<‚!IKN?8!LL-I]JmI]3h5i9I V R0:n578!:6€9nIAN?R”L-8!Z7= 5>=?803 9PabK):=?N1=?z6TI
∂V
1∗ n∗ ∂q1

Z]PQb];K67=15i9803; 
... = ∂V
∂qn
=0

V (~q) = V (~q ) +
∗
X1 ∂ V2
(q − q )(q − q ).
i i∗ j j∗
# D/1.,‡ %
2 ∂q ∂qi j

X =&8!3Š9 b S3n=15 x = q − q !sI<5ŒZT=&8!33n805>I k = ∂ V !sN PQb]3nI]67c0=?IOL-805>IK3)57=?IKN?N?IyZ]PQb];]6T=1*5 !

i,j

2 

‹:3IA;]8!3Z|5 R03h57IALn67[]Z !

i i i∗ ij 
∂q ∂q i j

q~∗

1 V (x , . . . , x ) =
m
1 X
k xx . ij i j
# D/ED0– %
… R06iR0=1N?N1I]:6T*Z !nN PabK3I]6Tc!=?Iy;]=?3nbK5>=1):ICL IK:n5iI]3Šc!b]3bK6>R0NZKPabK;]6T=?67I
2 i,j

1 T (ẋ , . . . , ẋ ) =
n
1 X
m ẋ ẋ . ij i j
# D/ED . %
wR03Z”N?I;]R0Z”9nIƒLSR06|5>=?;K:N?IKZB9nIƒJR\Z7Z7IKZ
2
!H8!3 R z=?IK3 Z 6 m = m δ !HJMR0=?Z
i,j

N PQbK57:9Iy9 Pa8!ZT;]=1N?N†Rt5>=?803ZH9SR03nZg9PaR0:n5767I]Z ZTYZT57[]JmI]Z€L-I]: 5g;K8!39:=167IŒ‹B:3nIŒ˜p8!6TJMId):SR0967R\5>=1):I

m ,...,m
1 n ij i ij

):Pa803ZT:LL-8!Z7IAZTYJmbK5>6T=?):I # m = m % /
vI]ZdL I<5>= 5>I]Zd8!ZT;]=1N?N†Rt5>=?803ZgZT8!3h5Œ9n8!3;C9b];K67= 5>I]ZdLSR\6“N?ION†R\c!6>R03nc!=?IK3
ij ji

# D/ED!D %
…8!:n6 9bK57I]67Jm=?3nI]6N1I]ZƒbK):SR\5>=18!3Zƒ9nI vR\c!6>R03nc!"I !d67IKc!6780:L 803ZƒN?IKZ5>IK67JmI]Zƒ;K8!3h5>IK3SR03h5 :3
1 L (x , . . . , x ; ẋ , . . . , ẋ ) = T (ẋ , . . . , ẋ ) − V (x , . . . , x ).
n 1 n 1 n 1 n

=?39n=?;]I l 98!33b 
T :
X 1
m ẋ ẋ +
lj l j
1 X 1
m ẋ ẋ + m ẋ il i l
# D/ED0V %
2
ll l
2 2 2
# D/ED\` %
j6=l i6=l
X 1 1 X 1 2
V : k xx +
lj l j k xx + k x il i l ll l
2 j6=l 2 i6=l 2
∂L 1X 1X
⇒ = mlj ẋj + mil ẋi + mll ẋl
# D/ED!_ %
∂ ẋl 2 j6=l 2 i6=l
X
= mjl ẋj (mij = mji )
j
 D!D 
'

  "%$' #*,! &  ! 
 

 yIiJ 1KJMI/! ∂L = − k x # k = k ; R06;0PQI]Z|5gN?RA9nb]67= ‚!bKIŒZTI];]8039Iy9n:L-805>IK3)57=?IKN % / vI]Z

X

b]):SRt5>=?803Zd9∂xIAvR\c!6>R03nc!IOZ]PQb];K67=1‚0I]3h5Œ98!3; 
jl j ij ji
l j

X
m ẍ + jl j
X
k x = 0 (l = 1, . . . , n).
jl j
# D /WD0‘ %
fg‰IK67; ‰8!3nZyZ]PQ=?N I<G =?Z|5>IC9I]ZiZ780N?:n57=?8!3Zg;]8!JmLN?I G I]Zd9ICN†R”˜p8!6TJMI 
j j

~z = A e ,
−→
ω
67b]IKN .
iωt # D /ED0„ %
vI]Zdb]):SRt5>=?803Zd9IAvR\c!6>R03nc!IO;]8!3n9:=?ZTI]3h5ŒR0:ŠZTYZT57[]JmI
X X
− mjl Aj ω 2 + kjl Aj = 0 (l = 1, . . . , n),
7Z 8!= 5 j
X
jl
2
j

−m ω + k A = 0 (l = 1, . . . , n). jl

j
# D /WD0e %
~l: ):IMN?IJmI]J{z6TIM9nIM96T8!=157IMIKZT5B3):N !;]ImZTYZT57[]JmIN?=13b R\=?67I3 PWRŠ9IZT8!N?:n57=?8!3 3803 3):N?N1I
j

):IAZ7=Z78039b<5>IK67Jm=?3SR03h5“IKZT5Œ3):N !ZT8!=15 
det(−ω M + K) = 0, 2 # D /WD0‡ %
8@P M IK5 K ZT8!3h5d9I]Z“JMR\5>6T=?;KI]Z (n × n) 9 b 3=?IKZ“LSR06 M = m , K = k /l…R06“R0=1N?N1I]:6TZ
ω
Z7I]67Rm6Tb]IKNZ7= ω I]Z|5y6Tb]I]NI<5iL 8!ZT=157=1˜ /
2
ij ij ij ij

/ rt+s+- # *o#p+ " j   : X<L U
:<C :<L S D X<? L ?  

2
ω


<BDFO0X<L U+Q L ?7DFO  JM=13=?JMR0N X I]Z|5:3I ˜p8!67JmI ):SR\96>R\57=?):I 9 b S3n=?IgL-8!ZT=15>= ‚!I\/

q~ ⇒ k aa
yICJ 1]Jm"I !N PabK3I]6Tc!=?IO;K=?3b<5>=?):IOIKZT5Œ:3IO˜p8!6TJMIw):SR\96>R\57=?):IC9!b S3=?ICL-8!Z7= 5>= ‚!I0/ R0=?Z
∗ ij i j
i,j 

X 
−mjl ω 2 + kjl Aj = 0,
j

X 
⇒ A∗l −mjl ω 2 + kjl Aj = 0
j
X 
⇒ −mjl ω 2 + kjl A∗l Aj = 0
j,l
P
kjl A∗l Aj
⇒ ω = P j,l
2
∗
.
j,l mjl Al Aj
 R0=1Z“Z7=:3nIC˜p8067JmIO:R096>Rt5>=?):ICIKZT5i9b 3=?ICL-8!Z7= 5>=1‚0I:<LZTYJmbK5>6T=?):I/!sR0N?8!6TZ
X
kij A∗i Aj ≥ 0.
i,j

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D0V
F3I  I<5)!sR ‚!IK; Ai = ai + ibi Aj = aj + ibj
! !
X X
kij A∗i Aj = kij (ai − ibi )(aj + ibj )
i,j i,j
X X X X
= kij ai aj + kij bi bj + i kij ai bj − i kij aj bi


i,j i,j i,j i,j


 

| {z } | {z } | {z }

yIAJ K1 JMI/! / fy/{/ / ”/

≥0 ≥0 =0, kij =kji
 X
mij A∗i Aj > 0
i,j

X 8!=1I]3h5 ω , . . . , ω N?I]Z”Z78!N1:n5>=18!3Z{9I det(−M ω + K) = 0 !lIK59bKZ7=1c!38!3ZLR06 A :n3I −→

Z78!N1:n5>=18!3 67bKI]N1N?I R0ZTZ78;]=?bKIŠ‹ ω / A L-I]:n5 1<5>67I ; ‰80=?Z7=g67b]IKNd; R06{578!:ZN?IKZm;K8 I m;]=?IK3h5>Z9:

2 2 2 i
1 n

ZTYZT57[]JmIBZT8!3h5i67b]IKN?ZK/ v&RZ780N?:n57=?8!3 c!bK3b]67R0N?IO9R03Z C L-I]: 5Œ9n8!3; 1K5767ICb];K67=157I

−→ 
2 i
i
n

~z = c A e .
X
i
−→
i # D/WV!– %
iωi t

…8!:n6i80zn5>IK3=?6“:3nIAZT8!N?: 5>=?803 67b]IKN?N1"I !=1NZ7: 5i9ICL6TI]396TIBN?R{LSR06|5>=?IO6Tb]IKN?N?I/


i

X
~x = (Re (c ) cos ω t − Im (c ) sin ω t) A . i i
# D/WVn. %
i i
−→
i

+ +sr\&+-""&)"&+-rt 

ˆw3{‚0RŒJR0=13h5>I]3R03h5 9bKJM803)5767IK6H):I"!hZT=nN?IKZ˜p6Tb]):I]3n;]I]ZlZT8!3h5H5>8!: 5>I]Z 9=  b]6TI]3h5>IKZ*!!N1IgZTYZ|5>[]JmI

I]Z|5lb]):=1‚\R0N1I]3h5l‹w:3nI“;]8!N1N?I];<5>=18!3”9PQ8!ZT;]=?N1N†R\57I]:6TZ ‰SR\67Jm8!3=?):IKZH=?3n9b]L-I]39R03h5>Z9I€˜p6Tb]):I]3n;]I
ω
/ ”PaR0L67[KZdN?I]ZdbK:R\5>=18!3Z“9:ŠJM80:n‚!IKJMIK3)*5 !S8!3R 
i
X  −→
−mjl ωi2 + kjl Ai = 0, l = 1, ..., n
j j

…8!ZT8!3Z ∆ij = Aj
−→
/…8!:6d9I]:G ˜p67bK:nI]3;KI]Z ω IK5 ω # p 6= q % !S803ŠL-I]: 5Œ9n8!3;Cb];K67=?6TI
p q

i

# D/WVhD %
 X 


 −ωp2 mij + kij ∆ip = 0, j = 1, ..., n
i 
X 

 −ωq2 mji + kji ∆jq = 0, i = 1, ..., n.

F 3 J{:N 5>=1LN?=?R03h5yN?R Ln67I]Jm=?[K67I #6TI]ZTL/N?R ZTI];K8!39I % LSR\6 #p67IKZ7L/ % I<5”IK3 ˜R\=?Z>R\3)5AN?R


j

Z78!JmJmIOZ7:6 j #p67IKZ7L/ i% !S=?N ‚=1I]3h5 ∆jq ∆ip

X X 
∆jq × −ωp2 mij + kij ∆ip = 0
j
X
∆ip ×
X
i

−ωq2 mji + kji ∆jq = 0.

 # D /WV0V %
i j
D\` 
'

  "%$' #*,! &  !   

X =8!3 ˜R0= 5“N†R9=1 bK67IK3;]IC9IKZibK):SR\5>=18!3Zd8!3 5>6T8!:n‚0I"!sL:=1Z7):I M

I<5 K Z7803)5iZ|Y JmbK5767=1:nI]Z
X
(ωq2 − ωp2 ) mij ∆ip ∆jq = 0

⇒
X
i,j

mij ∆ip ∆jq = 0,

# D /aV0` %
i,j

L:=1Z7):IiN?IKZ˜p6Tb]):I]3n;]I]ZgZ78!3h5 LSR06l‰hY L-8057‰[]ZTIy5>8!: 5>I]Z9=1 bK67I]3h57I]Z]/X8!:Zl˜p8!67JmIdJR\5767=1;]=?IKN?N1I"!

;]I<5757IAbK):SR\5>=18!3ŠZ]PQb];]6T=15 

t
∆M ∆

= 0 (p 6= q).
# D /aVh_ %
… R\6yR0=1N?N1I]:6T*Z !S8!3L IK:n5wIK3;]8!6TI”; ‰80=?Z7=16d:3I”;K8!39= 5>=18!3 9I”38067JMR0N?=1Z>R\57=?8!3ƒZT:6yN1I]Zd‚!IK;K5>IK:67Z
pq

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I<G5>6Tb]JMR0N?/I !SJR\=?Z“I]3L6>Rt5>=?):IC=1N3P Y I]3'RI]3c!b]3nb]6>R\N: Pa:3nI0/“…R06yR\=?N?N1I]:6T*Z ! N PQI<G5>6TI]J{:J

I]Z|5ŒIK3 c!bK3b]67R0N:3ŠJm=?3=1J{:J ! 9PQ8@P N?IO3n8!J 9ICL6T=?3;K=?L-IO9I BDF? OV8 U :gR0;<5>=18!3/
 $%3# 2n Sp "! ; 2- p %&*,ro  +sr\ % *o#+-" w9PaR0L6T[]ZCN?IKZO67b]ZT:N15>R\5>ZC9IN?RƒZ7IK;K5>=18!3
L67bK;]bK9I]3h5>IŒ67IKN†R\57=1˜pZR0:;]R0N?;K:NS9I]Z‚\R06T=†R\57=?8!3Z !!N†Ry˜p803;K57=?8!33nI]N?N1I S[{q (t)}] ZTI]67RAI G 5767bKJR0N1I
Z7=“N1I]Z{5>67R TI];<5>8!=167IKZ q (t) Z>Rt5>=?Z|˜p8!3h5N?IKZb]):SR\57=?8!3Z9 PWF:N1I]6;]806767IKZ7L-8!39SR\3)57I]ZK/
ˆw6 !N1IƒN†R 
i

c!6>R\3c!=?IK3 T8!:nI N?Iƒ6T—!N?IM9I N†R˜p8!3n;K5>=18!3 !N?I57I]JmLZ ;]I]N1:=€9I N?R‚\R067=?R0zN1I !IK5N?IKZ

i

5>67R TI];<5>8!=167I]LZ q (t) ;KI]N1:=9IKZi˜p8!3n;K5>=18!3Z y (x)F/lvI]Zib]):SR\57=?t8!3Z“9 PWF:N1I]6dZ]PQb];K67=1‚0I]3h5Œx98!3; 

i i
!
d ∂L ∂L
− = 0, i = 1 . . . , n.
dt ∂ q̇i ∂qi
wˆ 3 67I];K8!33SR ?5 z=?IK3 Z 6€N1I]Z b]):SR\57=?8!3Z 9IOv&R0c!67R03c!I\/vIwL6T=?3;K=?L-IŒ9IyJM8!=1396TIyR0;<5>=18!3ƒI]Z|5
98!3;iz=1I]3mb]):=1‚\R0N1I]3h5R0: GmbK):SR\5>=18!3Zl9IŒv&R0c!6>R\3c!I"!h9n8!3;Œ‹AN?Ry˜p8!67J{:nN†R\57=?8!33I#4“5>8!3n=?I]3n3I
 

9ICN†RJmb]; R\3=?):I\/
 V!– 
'
   "%$' #*,! &  ! 

 

g=1I]3ƒ):PQ=?N R0=15gbK57bw=?3h5>6T8 9n:=15L-8!:6g9nI]Z“6>R\=?Z7803ZgLN1:ZgLn‰=?N18!Z78!Ln‰=?):IKZg):IOZ7;K=?IK3)57= S):IKZ*!N1I

L6T=?3;K=?L-IH9IlJM80=?396TIR0;<5>=?803AZKPaIKZT567b<‚!b]N1b 1K5>6TIl:3I˜p8!67J”:N†R\57=?8!3i5>6T[]Z&:n5>=1N?IH9nIN?R€JMbK; R03n=?):I


9SR03nZw:3';KI]6T5>R0=?338!J{zn67I”9nI{;]=167;]803ZT5>R03;]IKZ #;K8!3h5>67R0=?3h5>IK*Z !-5>6>R\3ZT˜p8!6TJRt5>=?803Zd; R03803=?):IK*Z !

. . .%
/
6 )

  / 
1

9 -

   


fg8!3ZT=?9bK678!3nZi:n3IO˜p8!3;K57=?8!3Š‹mD”‚\R067=?R0zN?IKZ 9803)5i8!3 ; ‰IK67; ‰IAN?IOJm=?3n=?J{:J ZT8!:ZdN†R

;]803)576>R0=13h5>I f (x, y) = 0 / w:IKN?N1I]Z“Z7803)5iN1I]Z“Fb])(x,:SRt5>y)=?803Zd:n=;]8!39n:=?ZTI]3h5wR\:ŠJm=?3n=?J{:J 


NS DFO0X : 24NZT: 5i9ICJM=13=?Jm=?ZTI]6N†R{˜p8!3;<5>=?803 9IAV‚\R06T=†R0zN1I]Z



H(x, y, λ) = F (x, y) + λf (x, y).

# D /E_t` %
vI]Z“‚\R0N?IK:67Z x , y Z78!3h5iN†R{ZT8!N?: 5>=?803 9: L678!znN?[]Jm"I ! λ Z]PaR0LL-I]N1N?Iw:3 B ;C L ? SVC ?  Q LN:<; UJ8:
Q U+Q O :</ min min


<BDFO0X<L U+Q L ?7DFO 

=13=?Jm=?ZTI]6 H ‚0I]:n5Œ9=?6TIO):Pa=1N˜R0:n5dZ7R\5>=1ZT˜R0=167IwN1I]Z“b]):SRt5>=?803Z



 ∂H ∂F ∂f


 =0 ⇔ +λ =0
# D /E_0_ %



 ∂x ∂x ∂x

 ∂H ∂F ∂f
=0 ⇔ +λ =0




∂y ∂y ∂y



 ∂H
 =0 ⇔ f (x, y) = 0.
&v Rƒ5>6780=?Z7=1[]JmI”bK:R\5>=18!3 3PaIKZT5A67=1I]3 9PaR0:n5767I):IN†Rƒ;]803)576>R0=13h5>I0/”24NH˜R0:n5C98!3n;9b]Jm8!3h5>6TI]6

∂λ

):PQ=?NI Gn=1ZT57I λ 57I]N):ICN?IKZŒDLn67I]Jm=?[K67IKZ“;]8!39n=15>=18!3Z“ZT8!=?IK3)5d‚0b]67= Sb]IKZ]/

U :<B ?7A<U : B
<L D 8: 
 

X :L-8!ZT8!3Z”):IMN†RŠ;]8!3h5>67R0=?3h57"I ! ):=9!b S3=15B:3IM;]8!:n67z-IM9SR\3Z”N1IMLN?R03 !;]8!3n9:=?ZTIƒ‹

:3IC;K8!:67z-ICLSR067R0JMb<5>6Tb]I x(z), y(z) / ˆw39n8!=15“Jm=?3n=?Jm=?Z7IK6 F (x(z), y(z))(x,/xŒy)N?8!6TZ
d
F ≡
∂F dx ∂F dy
+ = 0.
# D /W_0‘ %
R0=1Z f (x(z), y(z)) = 0 /lF3Š9b]6T=1‚\R03h5dLSR06“67R0LL-8!6T5i‹ z !S=1N ‚=?I]3h5 
dz ∂x dz ∂y dz


∂f dx ∂f dy
+ = 0
∂x dz ∂y dz

⇒
dy
= −
dx ∂f
!
∂f
!−1
.
# D /E_0„ %
dz dz ∂x ∂y


 
*,  & 
    $  - Vn.
# D /E_\e %
 !−1 
dF ∂F dx ∂F  dx ∂f ∂f
=0 ⇒ + −  = 0.
dz ∂x dz ∂y dz ∂x ∂y
X= dx
dz
6= 0
#ZT= x = ;]8!3Z|5 R03h57I"!s;0PQI]Z|5i5767= ‚ =?R0N , % !S803ŠIK39nb]9:= 5A/
∂F
∂x
=
∂F
∂y
.
# D/E_0‡ %
∂f ∂f

X =8!3 6>R7T8!:n5>IC:3nIA=13;]8033):I λ Z>R\57=?ZT˜R\=?Z>R\3)5

∂x ∂y

λ = − ∂x
∂F
# D/W‘!– %
∂f ,

N?IwZ|YZT5>[KJMIC;K8!3ZT57=157:bO9IO;]I<5757IAbK):SR\5>=18!3 IK5d9nION PQb]):SR\57=?8!3 L6Tb];Kb]9IK3)57IBIKZT5dbK:n=1‚\R0N?IK3h5iR0:

∂x

ZTYZT57[]JmI 
∂F ∂f
# D/W‘n. %



 +λ =0
 ∂x ∂x

 ∂F ∂f
 +λ = 0.
fy/{/ / B/


∂y ∂y

:<;>=@?7A<B: B
<L D 8: 

 

X = F IKZT5iJM=13=?J”:J ! R0N18!67Z
δF =
∂F
δx +
∂F
δy = 0,
# D /a‘hD %
∂x ∂y
8@PŠN?IO9bKLN†R0;KI]JmI]3h5 (δx, δy) 98!= 5,1K5767ICI]3 R0;];K8!679ŠR ‚!IK;BN?R;K8!3h5>67R0=?3h5>I\/
ˆw*6 !S9PaR0L6T[]ZdN†R{;K8!3h5>6>R\=?3h5>I f (x, y) = 0 !8!3R
∂f
δx +
∂f
δy = 0.
# D /a‘!V %
∂x ∂y
fgIK5T5>IAb]):SR\57=?8!3 9 b!S3=15dN1I]Zd9bKLN†R0;KI]JmI]3h5>Z“‚=?6|5>:IKN?ZK/
fgIK5T5>IAb]):SR\57=?8!3 ]I Z|5ib]):=1‚\R0N1I]3h5>IA‹
λ
∂f ∂f
δx + λ δy = 0 (∀ λ).
# D /a‘0` %
∂x ∂y
x‚0I];AN†R;]8039=157=?8!3 9nIAJm=?3n=?Jm=?Z>Rt5>=?8030!h8!3 I]3Š9b]9n:=15
∂F
+λ
∂f
δx +
∂F
+λ
!
∂f
δy = 0
!
# D /a‘h_ %
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y
VhD 
'

  "%$' #*,! &  !   

X :LnL 8!ZT8!3Zi):I λ Z>R\57=?ZT˜R\Z7Z7ICN PabK:R\5>=18!3

∂F ∂f
+λ = 0.
vIƒ9bKLN†R0;KI]JmI]3h5 L-I]:n5 <1 5>6TIƒ; ‰8!=1Z7=;]8!JmJMIm9bKLN†R0;KI]JmI]3h5R06Tz=1576>R0=167I\/ ˆw3 980=15B98!3;
∂x ∂x

R ‚!8!=16 δy
∂F ∂f
+λ = 0.
∂y ∂y
fy/{/ / ”/
6 )



$3' (
1
 / 1+
*3V-  /
- 3 /.-.-
 /  / 
  

X :LnL 8!ZT8!3Zi):Pa:n3Z|Y Z|5>[KJMIAZ78!= 5d9b];K67= 5dLSR06 k ;]8!3h576>R0=13)57I]Zd‰8!N18!3—!JmI]Z 

8!:0!SIK3Š57I]6TJMIKZ“9I ;]88!679n8!33bKI]Z !
fj (~r1 , . . . , ~rN , t) = 0, j = 1, . . . , k,

3N xi i = 1, . . . , 3N
fj (x1 , . . . , x3N , t) = 0, j = 1, . . . , k.

vI]Z{bK):SR\5>=18!3Z{9nI v&R0c!6>R\3c!Im38!:Z{L-I]6TJMI<5757I]3h59PQb];K67=?6TIƒ9=167I];<5>IKJMIK3)5”N?IKZ”b]):SRt5>=?803Z{9:
Jm8!:n‚!IKJMIK3h5BIK3 57I]6TJMIKZA9nI]ZA;]88!6798033b]IKZBc0b]3bK6>R0N1=?Z7bKI]ZK/ R0=?ZC;]80JMJmI]3h5CZ]P Y L6TI]396TIMZT=
8!3 3I L-I]:n5LR0Z=?3h‚!IK67ZTI]6I<G LN1=?;]= 5>IKJMIK3)5{N?I]Z”;]8!3h5>67R0=?3h57I]Z vlPaR0LLn678; ‰I ‚0R\67=†Rt5>=?8033I]N1N?I


L-I]67JmIK5d9nIC576>R0= 5>IK6“;]ICL6780zN?[KJMI\/


…80:6d:39nb]LN?R0;]IKJMIK3)5d‚=?6|5>:IKN ! 8!3 R 
δf =j
3N
X ∂f
δx = 0
j
j = 1, . . . , k
i
# D /a‘!‘ %
∂x i

# D /W‘!„ %
i=1
3N
∂f
X j
⇒ λ j δx = 0 (∀ λ )
i j
∂x i

# D /W‘0e %
i=1
3N
X ∂f X j
⇒ λ j δx = 0 (∀ λ )i j
j i=1 ∂xi
# D /a‘!‡ %
 
Z t2 3N
X X ∂fj
⇒ dt  λj  δxi =0 (∀ λj (t)) .
∂xi
… R\6R0=1N?N1I]:6TZ*!9PWR\L67[KZƒN?I ; R\N?;]:nNi9nI]ZM‚\R06T=†R\57=?8!3nZ*!Z7=iN PQ8!3
R7T8!:n5>IŠ:3L-IK57=15m9bKLN†R0;KI]JmI]3h5
t1 i=1 j

57I]N):I δx (t ) = δx (t ) = 0 ‹:3nIC576>R TIK;K578!=?6TI {x (t)} 98033b]I/!sN†R{‚\R067=?R\5>=18!3ƒ9I

N PaR0;<5>=?803 R0: L67IKJM=1I]6“8!6T967IOIK3 δx IKZT5i98!3n3b]ICLSR06
δx (t) i i 1 i 2
i
i

δS =
Z 3N
t2 X
δx
∂L
−
d ∂L
i dt.
!!
# D /E„\– %
t1 i=1 ∂xi dt ∂ ẋi


 ,*,!% '-!  
*,*,!  !V V

<BDFO0X<L U Q L ?7DFO ;K8!3ZT=?9bK678!3Z9nI]Z9bKLN†R0;KI]JmI]3h5>Z9IN†R ˜p8!6TJMI !R,‚0I];
η (t ) = η (t ) = 0
i 1 i 2
S
! K
I d
5 n
9 S3=1Z7ZT8!3ZiN†R{˜p8!3;<5>=?803
b δx (t) = α η (t) i i i

S̃(α1 , . . . , α3N ) ≡ S [{xi (t) + αi ηi (t)}] .

…8!:n6 α L I<5>= 5)!N1IO9bK‚0I]N?80LL IKJMIK3h5Œ9nIA’R YN?8!6“8!:ŠL6TI]Jm=?I]6g8!6796TICZ]PQb];]6T=15
i

X ∂ S̃ 
S̃(α1 , . . . , α3N ) = S̃(0, . . . , 0) + αi  .
∂αi αi =0
R0=1Z*!S9PaR0L6T[]ZdN?IO;]R0N?;K:N9IKZi‚\R06T=†R\57=?8!3Z !
i


 Z !!
∂ S̃  t2 ∂L d ∂L
 = − ηi (t) dt.
∂αi αi =0 t1 ∂xi dt ∂ ẋi
ˆw3IK39bK9:= 5d:nI δS ≡ S̃(α1 , . . . , α3N ) − S̃(0, . . . , 0)
I]Z|5Œ9n8!33bCLSR06
Z 3N
!!
t2 X ∂L d ∂L
δS = αi ηi (t) − dt.
∂xi dt ∂ ẋi
yf /{/ / B/
t1 i=1

vIgL6T=?3;K=?L-I9nIgJm8!=?39n67IR0;K57=?8!3BZT57=?L:N1Il:nI"!!L-8!:6:3{9bKLN†R\;]I]JmI]3h5 L 8!ZTZ7=1zN?Il9:{Z|YZT5>[KJMI/!
/”xy:n5767I]JmI]3h5A9= 5)!ZT= δx (t) I]ZT5A:3 9bKLN†R\;]I]JmI]3h5C‚=?6|5>:IKNHZ>R\57=?Z|˜R0=?Z7R03h5 δx (t ) =
δS = 0
δx (t ) = 0
i 2
!8!3 98!= 5iR,‚08!=?6 i i 1

Z 3N
!!
t2 X ∂L d ∂L
δS = δxi − dt = 0.
∂xi dt ∂ ẋi
X =C8!3 6>R T8!: 5>I ;]IK5T5>I b]):SR\57=?8!3@‹ N PQb]):SR\57=?8!3 # D /a‘!‡ % !Œ‚\R0N?R0zN?IL-8!:6 578!:n5Š9b]LnN†R0;KI]JmI]3h5
t1 i=1

‚=?6T57:I]N !y9803; I]3 LSR06T57=?;K:N?=1I]6ƒL-8!:6ƒ578!:n5Š9b]LnN†R0;KI]JmI]3h5 ‚ =16T57:I]NwZ7R\5>=1ZT˜R0=1Z>R03h5 δx (t ) =

δx (t ) = 0
i 2
!=?N ‚=1I]3h5 i 1

# D /E„. %
 ! 
Z 3N
t2 X ∂L d ∂L ∂f X j
δx i−  + λ dt = 0. j
t1 i=1 ∂xi dt ∂ ẋi j ∂xi

X :LL-8!ZT8!3Zi:nIAN1I]Z k ˜p8!3;<5>=18!3Z λ Z78!=1I]3h5i; ‰8!=?ZT=?IKZ“9IO5>I]N1N?Iw˜R".K8!3 ):I

j

∂L
−
d ∂L
!
+
X
λj
∂fj
= 0, i = 3N − k + 1, . . . , 3N.
# D /E„0D %
∂xi dt ∂ ẋi ∂xi
vIALn67=?3n;]=?L-IO9ICJm8!=?39n67IOR0;<5>=18!3 Z]PQb];K67=15ŒR0N18!67Z
j

# D /E„\V %
 ! 
Z t2 3N
X −k
∂L d ∂L X ∂fj 
δxi  − + λj dt = 0.
t1 i=1 ∂xi dt ∂ ẋi j ∂xi
V0` 
'

  "%$' #*,! &  !   

R0=1Z ;K8!JmJMIi8!3ƒR − k 9IKc!67bKZg9IŒN?=1z IK6T5>b/!)8!3L-I]:n5 ˜R0=?6TIi‚\R06T=?IK6N1I]Z =139bKL IK39SR0J 

JmI]3h5iN?I]Z“:n3Zd9I]ZŒR03N
:n5767I]ZK/ ˆO3 IK39bK9:= 5

δxi

∂L
−
d ∂L
!
+
X
λj
∂fj
= 0, i = 1, . . . , 3N − k.
# D/E„\` %
∂xi dt ∂ ẋi ∂xi
1= 3SR0N?IKJMIK3h5)!hN?IKZ 3N + k =13;]8!3n3:nI]Z x ! i = 1, . . . , 3N IK5 λ ! j = 1, . . . , k ! ZT8!3h5€98!3n3b]IKZ
j

LSR06“N1I]Zdb]):SRt5>=?803Z i j

# D /E„0_ %
 !

 d ∂L ∂L X ∂fj
 − = λj , i = 1, . . . , 3N
dt ∂ ẋi ∂xi j ∂xi


 f (x , . . . , x , t) = 0, j = 1, . . . , k.
vI]Z λ ZKPWR\LL IKN?N1I]3h5d9I]ZTB ;C L ? SVC ?  Q LN:<; U XJ8: Q U+Q O :</
j 1 3N

… R\6R\3SR0N?80c!=?I R ‚0I];
N1I L6780zN?[KJMI 9IKZI G5>67IKJ{:JmZN1=?bKZ*!{;KI 6Tb]Z7:nN15 Rt5 L IK:n5 1K5>6TI 6TIK˜p8!6
i

J{:N1b9I N†R ˜R".]803@ZT:=1‚\R03h5>I  :3@Ln678!zN1[]JmI9I JMbK; R03=1):I ‹ 3N 9IKc!67bKZ9nIN1=?z-I]6T57b

9bK;]6T=15ALSR06O:3 N†R\c!6>R03nc!=?IK3 L IK5 k ;]803)576>R0=13h5>I]Z f (x , . . . , x , t) = 0 ! j =
x ,...,x1
! IKZT5bK:n=1‚\R0N?IK3h5‹:n3 L678!znN?[]JmImZ>R03Z”;]8!3h5>67R0=?3h57Iƒ‹ 3N + k 9nI]c!6Tb]Z{9IN?=?z-I]6|5>b
3N j 1 3N
1, . . . , k
x ,...,x ,λ ,...,λ
1 3N 1 k
9b];K67=15dLR06dN?ION†R\c!6>R03nc!=?IK3
X
L̃ = L + λj f j .
j

F 3
I  I<5)!g;K8!JmJMI L̃ 3I 9bKL IK39LSR\ZmI G LN?=1;]=157I]JmI]3h59I λ̇ !N?I]ZbK:R\5>=18!3ZmL 8!:n6 x 67I 
98!3n3I]3h5N?I]Z 3N Ln67I]Jm=?[K67IKZ bK):SR\5>=18!3Z !mI<5 N?I]Z bK:R\5>=18!3Z L 80:6 λ 6TI]98!3n3I]3h5N?I]Z k
j i

9IK673=1[]67IKZ]/ j

 :<BQ U  ;4: X 

vIKZ λ Z78!3h5d9IKZ€˜p8!3;K57=?8!3nZ€9I t !I<5“38!3 9IKZ“;]8!3Z|5 R03h57I]Zd;]8!JmJmIy9SR03nZ“N?IyLn678!zN1[]JmI

•
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j

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i

;]88!679n8!33bKI]Z]/ X =-N?IKZ ˜p8!6T;]IKZ“R0:n5767I]Z ):ION?IKZ˜p8!6T;]IKZ€9Iw;K8!3h5>6>R\=?3h5>IŒ9b]6T=1‚!IK3h5“9PQ:3 L 8\5>I]3h57=?I]N

V
!8!3ŠI]3Š9bK9:=15 
 !
 d ∂L ∂L


 − = Rix


 dt ∂ ẋi ∂xi
# D/E„0‘ %



 !

 d ∂L ∂L
− = Riy
 dt ∂ ẏi ∂yi





 !


 d ∂L ∂L


 − = Riz
dt ∂ żi ∂zi
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‚\R067=?R0zN?IKZ q ! j = 1, . . . , 3N /Mv&IKZ  DFU  : X 8:  DFO L U+Q ? O L :
<O
<U Q C ?EX
: XŒZT8!3h5”9b!S3=1I]ZALSR06
~ · ∂~r / vIKZibK):SR\5>=18!3Zd9IAv&R0c!67R03c!IOZKPabK;]67= ‚!IK3)5yR0N18!67Z 
j
X i
R ≡ j R i
i ∂qj

d ∂L
!
−
∂L
= Rj , j = 1, . . . , 3N.
# D /W„!„ %
dt ∂ q̇j ∂qj
v&Rm9b<5>IK67Jm=?3SR\57=?8!3 9nI]Zd˜p8!67;KI]Zi9IC;]8!3h5>67R0=?3h57IAL-I]: 5yZTIC˜R\=?67IO9nIB9IK: G ˜R".K8!3Z*!sZT:=1‚\R03h5i):I
N PQ8!3 L IK:n5i8!: 38!3Š=?3h‚!IK67ZTI]6iN?I]Z k ;K8!3h5>6>R\=?3h5>IKZi‰n8!N?8!3n—!JMIKZ]/
 l!  Z7:LL-8!ZT8!3Z: Pa8!3mL:=1Z7ZTIi=13h‚!I]6TZ7IK6 N1I]Z ;]8!3h576>R0=13)57I]Zl‰8!N18!3—!JmI]ZK/ 24NSI Gn=1ZT57Ii9n8!3;
:3; ‰SR03c0I]JmI]3h5l9I€‚\R067=?R0zN1I]Z q ! j = 1, . . . , 3Nk!!5>I]Nn:nI q ! j = 1, . . . , 3N − k ZT8!=?IK3)5lN1I]Z


;]88!679n8!33bKI]Zgc0b]3bK6>R0N1=?Z7bKI]ZK/ wR03Z ;]Ii; R0Z ! d ∂L − ∂L = 0 L 80:6 j = 1, . . . , 3N − k !

j ! j

IK5N?IKZHZ7IK:N?IKZl;]8!JmL 80Z>R03h5>IKZl38!33):N?N1I]Z9IKZldt˜p8067;]IK∂Zq̇ 9Id;]8!3h∂q576>R0=13)57I“c!b]3nb]6>R\N?=?ZTb]IKZZ78!3h5N?IKZ R !

/w…8!:6y; R0N1;]:N1I]6i;]I]ZO;K8!JmL 8!Z7R03h5>IK*Z ! =1NZT: 5CR0N18!67Zi9I{L6T8 ;Kb]9IK6
j j
j

9ICN†R{˜"R .K8!3 Z7:= ‚0R\3)57I 


j = 3N − k + 1, . . . , 3N

.!/Œf€R0N1;]:N1I]6gN1IyN?R0c!6>R\3c!=?IK3 L(q , . . . , q , t) I]3ƒ˜p8!3n;K5>=18!39nI]Z“;]88!6T98!33bKI]Z“c!bK3b]67R0N 

=?ZTb]IKZ]/ : bKZ78!:9n67IN1IMLn678!zN1[]JmII]3 57I]67JmI]ZB9I]Z 3N − k ;]88!679n8!33bKI]Z”c0b]3bK6>R0N1=?Z7bKI]Z
1 3N −k

!
q (t) j = 1, . . . , 3N − k
j
/
D / yb<5>I]6TJM=13I]6BN PQI<G L6TI]Z7ZT=?8!3 L̃(q , . . . , q , t) 9: N?R0c!6>R\3c!=?IK3IK3 ˜p8!3;<5>=?803 9ILNDF;L : X
N?IKZ“‚0R\67=†R\zN?IKZ q ! j = 1, . . . , 3N /
j
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Vn/Œf€R0N1;]:N1I]6 d ∂ L̃
!
L 8!:n6 j = 1, . . . , 3N I]3 :n5>=1N?=1Z>R03h5{N?R'Z78!N1:n5>=18!3
∂ L̃
IK5dN?IKZd;]8!3h5>67R0=?3h57I]Z]/
Rj = −
! dt ∂ q̇j
qj (t) j = 1, . . . , 3N − k
∂qj
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LN?R03L IK67L-I]39=1;]:N?R0=?6TI“‹CN PaRtG I 9n:M;<Y N1=?39n67I"!hN1I]Zl;]88!6T98!3  a

3bKI]Z L-8!N†R0=167IKZ (r, θ) ZT8!3h5 z=1I]0z3 R09SR\Ln5>bKI]Z N†R;K8!3h5>67R0=?3h5>I

Z]PQb];K67= 5 r = a !IK5iN?RZTI]:N1IO;]88!679n8!33bKIBc!bK3b]67R0N?=1Z7bKIOI]ZT5 θ /
.!/ 1
L = ma2 θ̇ 2 − mga cos θ
IKZT5i=?39nb]L-I]39SR\3)5i9: 5>IKJMLnZ ⇒ T +V =
;]8!3nZT5 R\3)57I0/
2
D/ 1 1
L = mr 2 θ̇ 2 + mṙ 2 − mgr cos θ
/
Vn/ 2 2

!
d ∂L ∂L
Rr = − = mr̈ − mr θ̇ 2 + mg cos θ
dt ∂ ṙ ∂r
= −maθ̇ 2 + mg cos θ
; R06 r̈ = 0.
X =&‹ t=0 θ=0
! IK5 θ̇ = 0
!8!3ŠR
1 2 2
ma θ̇ + mga cos θ = mga,
2

⇒ Rr = −maθ̇ 2 + mg cos θ
= 2mg(cos θ − 1) + mg cos θ
= mg(3 cos θ − 2)
5 R03h5Œ):I cos θ > 2 /ixŒ:'9IKN†‹M9nI θ = xŒ67;];K8!Z 2 N?Rmz=1N?N1IO3PaIKZT5yLN?:ZŒI]3
 

;K8!3h5 R0;<5yR ‚0I];AN†R{Z7Ln‰[]6TI0/ 3

Rr > 0
3

j
 ! S dZ7=N PQ8!3'3nI”L-I]:n5OLR0Zy=13)‚0I]6TZ7I]6yN?I]ZŒ;]8!3h576>R0=13)57I]Zw‰n8!N?8!3n—!JMIKZ*!-=?N˜R0:n5y=?3h5>6T8 9n:=?6TI

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X ∂fj
Ri = λj .
j ∂qi

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 9 0
 

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3N
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∂fj
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# D /E„\e %
i=1 ∂xi ∂t
 wR03Zy;]I]6|5 R0=13Zy;]R0Z*! N?I]ZŒ;]8!3h576>R0=13)57I]ZŒZ]PQb];]6T=1‚0I]3h5C9=?6TI];<5>I]JmI]3h5O;K8!JmJMIA9I]Zy67I]N?R\5>=18!3ZiI]3h5>6TI
N?IKZ‚=157I]ZTZ7I]Z !nJMR0=?ZZ7R03Z :nIyN?IKZ ;K8 I m;]=?IK3h5>ZZ78!=1I]3h5g6TI]N1=?b]ZlIK3)5767IŒI]: GMLSR06lN1Ii˜R0= 5l9P 1K5>6TIy9IKZ
9b]6T=1‚0b]I]ZiLSR06|5>=1I]N?N1I]ZK/


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&v RO‚=15>IKZ7ZTIi9n:ML-8!=?3h5l9Id;K8!3h5 R0;<5g980=151<5>67I

0 y 3):N1N?I 
θ (
ẋ − R cos φ θ̇ = 0
φ
ẏ − R sin φ θ̇ = 0
x
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3 P YmRCLR0Zl9Ii57I]6TJMI“IK3 φ̇ !N1I]Z f 9IK‚6>R\=?I]3h51K5767Id=?3n9b]L-I]39R03h5>I]Z9If φ / R0=?ZlN1I“;]8I m;]=1I]3h5

9I θ̇ 9b]L-I]399I φ /
 
j

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3N
X j
a ẋ + a = 0,
i i
j
0
# D /E„\‡ %
8!:ŠI]3;K8!67I
i=1

3N
X dxi
aji + aj0 = 0,
Z78!= 5 i=1 dt

3N
X
aji dxi + aj0 dt = 0.
# D /We0– %
i=1

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Z>R\57=?Z|˜R0=?Z7R03h5
3N
X j
a δx = 0,
i i
# D /We . %
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i=1

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8!3 8!zn57=?IK3)5iN1I]Z“b]):SRt5>=?803Z
 !
d ∂L ∂L
# D /We!D %
 X


 − = λj aji , i = 1, . . . , 3N

 dt ∂ ẋi ∂xi j
 3N
X
aji ẋi + aj0 = 0,




 j = 1, . . . , k.

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i=1

. = :<B SVCE:  3;<YN?=?3n967IO6T8!:N?IOZ7R03Zdc!N1=?Z7ZTI]6“ZT:6d:3LnN†R03 =13;]N1=?3b\/

x θ

φ
DFO L U Q ? O LN: 
 <: BQ U  ;4: 
r;]θ̇I<57=57I ẋ;]803)576>R0=13h5>I I]Z|5'=?3h57b]c!67R0zN?I
IK5A8!3 L-8!:6T6>R0= 5CR0=?ZTb]JmI]3h5CZ7I9bKzSR067R0Z7ZTI]6A9Pa:n3I
‚\R067=?R0zN1I0/
1 1
N18!3c!:IK:6“9: LN?R03 =?3;KN?=?3nb .
T = M ẋ2 + M r 2 θ̇ 2
2 2
V = M g(l − x) sin φ, l=
v&R;]8!3h5>67R0=?3h57IAZTIC67b]bK;]6T=15
r θ̇ − ẋ = 0 ⇒ aθ = r, ax = −1

L=T −V
 !
 ∂L d ∂L


 = M r 2 θ̇ ⇒ = M r 2 θ̈
∂ θ̇ dt ∂ θ̇
 ∂L


 =0
∂θ
 !

 ∂L d ∂L

 = M ẋ ⇒ = M ẍ
∂ ẋ dt ∂ ẋ

 ∂L
 = +M g sin φ
# D /We0V %

∂x


# D /We\` %
 M ẍ − M g sin φ = −λ
⇒
 M r 2 θ̈ = λr

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r θ̇ = ẋ ⇒ r θ̈ = ẍ

# D /We0V % ⇒ M ẍ = λ
# D /We\` % ⇒ ẍ =
g sin φ
, λ =
M g sin φ
2 2
g sin φ
θ̈ =
2r

Q C <; C 8 ? U : <L 
rθ + C = x ⇒
8!3 b]N1=?Jm=?3I θ.
(
2
T = M ẋ
V = M g(l − x) sin φ
g sin φ
⇒ 2M ẍ = M g sin φ ⇒ ẍ = .
2
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3N
X
aji ẋi + aj0

Z78!3h5R8
*O ?EXgLSR06

i=1

3N
X
aji δxi = 0.
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i=1

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;]8!3h576>R0=13)57I ŠfgI€L6T8!zN?[KJMI JxRt5>(t)‰bKJR\57=?):II]Z|5z=?IK3{L-8!Z7/b !!IK5 N†RyZT8!N?:n57=?8!3Ac!bK3b]67R0N?I ZT5>=1L:N1I
i

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9ICJM=13=?Jm=?ZTI]6 0 0 

#9bKJM803ZT576>R\57=?8!3 380398033b]I % /
0 0
F (x, y, y ) + λ(x)G(x, y, y )

…8!:n6 :3I;]803)576>R0=13h5>I‰8!N18!3—!JmIŠ9: 54Y L-I G(x, y) = 0 #pLSR0Z 9I9bK67= ‚!b]I % !ŒN PQb]):SR\57=?8!3
9PaFl:nN?I]6  v&R0c!67R03c!IO;K8!39:n=15i‹ 
d ∂F
!
−
∂F
=λ
∂G
.
# D/Weh_ %
dx ∂y 0 ∂y ∂y
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Z x2
f (x, y, y 0) dx = c.
x1

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i i 1 N

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v&R L6TI]Jm=?[]6TI bK5 R\L I ;]803Z7=1ZT5>I ‹ 6Tb]bK;]67=167I N?IKZ N bK:R\5>=18!3ZŠ9: ZTI];]8039 8!6T967I 9PaFl:nN?I]6
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
 d ∂L


 ṗi ≡
(pi ) =
dt ∂qi
 ∂L
 pi = .


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
∂ q̇i
Z78!= 5dZ78!:nZiN?R{˜p8!67JmI
∂F (qi , pi , t)
q̇i = .
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∂pi

:3I˜p8!3;<5>=18!3 f (x) !IK5CL-8!ZT8!3Z z = df ⇔ x = g(z) /{…I]:n548!357678!:n‚0I]6C:3I{˜p803;K57=?8!3

f (z)
∗
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5 K
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I]Z|5iN†R{˜p8!3;<5>=?803 =?3h‚!IK67Z7IA9I f 0 (z)
!S8!3 R 
f 0 (g(z)) = z
⇒ f 0 (g(z)) g 0 (z) = z g 0 (z)
F3=13h5>b]c06>R03h5)!n=?N ‚=?IK3h5 
d d
[f (g(z))] = [(z g(z))] − g(z)
dz dz
d
⇒ [(z g(z)) − f (g(z))] = g(z)
dz
⇒ f∗ (z) = z g(z) − f (g(z)).

H   ŒfgI];]=3PQI]ZT5wL 8!ZTZ7=1zN?IA):IZ7= f IKZT5O=13h‚!I]6TZ7=1zN?I/! = /QI0/-Z7= d f 6= 0 Z7= f I]Z|5O9IK: G˜p8!=?Z

2

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LSR06 f (x)
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8@P g = f I]ZT5ŒN†R”˜p803;K57=?8!3 =?3h‚0I]67ZTIB9nI f /
0 −1
f (z) = z g(z) − f (g(z))
∗
0

. = :<B SVCE: X 

.!/ f (x) =
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2
z
f 0 (x) = mx = z ⇒ x = g(z) =
m
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f∗ (z) = zx − f (x) = − = .
m 2 m2 2m

D/ "
x>0
f 0 (x) = xα−1 , f 00 (x) = (α − 1)xα−2
/
X= !;KIK5757IO˜p8!3;K57=?8!3 IKZT5i=?3h‚!IK67ZT=?zN1I0/
xα ,
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α 6= 1

f∗ (z) = zx − f (x) = zx −
xα R ‚!I]; x = z α−1
1

α
 
1 α 1 α 1
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⇒ f∗ (z) = z − z α−1 = 1 − z α−1 .
α α
…8!Z78!3nZ β=
α
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 %]#%&r\ 2n rt#  p
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vI]c!IK3967ILR06w6>R\LL 806T5O‹ƒ;KI]6|5 R0=13I]Zy‚\R06T=†R0znN?I]ZK/Cfg8!3ZT=?9bK678!3nZwLSR06wI G I]JmLN?I{:n3I”˜p8!3;<5>=18!3
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#Vn/WV %
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det
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∂x ∂x i j

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n
m
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k k
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m m
∂F∗ X ∂gk X ∂gk
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∂zi k=1 ∂zi k=1 | {z } ∂zi
=zk
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⇒ = xi .
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i
i i

H(q , . . . , q ; p , . . . , p ; t) =
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X
p q̇ − L(q , . . . , q ; q̇ , . . . , q̇ ; t)
i i 1 N 1
#Vn/W‘ % N

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i

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i∂ q̇

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 $%& n*o#p+-"! S"&+-"#$%&


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∂H
q̇ =
+-%   S # *,+-"

 i ∂pi



 ∂H
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i ∂qi

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2
!

∂q ∂q
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X
H(q1 , . . . , qN ; p1 , . . . , pN ; t) = pi q̇i − L(q, q̇, t)
i
!
X ∂T
= q̇i − L = 2T − L = T + V.
∂ q̇i
wR03nZA;KI; R0Z !N Pa‰SR\JM=1N15>803=?IK3IKZT5Ab]chR\Nl‹ N PabK3I]6Tc!=?I\/ R0=1ZO=?N ˜R\:n5CN PQI<G L6T=?JmI]6wIK3 ˜p8!3n;K5>=18!3
i

9IKZŒ=1JML:nN?Z7=18!3Z c!b]3bK6>R0N1=?ZTb]I]ZK/


F G I]JmLN?I  3nIALR06T57=?;]:nN?IO9SR03nZi:n3ŠL-8057I]3h5>=1I]NI<G57b]67=1I]:6 U (x, y, z) /

++srt+-"")M! nro*  ]#""  T = 1 m ẋ + ẏ + ż


2 2 2

2
px = mẋ, py = mẏ, pz = mż

 ∂H px
1   
 ẋ ==

T = p2x + p2y + p2z 
∂px m
⇒ 2m ⇒

H =T +V 

 ṗ = −
∂H ∂V
=− = Fx
∂x ∂x

++srt+-"")M #"&rt# $ %  1 

T = m ṙ 2 + r 2 φ̇2 + ż 2

2
z

pr = mṙ, pφ = mr 2 φ̇, pz = mż

r !
1 p2φ
φ ⇒ T = p2r + 2 + p2z , H = T +U (r, φ, z)
2m r
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T = m ṙ 2 + r 2 θ̇ 2 + r 2 sin2 θ φ̇2

2

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 pr = mṙ,
pθ = mr 2 θ̇,

φ 
pφ = mr 2 sin2 θ φ̇

!
1 p2 p2φ
⇒ T = p2r + 2θ + 2 2 , H = T + U (r, φ, z)
2m r r sin θ

+S*, n*,#+-"!+  S0*  

0

vI]ZAb]):SR\57=?8!3ZC9I
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L67IK396TIB;KIK5757ICZTYJMb<5>6T=?ICI]3Š;]8!JmLn57IOI]3Š=?3h5>6T8 9:n=?Z>R\3)5€:3IA3805 Rt5>=?803 ;]8!JmLSR0;<5>I 
(
xi = qi , i = 1, . . . , N

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xi+N = pi , i = 1, . . . , N

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!
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∂~x i
∂xi


d
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,
#Vn/We %
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9nb S3=1ICLSR06
dt

∂~x

/// #Vn/W‡ %
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0 1lN  
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2
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t

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t −1

t t 2
J = −J ⇒ JJ = −J = 1l
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;KY;KN?=?):I/!y;\PaIKZT5 4‹ 49n=?67IZT= ∂L = 0 !yR0N18!67Z p = ;]803ZT5>R03h5>I0/^fgIKN†R 6TI]ZT57I‚0R\N†R0zN1I'L-8!:6
N PQ‰SR0Jm=?N 5>8!3n=?I]3 / F3ŠI  IK)5 ! ∂q i
i

∂L ∂H
=0⇒ =0
∂qi ∂qi
xy=13Z7= ṗ = − ∂H = 0 ⇒ p = ;]8!3nZT5 R\3)57I0/
i i

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∂q i

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X 8!= 5 9n8!3; :3nIg˜p8!3;<5>=?803B9IKZH;]88!6T98!33bKI]ZHc0b]3bK6>R0N1=?Z7bKI]ZIK5 9I]Z

i i

=?JmL:ZT=?8!3nZ€fc!(qb]3n,b].6>.R\.N?=?,ZTqb]IKZ];/ pf€, R0. N?.;K.:, N?p803,Z“t)Z>R9bK67=1‚0b]IALSR06“67R0LL-8!6T5iR0: 5>IKJMLnZ 

1 N 1 N

df ∂f X X ∂f ∂f
= q̇i + ṗi +
dt i ∂qi i ∂pi ∂t

=
X ∂f ∂H
−
X ∂f ∂H
+
∂f #Vn/1. – %
i ∂qi ∂pi i ∂pi ∂qi ∂t
ˆw39nb S3= 5dN?I < U D :<L.8: DF?EX X DFOm9nIA9nI]: G ˜p8!3n;K5>=18!3Z
 
f, g
9nI]Z q ! p I<5i9I t LSR06
i i


{f, g} =
X ∂f ∂g
−
∂f ∂g
.
!
#Vn/1.0. %
∂qi ∂pi ∂pi ∂qi
vPabK):SR\5>=18!3 9PQbK‚!80N?:n57=?8!3 9I f Z]PQb];K67= 5Œ9n8!3;
i

df
=
∂f
+ {f, H}.
# Vn/ .oD %
dt ∂t

K" *,)qsrt ro # ")rt

 
f (q, p, t)
IKZT5i:3IC=13)57b]c!67R0N?IOLn67I]Jm=?[K67IOZT=IK5dZ7IK:N?IKJMIK3h5ŒZT=
∂f
+ {f, H} = 0.
# Vn/ .,V %
∂t
F 3 LSR\6T5>=1;]:N1=?IK6*!:3nI˜p803;K57=?8!3 f (q, p) ):=3Im9b]L-I]39LSR0ZCI<G LN1=?;K=15>IKJMIK3h5C9: 57I]JmLZAI]ZT5
:3IC=13)57b]c!67R0N?IyL67IKJM=1[]67IOZT=IK5iZ7IK:N?IKJMIK3h5ŒZT=
{f, H} = 0.
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0

X =S8!3m=?3h5>6T8 9n:=15 N†RO9b 3=157=?8!3 ∂f ! R ‚0I];d5>8!: T80:67Z ! ! !

8!3ŠL IK:n5ib];]6T=?6TI  fi =
∂xi
xi = qi xi+N = pi i = 1, . . . , N

N
X ∂f ∂g ∂f ∂g
{f, g} = −
∂xi ∂xi+N ∂xi+N ∂xi
# V /1. ` %
i=1
N
X
= fi gi+N − fi+N gi .

ˆw6*!
i=1


//
 
0 1lN g1
  
 



(f1 . . . f2N ) −1lN g2N 0
= f1 gN +1 + f2 gN +2 + . . . + fN g2N − fN +1 g1 − . . . − f2N gN

⇒ {f, g} = t ∂f
!
J
∂g
!
# V /1.o_ %
∂~x ∂~x

Z78!= 5 {f, g} =
2N
X ∂f
Jjk
∂g /
j,k=1 ∂xj ∂xk

/ ro+sr\#ph*,m!ro+ &h*o / +-#  K+ "

.!/ {f, g} = −{g, f } bK‚=?9nI]3h5
D / {f, c} = 0 ZT= c = ;K8!3Z|5 R03h5>I
Vn/ {f, q } = − ∂f , {f , p } = + ∂f
i i i

`/ {q , q } = {p , p } = 0, {q , p } = δ
∂p
i ∂q i

i j i j i j ij

_ / ∂ {f, g} = ∂f , f + f, ∂g
( ) ( )

∂t ∂t ∂t
‘n/ {f + f , g} = {f , g} + {f , g}
ybK;]8!:N1IC9:Š˜R\=15“):I
1 2 1 2

! ! !
∂ ∂f1 ∂f2
(f1 + f2 ) = +
∂x ∂x ∂x
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„/
ybK;]8!:nN?IC9: ˜R0=15“):I
{f1 f2 , g} = f1 {f2 , g} + f2 {f1 , g}


∂ ∂f2 ∂f1
(f1 f2 ) = f1 + f2
∂xi ∂xi ∂xi
! ! !
∂ ∂ ∂f2 ∂f2 ∂f1 ∂f1
⇒ (f1 f2 ), . . . , (f1 f2 ) = f1 ,..., + f2 ,...,
∂x1 ∂x2N ∂x1 ∂x2N ∂x1 ∂x2N
en/
8:<O L ? L
J8:0Q  D
?
{f, {g, h}} + {g, {h, f }} + {h, {f, g}} = 0.
#Vn/ .,‘ %
ˆw3 38057I fi =
∂f !
fij =
∂2f
=
∂2f
∂xi ∂xi ∂xj ∂xj ∂xi
X
{g, h} = gk Jkl hl
kl
X
⇒ {f, {g, h}} = fi Jij [gkj Jkl hl + gk Jkl hlj ]
ijkl

‚:Š:nI ∂
Jkl = 0 Jkl
# I]ZT5i:3nIB;K8!3ZT5>R03h5>I , % !SZ780=15
∂xj
X
{f, {g, h}} = fi Jij Jkl [gkj hl + gk hlj ] .

y803;"!
ijkl


{f, {g, h}} + {g, {h, f }} + {h, {f, g}}

X
= (fi Jij Jkl [gkj hl + gk hlj ]
ijkl
+gi Jij Jkl [hkj fl + hk flj ]
+hi Jij Jkl [fkj gl + fk glj ]) .
gf ‰SR\:nIB5>IK67JmIB9nI”;]I<5757I”Z780JMJmIC;]8!3h5>=1I]3h5w:n3IBI<5w:3nI”Z7IK:N?IA9bK67=1‚0b]IBZ7I];K8!39I\/wˆw3
L-I]:n5i9803;C;]N†R\Z7Z7IK6dN?I]Z€57I]6TJMIKZi9 PWR0Ln67[]ZdN?R9nb]67= ‚!bKIAZTI];K8!39IA):=Y =?3h5>IK6T‚=?IK3h5 /
fg8!3nZ7=?9nb]67803Z:n3I 9b]6T=1‚!bKI ZTI];]8039I"!OLR06 I<G I]JmLN?I g /}X 8!3 ;]8I m;]=1I]3h5 ZKPabK;]6T=15
;K8!JMJmIwN?RZT8!JmJMIw9nIA):SRt5>67IC5>IK67JmI]Z 

mn

.  HZT8!JmJM/I ! k = m, j = n → X
fJ J h
.   ZT8!JmJM/I ! k = n, j = m → f J J h
i in ml l
il
X

V 
 ZT8!JmJM/I ! l = m, j = n → h J J f
i im nl l
il
X

V 
 ZT8!JmJM/I ! l = n, j = m → h J J f
i in km k
ik
X
i im kn k
ik
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0_ V
R0=?ZT8!3Z“N1IO; ‰SR03c!IKJMIK3h5y9PQ=?3n9=?;KI # ! 9R03ZdN?IKZi9nI]: GŠ9IK673=1[]6TI]ZdI<G L6TI]Z
Z7=18!3ZK/ vIO;K8 I M;K=?IK3)5i9I ZKPabK;]6T=1i5→ l k → i%

gmn
X
fi hl [Jin Jml + Jim Jnl + Jln Jim + Jlm Jin ]
il
 
X
= f i hl  
Jin (Jml + Jlm ) +Jim (Jnl + Jln )

; R\6 J I]Z|5{R03h57=?ZTYJmbK5767=?):I\/ vIM;K8 I m;]=?IK3h5”9I g I]Z|5”9n8!3;m3:nN !HR\=?3ZT=:nIM;KI]N?:n=

| {z } | {z }
il
=0 =0

9IKZyR0: 5>67IKZd9b]6T=1‚!bKI]ZiZ7IK;]8!39nI]Z]/ fy/{/ / B/


mn

vIALn67=?3n;]=?LR0N =13)57b]6 1K5i9I]Zd;K678; ‰IK57ZŒ9IA…8!=?ZTZ78!3Š67bKZ7=?9nIA9R03ZdN?Iw57‰b]8!6T[]JmICZ7:= ‚0R\3)5]/

2 &)+-r "   / + # ]+-"   ? :<L X DFO L$8: X ? O L
U Q CE: X$SVU :<B ?7A<U : X Q CEDFU X
: X<L
Q ; X X<?M;O : ? O L
U+Q CE:2SVU :<B ?7A<U :  f g {f, g}


<BDFO0X<L U Q L ?7DFO l=?N ˜R\:n5i9b]Jm8!3h5>6TI]6“):I

∂
{f, g} = {H, {f, g}}.
 R0=1Z ∂t

( ) ( )
∂ ∂f ∂g
{f, g} = , g + f,
∂t ∂t ∂t
= {{H, f }, g} + {f, {H, g}} (f, g
=13h5>b]c06>R0N1I]Z“L6TI]Jm=?[]6TI]Z )
= −{g, {H, f }} − {f, {g, H}}
= {H, {f, g}}
 9 PaR0L67[KZ !R0;]8!zn= /
vI]Z{;K678; ‰IK57Z{9Iƒ…8!=?ZTZ78!3 ;]8!3Z|5>= 5>:IK3)5”98!3;M:3IƒJmbK57‰89IMZ|YZT5>bKJRt5>=?):I9I6TI]; ‰IK67; ‰I
9PQ=?3h5>bKc!6>R0N1I]ZL6TI]Jm=?[]6TI]ZK/ =?I]3 Z n*6 !gZT= f IK5 g ZT8!3h59IK: G =?3h57b]c!67R0N?IKZL67IKJM=1[]67IK*Z ! {f, g}
L IK:n5)1<5>67I”3:nN ! 80:'Z7=1JMLN1I]JmI]3h5Œ:3I{;K8!J{z=13SR0=?ZT8!3ŠN?=?3nb R0=167IA9I f IK5 g ! R0:):I]N ; R0Zw803'3I
 

c!b]3n[]67IMLSR0ZB9I380:n‚!IKN?N?I=13)57b]c!67R0N?IL6TI]Jm=?[K67"I !JR\=?ZO=?NY RŠ9I]ZBZ7=157:SR\57=?8!3ZC8@P 8!3 c!bK3[]6TI

I  I];<5>=1‚0I]JmI]3h5i5>8!:n57IO:3IAZ7bK67=?IO9 Pa=13)57b]c!67R0N?IKZ“L67IKJM=1[]6TI]Z]/
. = :<B SVCE:  .X <? C C Q LN:<; U 0Q UWBDFO ?  ; :
 

ˆw3;K8!3Z7=19[]6TIMN1IJM8!: ‚!I]JmI]3h5A9PQ:3ImLSR06|5>=?;K:N?Im‹.m9=?JmI]3ZT=?8!3 ZT8!:Jm=?Z7Im‹ :3I˜p8!67;KI9I

6>R0LnL IKN bKchR0N?I ‹ −kx /
8!:Z R0N?N18!3Z&67bKZ78!:n967I ;]I€L6T8!zN1[]JmI ‹ŒN PaR0=?9Il9I5>8!: 5>I]ZN?IKZJmbK57‰8 9nI]Z
9:Š;]8!:6TZ]/
.!/ HT:<KML DFO #N?IyLN?:ZdZT=?JmLN?Iw=1;]= , %
s
2 k
mẍ = −kx ⇔ ẍ + ω x = 0, ω=
m
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 DFC ;L ?7DFO <
O
<U Q CE: 

8!: x(t)
x(t) =
= c1 cos ωt + c2 sin ωt
a cos(ωt + α)
 :<C Q L ?7DFO :<O L U :TCE: XJ8:<;>= X DFC ;L ?7DFO0X 
a cos ωt cos α − a sin ωt sin α = c1 cos ωt + c2 sin ωt
(  q
a cos α = c1 
a = c21 + c22
⇒
−a sin α = c2  tgα = − c2
c1

. O :<U ?7:  1
mẋ2 +
mω 2 2
x =E=
mω 2 2
a
2 2 2
dV mω 2 2
F = −kx = −mω 2 x = − ⇒ V (x) = x .
dx 2
D /
Q U+Q O :
1 mω 2 2
L = T − V = mẋ2 − x
2 2
∂L ∂L
= mẋ, = −mω 2 x

⇒
∂ ẋ
mẍ + mω 2 x = 0
∂x
1 J KJMIObK:R\5>=18!3 :nI
5I 4“5>803/
Vn/
Q B ? C L DFO ?7:<O 
p2 mω 2 2
H= + q (q = x, p = mẋ)
2m 2
( dp
dt
= − ∂H∂q
= −mω 2 q
dq
dt
= ∂H
∂p
= mp
…8!Z78!3nZ ~u =
q
!
/ˆw3 R 
p
 d~
u

 dt
= M~u !
1
0 m
 M=

−mω 2 0
F Z7Z7R Y!8!3ZO9nI”9=?R0c!8!3SR\N?=?ZTI]6 M /ŒvI]Zi‚0R\N?I]:n67ZiL678!Ln67I]ZŒZ78!3h5y98!33bKI]ZwLR06ŒN PabK):SR\5>=18!3
;]R06>R0;<5>bK67=?Z|5>=1:nI
!
1
−λ m
det 2 = 0
−mω −λ
(
2 2 λ+ = iω
⇔ λ = ω ⇒
λ− = −iω.
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yb<5>I]6TJM=138!3ZdN1I]Z€‚!IK;K57I]:6TZyL6T8!L67IKZiR0Z7ZT8 ;K=?b]ZK/


!
x+
~u+ : M~u+ = λ+~u+ = iω~u+
y+
1
⇒ y+ = iωx+ ⇒ y+ = imωx+
m
!
x−
~u− : M~u− = λ−~u− = iω~u−
y−
1
⇒ y− = iωx− ⇒ y− = imωx−
ˆw3L-I]: 5d98!3;C; ‰8!=1Z7=16
m

   
1 1
~u+ = , ~u− = .
imω −imω

…80Z78!3Z ~u = α+ (t)~u+ + α− (t)~u−

/vPabK:R\5>=18!3 d~u
= M~u
Z]PQb];K67= 5
dt
α̇+ (t)~u+ + α̇− (t)~u− = λ+~u+ + λ−~u− ,

9Pa8 P


 α̇+ (t) = λ+

 α̇− (t) = λ−

ZT8!=15


 α+ (t) = α+ (0)eλ+ t

α− (t) = α− (0)eλ− t



fg8!JmJMI λ+ = iω
I<5 λ− = −iω
!nN†RZ78!N1:n5>=18!3 c!bK3b]67R0N?IOZKPabK;]67= 5i98!3; 

~u(t) = α+ eiωt ~u+ + α− e−iωt ~u− .

vICL678!znN?[]JmIO=?3n=15>=?R0NS˜R0=15€=?3h5>IK6T‚!IK3=?6 p I<5 q !S;0PQI]Z|5 4‹ 49=167IO9IKZd38!J{z6TI]Zd67bKI]N1Z*!S9PQ8@P
q(t) = α+ eiωt + α− e−iωt = (α+ + α− ) cos ωt + i(α+ − α− ) sin ωt.
…80:68!zn5>IK3=?6:n3I Z78!N1:n5>=18!3 76 bKI]N?N1I"!l=?N ˜R0:n5):I Z780=1567bKI]N !I<5
=?JMR0c!=13SR0=167IiL:6 ⇒ α = α /… 8!ZT8!3Z
+
∗
−
α+ + α − α+ − α −


 c1 − ic2 

 α+ =  α+ + α − = c 1

2 
⇒
 c + ic2 
i(α+ − α− ) = c2 .
 α− = 1

 
2
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ybKJM803)57678!3nZ):I IKZT5:3I;]803ZT5>R03h5>I9:BJm8!:n‚0I]JmI]3h5
IK3:n57=?N1=?Z>R\3)5gN?IO;K678; ‰IK5Œ9IA…8!=1Z7ZT8!3/
u(p, q, t) = ln(p+imωq)−iωt

du
= −iω + {u, H}
dt
∂H ∂u ∂H ∂u
{u, H} = −
∂p ∂q ∂q ∂p
p imω mω 2 q
= −
m p + imωq p + imωq
p + imωq
= iω = iω
p + imωq
du
⇒ = 0.
…8!Z78!3nZ u = u0
! dt

ln(p + imωq) − iωt = u0 , p + imωq = eu0 eiωt .

…8!Z78!3nZ e u0
= aeiα
imω
p + imωq = imωaei(ωt+α)
⇒ q = a cos(ωt + α) .

I)
 

$3' (
1
 / 1+
*3V-  /
vI]Z{bK):SR\5>=18!3Z{9nI
yR0Jm=?N 5>8!3 9bK;]8!:N1I]3h5b]c!R0N?IKJMIK3)5”9PQ:3 L67=13;]=1L IM9IƒJm8!=?3n967IMR0;K57=?8!3 /
fg8!3ZT=?9bK678!3nZiIK3I  I<5iN PaR0;K57=?8!3 ;K8!JMJmIw˜p8!3;<5>=18!3 9I]Zd5>67R TI];<5>8!=167IKZ {q (t), p (t)} 
#Vn/1.,„ %
i i
Z ( )
2 X
S [{q (t)}, {p (t)}] =
i i p q̇ − H(q , p , t) dt.
i i i i

fyPQI]ZT5z=1I]3ON?R€J 1KJMIH):SR\3)57=157b:nI;]I]N1N?IHLn67b];Kb]9IKJMJmI]3h5=?3h576789:=157I L:n=?Z7):I H = p q̇ −

1 i
X

/v&Rƒ˜p8!3;K57=?8!3):=ZTI5>6780:n‚!I9SR03nZON PQ=?3h5>bKc!6>R0N1I”L-I]:n5 1<5>67I;K8!3ZT=?9bK67b]I;K8!JMJmI”˜p8!3n;K5>=18!3 i i

9IKZ q ! p ! q̇ ! ṗ IK5i9: 5>I]JmLZ 

i
L
i i i i

G(q , p , q̇ , ṗ , t) ≡
i i i i
X
p q̇ − H(q , p , t).i i i i
#Vn/1. e %
…80:6O):IN PaR0;K57=?8!3'ZT8!=15wI<G5>6Tb]JMR0N?/I !=?N˜R0:n5C):I G Z7R\5>=1ZT˜R0ZTZ7IN1I]Z 2n bK:R\5>=18!3ZO9PaF:N?IK6 
i

v&R0c!67R03c!IO6TI]N†Rt5>=1‚0I]ZdR0:G ‚\R067=?R0zN?IKZ q I<5 p  i i

 !
d ∂G ∂G ∂H
#Vn/1. ‡ %



 − =0 ⇔ q̇i =
 dt ∂ ṗi ∂pi ∂pi
!

 d ∂G ∂G ∂H


 − =0 ⇔ ṗi = −
dt ∂ q̇i ∂qi ∂qi
   !' * ' #*,!

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*O? L ?7DFO 3 IH5>67R03Z|˜p8!67JMR\5>=18!3y;]R038!3n=?):II]Z|5:3C; ‰SR03c!IKJMIK3h5&9I‚0R\67=†R\zN?IKZ Q (q , p , t) !

5>IKNH):IN?IKZwb]):SRt5>=?803Zw9:Jm8!:n‚0I]JmI]3h5CZ78!=1I]3h5OIK3;]8!6TI9I]ZObK):SR\5>=18!3Zw;]R038!3

i i i

=?):IKZ]/
P (q , p , t)
i i i

F3 9PaR0:n5767IKZ 57I]6TJMIKZ*!=?NBZ]PaR0c!= 5 9I 5>67R03ZT˜p8067JMR\5>=18!3Z 57I]N?N1I]Z'):PQ=?NI G =?ZT57I :3I ˜p8!3;<5>=18!3

57I]N?N1Iw):I
# V /ED0– %
K(Q , P , t) i i
dP ∂K dQ
i ∂K i
=− , = .
”PaR0L67[KZlN?I€L6T=?3;K=?L-I ‚\R06T=†R\57=?8!33nI]N !t:3I“;K8!39= 5>=18!3{Z7: MZ7R03h5>IdI]Z|5l):Pa=1NnI Gn=1ZT57I“:3I€˜p8!3;<5>=18!3
dt ∂Q dt ∂P i i

57I]N?N1IŒ):IyN?I]Z˜p8!3;<5>=?803Z =13h5>b]c067b]IKZ€9SR03nZ€N?IiL67=13;]=1L Ii9IwJm8!=13967IiR\;K5>=18!3



3IC9=  []6TI]3h5i):ICLSR06dN†R{9bK67= ‚!b]IC5>8\5 R0N1Iw9I F LSR06d67R0LL-8!6T5iR0: 57I]JmLZ

F (q , Q , p , P , t)
i i i i

X
p q̇ − H(q , p , t) = i i
X
P Q̇ − K(Q , P , t) +
i i i
dF
. i
# V /ED . %
i i
i i dt

F 3 I  IK5)! dF dt = F (2) − F (1) 3Iy; ‰SR03c!IyLSR0Z€ZT= N PQ8!3˜R\=15‚0R\67=?IK6 N1I]Zg576>R TIK;K578!=?6TI]ZgIK3

Z 2

N†R0=1Z7Z7R03h5 q (t ),dtq (t ), p (t ), p (t ), Q (t ), Q (t ), P (t ), P (t ) nG b]ZK/

1

fg8!JmJMI
i 1 i 2 i 1 i 2 i 1 i 2 i 1 i 2

dF X ∂F X ∂F X ∂F X ∂F ∂F
= q̇i + ṗi + Q̇i + Ṗi + ,
dt i ∂qi i ∂pi i ∂Qi i ∂Pi ∂t
;]IK6T5 R\=?3ZC; ‰8!= G9IN?R˜p8!67JmI{9I F ;K8!39:=1Z7IK3)5”‹ 9I]ZCbK:R\5>=18!3ZO=?JmLN1=?;]= 5>IKZŒ5>6T[]ZCZ7=1JMLnN?I]Z
L 80:6“N†R{5>67R03Z|˜p8!67JMR\5>=18!3ƒ;]R038!3=1):I0/
.!/ /
vPabK):SR\5>=18!3 9ICzSR0ZTIBIKZT5ŒR0N?8067Z€Z7R\5>=1ZT˜R0= 5>IO9[KZi):I
F (qi , Qi , pi , Pi , t) = F1 (qi , Qi , t)


 ∂F1


 pi =



 ∂qi

 ∂F1
P i = −




∂Qi



 ∂F1
 K =H+
 .
∂t
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D/ F (qi , Qi , pi , Pi , t) = −
P
i Qi Pi + F2 (qi , Pi , t)
dF X X X ∂F2 X ∂F2 ∂F2
⇒ =− Pi Q̇i − Qi Ṗi + q̇i + Ṗi +
dt i i i ∂qi i ∂Pi ∂t

 ∂F2


 pi =



 ∂qi

 ∂F2
⇒ Qi =




∂Pi



 ∂F2
 K=H+ .
Vn/ /

∂t
P
F (qi , Qi , pi , Pi , t) = i qi p i + F3 (pi , Qi , t)

 ∂F3


 qi = −



 ∂pi


∂F3
Pi = −




∂Qi



 ∂F3
 K =H+
 .
∂t
`/ F (qi , Qi , pi , Pi , t) =
P
i qi p i −
P
i Pi Qi + F4 (pi , Pi , t)
/

 ∂F4


 qi = −



 ∂pi

 ∂F4
Qi =




∂Pi



 ∂F4

 K=H+ .
∂t
F3”L67R\5>=1):"I !t=?N!ZT: 5 9n8!3;lL 80:6&I]3c!IK396TI]6:3Il5>6>R\3ZT˜p8!6TJRt5>=?803O; R03803=?):Il9IZ7I98!33nI]6
:3IM˜p8!3;K57=?8!39b]L-I]3n9SR03h59Iƒ9nI]: G54YL IKZ9I‚\R067=?R0zN1I]Z # F ! F ! F 8!: F % / v&IKZ{9IK: G


L6TI]Jm=?[]6TI]Zb]):SR\57=?8!3nZL-I]6TJMI<5757I]3h5H9PQI<G L6T=?JmI]6&N?IKZ3n8!:n‚!IKN?N1I]Z;]88!6798033b]IKZIK3”˜p8!3;<5>=18!3C9I]Z
1 2 3 4

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‚\R067=?R0zN1I]Z]/ X =l:3I5>6>R\3ZT˜p8!6TJRt5>=?803 ;]R038!3n=?):ImI]ZT5”I]3c0I]396Tb]IƒLR06B:n3Im˜p803;K57=?8!3 F !8!3
9= 5d:nI F I]ZT5iN?R  DFO <L ?7DFO
<O
<U+Q L U<?  : 9IC;KIK5757IA576>R03nZT˜p8!6TJR\57=?8!3 / i

 :<BQ U  ;4: X 
i

.!/ivI]Zc06>R039nI]:6TZ Q IK5 P 3PQ8!3h5LN?:nZN PQ=?3h5>IK67L6TbK5 Rt5>=?803 Z7=1JMLnN?I9nI ;]88!6798033b]IKZIK5

=1JML:nN?Z7=18!3ZC9SR03nZ{N†R JmI]ZT:67I8@P N?IKZ q IK5 p Z78!3h5;K8!JmLN?[<5>I]JmI]3h5”JMbKN†R03c0b]Z”9R03Z
i i

N?R 9!b S3= 5>=?803@9IKZ Q IK5 P / vlPQI<G IKJMLN1I N1I LnN?:ZŠ˜p6>R0LLR03h5 ;K8!3Z7=1ZT57I ‹ Ln67I]3n967I
i i
i i

P
F1 (qi , Qi , t) = i qi Q i (
pi = Q i
⇒
Pi = −qi
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9Idc!67R039IK:67Zl; R\38!3=1:nI]JmI]3h5l;]8!3 T:c!:bKI]ZL 8!:n6bK‚=157I]6H5>80:n5>I“6TbK˜pb]6TI]3;KIi˜R\N?N†R\;]=?IK:Z7I
R0: G ;]88!6798033b]IKZŒI<5d=?JmL:N1Z7=?803Z]/
D /ivPa=13h5>b]6 1K5 9I]Z 576>R03nZT˜p8!6TJR\57=?8!3nZ;]R038!3n=?):I]Z I]ZT5H: PaIKN?N?IKZ L-I]:n‚0I]3h5lJmI]3IK6H‹y:3”L678!z 
N?[KJMIOLnN?:Z“ZT=?JmLN?I/! ‚!80=?67IO5767=1‚=?R0N !Z7:= ‚\R03h5dN†R”˜p8!6TJMIO9I K /
. = :<B SVCE: 80Z7;]=1N?N?R\5>IK:6g‰SR\67Jm8!3=?):I
p2 mω 2 2
H= + q .
2m 2
FH5>:9n=?8!3ZdN?R”5>6>R\3ZT˜p8!6TJRt5>=?803ƒ; R03n8!3=?):IAR0ZTZ78;]=1b]IA‹ F1 (q, Q, t) =
mωq 2
cot Q

2



 p = mωq cot Q

 ∂F1 mωq 2

 P =− =
2 sin2 Q

∂Q
 s

 2P
 q= sin Q
⇒ mω


 √
p= 2P mω cos Q

K = H
∂F
= 0) (
Ln:=?ZT:nI
∂t
2P mω cos2 Q mω 2 2P
= + sin2 Q = ωP.
fg8!JmJMI Q I]Z|5y;<Y ;KN?=1:nI"! 2m 2 mω

Ṗ = 0 ⇒ P =
;<5>I =
E
ω
∂H
Q̇ = = ω ⇒ Q = ωt + θ
∂P s
2E
⇒ q= sin(ωt + θ)
mω 2
Z780=15 q = a cos(ωt + α)
R ‚0I]; a=
s
2E
α=θ−
!
π /
Vn/ mω 2 2
P
F2 = i q i Pi 
∂F2


 pi = = Pi
 ∂qi
⇒

 ∂F2
 Qi =
 = qi

F2 =
X
q i Pi
c!bK3[]6TIBN Pa=19I]3h5>= 5>b\/ ∂Pi

i
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'
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ZT8!3h5y6TI]N?=1b]IKZiIK3h5>67IAI]N1N?IKZ“LSR06i9I]Zd5>67R03ZT˜p8067JMR\5>=18!3Z€9IBvI]c!IK396TI0/“F3ŠI  IK5)!s9PaR0L6T[]Z
1 2 3 4

;KIB):IB38!:ZŒR ‚!8!3Zi‚: Z7:n6ŒN?R576>R03Z|˜p8!67Jmb]IC9IBvI]c!IK396TI"!-Z7= F (q , P ) 9bKZ7=?c03ICN†R

576>R03Z|˜p8!67Jmb]IO9nIBvIKc!I]39n67IA9I F LSR06“6>R\LL 806T5i‹ Q !SR0N?8067Z
1 i
1∗ i i


 ∂F1


 pi =
 ∂qi

 ∂F1


 Pi = −
∂Qi
=1JMLN1=?):I

−∂F1∗


 pi =
 ∂qi

 ∂F1∗
 Qi = −


xŒ=?3ZT= ! F = −F / F I]ZT5w98!3;{N Pa80LL 80Z7b”9nI{N†R5>6>R\3ZT˜p8!6TJMbKI”9I{v&IKc!I]3n967I{9nI

∂Pi

LSR\6“6>R0LL-8!6|5i‹ Q 
2 1∗
i
2

X
F1

F2 = F 1 + Pi Q i .
y IJ 1]JmI"!o8!3C‚!b]6T= SI R0=1Z7b]JmI]3h5&):I F I]ZT5N PQ8!LL-8!ZTb9I N?R€5>6>R\3ZT˜p8!6TJMbKIl9Iv&IKc!I]3n967I
i

9I F LSR\6“6>R0LL-8!6|5i‹ q 
1 i
3

X
F3 = F 1 − q i Pi .
F3 S3'! F IKZT5“N Pa80LL 80Z7by9nIwN†RC5>6>R\3ZT˜p8!6TJMbKIy9IyvI]c!IK3967Iy9I F LR06g67R0LL-8!6T5€‹ q IK5
i

 4 1 i
Qi X X
F4 = F 1 + Q i Pi − qi p i .

X = ;]IKZ{5>6>R\3ZT˜p8!6TJRt5>=?803Z”9Iƒv&IKc!I]3n967I I Gn=1ZT57I]3h5)!;]Iƒ):=gI]ZT5‚67R0=gIK3 c0b]3bK6>R0N !:3I

i i

576>R03Z|˜p8!67JMR\57=?8!3';]R038!3n=?):IL-I]:n5AZ7I˜R0=167I‹ N PWR0=19I{9IN Pa:3nI9I]ZC):SR\5767I˜p8!3;<5>=?803Z

c!bK3b]67R\5>6T=?;KI]Z F ! F ! F 8!: F 9I'˜R/.]8!3 b]):= ‚\R0N?IK3)57I0/ 24NyY R 3b]R03Jm8!=?3Z9I]Z
I Gn;KI]Ln57=?8!3nZ]/ … R\6I GnIKJMLnN?"I !CN Pa=19I]3h5>= 5>bIKZT5I]3c!IK396Tb]I LSR\6 F = q P !OJMR0=1Z
1 2 3 4

/HfgI<575>Il˜p8!3;<5>=18!3Oc!b]3nb]6>Rt5>67=1;]Il3PaR“98!3;LSR0Z&9I5>67R03Z|˜p8!67Jmb]I9IvI]c0I]396TI0/
P
2 i i i
∂2F
2
∂qi ∂qj
=0

I)
   
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-  -
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gf 8!3ZT=?9bK678!3nZg:3Ii5>67R03ZT˜p8067JMR\5>=18!3M;]R038!3n=?):Ii9b];K67=157IyLSR\6 N1I]Z ˜p803;K57=?8!3Zc!bK3b]67R\5>6T=?;]IKZ F !

! I<5 F /€vI]Zi38!: ‚!I]N1N?IKZi‚\R06T=†R0zN1I]Z Q I<5 P L IK:n‚!IK3)5'1K5767IA;]8!3ZT=?9bK67bKI]Zy;K8!JmJMIKZ“9I]Z 1

˜p8!3;<5>=18!3Z“9I q ! p ! t 
F F 2 3 4 i i

(
Qi (q, p, t) (q ≡ q1 , . . . , qN ; p ≡ p1 , . . . , pN )
Pi (q, p, t)
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 n‘ .
yIJ 1]JmI"!I]3 =13h‚!I]6TZ>R03h5”N†RŠ576>R03nZT˜p8!6TJR\57=?8!3'! <I 5 q L IK:n‚!IK3h5 1K5767I;K8!3ZT=?9bK67b]Z”;]8!JmJMI
˜p8!3;<5>=?803Š9nI Q, P, t  (
p i i

qi (Q, P, t)

v PaI Gn=1ZT57I]3;KIm9nI{˜p8!3;K57=?8!3nZwc!b]3nb]6>Rt5>67=1;]IKZO=?JmL 8!ZTI{9IKZO67I]N?R\5>=18!3Zy‹ƒ;]I]ZO˜p8!3n;K5>=18!3ZK/{fg8!3nZ7=?9

pi (Q, P, t)

b]6T8!3ZdLSR06dI<G IKJMLN1I F /ˆw3R 

1 
 ∂F1


 pi =
 ∂qi

 ∂F1
 Pi = −
R0=1Z


∂Qi


∂ 2 F1 ∂ 2 F1 ∂pi ∂Pj
= ⇒ =− .
yIAJ K1 JMI/!

∂qi ∂Qj ∂Qj ∂qi ∂Qj ∂qi

∂pi ∂Qj
F2 =⇒ =
∂Pj ∂qi

∂qi ∂Pj
F3 =⇒ =
∂Qj ∂pi

∂qi ∂Qj
F4 =⇒ =− .
: I<5>8!:n6738!3nZŒR\: G 3805>R\5>=18!3Z“;K8!JMLR0;K57I]Z
∂Pj ∂pi

~x = (q1 , . . . , qN ; p1 , . . . , pN )

ˆw39b!S3= 5dN†RJRt5>67=1;]I M LSR06

~y = (Q1 , . . . , QN ; P1 , . . . , PN ).

∂yi
Mij = .
fgIK5T5>IOJMR\5>6T=?;]IiZ]PaR0LL-I]N1N?IiN†RBQ L UW?  :
Q D ?7:<O O :9IyN?RB5>67R03ZT˜p8067JMR\5>=18!3/v&IKZ€b]N1b]JmI]3h5>Zg9I


∂xj
JRt5>67=1;]Iw9nI M Z7803)5i98033b]ZiLSR06 
−1

  ∂xi
M −1 = .
F 3'I  IK5*! ZT=8!3;]8!3nZ7=?9n[]67I ~x ;]80JMJmIO˜p8!3;K57=?8!39I ~y IK5 ~y ;]8!JmJMIO˜p8!3n;K5>=18!3Š9I ~x !s8!3'980=15
ij ∂yj

8!zn57I]3=16“N PQ=?9IK3)57=157b
xi (~y (~x)) = xi
2N
∂ X ∂xi ∂yk
: = δij .
∂xj k=1 ∂yk ∂xj
| {z } | {z }
(M −1 )ik Mkj
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/ rt+s+- # *o#p+ " u  : X'U :<C Q L ?7DFO0X'8
8 ;? L : X 8:'C :+=@?EX<LN:<O : 8: X  FD O<L ?7DFO0X
X
<U<?
:<O L

F1 F2 F3

F 4
t
M JM = J.


<BDFO0X<L U+Q L ?7DFO A

 ˆw3‚0R 9bKJM803)5767IK6O:nI x“98!L 5>8!3ZC:3nIm3n805 R\57=?8!3 LSR06
zN18 ;  t
M J = JM −1 .

   
∂Q ∂Q ∂q ∂q
   
 ∂q ∂p  −1  ∂Q ∂P 
M=  , M =  

 ∂P ∂P 


 ∂p ∂p 

∂q ∂p ∂Q ∂P
⇓
 ! ! 
t ∂Q t ∂P
  !
t
 ∂q ∂q  0 1l
M=  ! ! , J=

 t ∂Q t ∂P 
 −1l 0
∂p ∂p

 ! !   
t ∂P t ∂Q ∂p ∂p
 −   
t
 ∂q ∂q  −1
 ∂Q ∂P 
MJ =  ! !  JM =  .

 t ∂P t ∂Q 


 ∂q ∂q 

− − −
vPabKchR0N1=15>by9IC;]I]Zi9IK: G JMR\5>6T=?;]IKZ“;]8!3n9:=15i‹
∂p ∂p ∂Q ∂P

!
t ∂P ∂p
− = ←− F1
∂q ∂Q
!
t ∂Q ∂p
= ←− F2
∂q ∂P
!
t ∂P ∂q
= ←− F3
∂p ∂Q
!
t ∂Q ∂q
=− ←− F4
fgIƒZT8!3h5{L6Tb];]=1Z7bKJMIK3)5{N?I]ZA67IKN†R\57=?8!3nZB):=8!3h5{b<5>bƒ9bK9:= 5>I]ZB9IN PaI G =?ZT57I]3;KIƒ9IKZ”˜p8!3;<5>=?803Z
∂p ∂P

c!bK3b]67R\5>6T=?;]IKZ F ! F ! F IK5 F /
O Cˆw3 R0LL-I]N1N?I”JMR\5767=?;KI]ZwZ|YJMLN1I];<5>=?):IKZO67bKI]N?N1I]ZwN1I]ZwJMR\5767=?;KI]Zw):= Z>R\57=?ZT˜p803)5wN†R

*O ? L ?7DF
1 2 3 4

;]8039=157=?8!3
t
M JM = J
ˆw3IK39nb]9:= 5dN†R{L6T8!L6T=?bK57bCZ7:= ‚0R\3)57I
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ro+s+- # *o#+-" u 1j 
O : L U+Q O0X DFUWBQ L ?7DFO : X<L  Q O DFO ?  ; :X<?*:<L X :<; CE:<B:<O L X<? X Q BQ L UW?  :
/
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2 &)+-r " 'u  :<O0X :<B CE: 8: X BQ L U<?  : X U
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 DFUWB: ;O U DF; S :RQ<S&S :<C
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:<C X
>B SVCE: <L ?  ; : :<L.O DFL



2N ) Sp (IR) 2N


<BDFO0X<L U Q L ?7DFO 
.!/ŒX = M IK5 M Z7803)5iZ|Y JmLN1I];K57=?):IKZ*! M M N PQI]Z|5 /lF3I  I<5)!
1 2 1 2

t
(M1 M2 )JM1 M2 = t M2 |tM1{zJM} M2 = J.

D /iv&RJ{:N157=?LN1=?;]R\5>=18!3MIKZT5ŒR0ZTZ78;]=†Rt5>=1‚0I0/
=J

Vn/ 1l ∈ Sp (IR) # 5>67= ‚=†R0N % /

`/ŒX = M I]Z|5ŒZ|YJMLN1I];<5>=?):/I ! M IKZT5iZTYJmLN?IK;K57=?):I0/
2N

−1

t
M JM = J ⇒ J = ( tM )−1 JM −1 = t (M −1 )JM −1 .
L :=1Z7):I ( M ) = (M ) /lF3I  I<5)! (M ) M = (M M
t −1 t −1 t −1 t t −1
) = t 1l = 1l
/
/ ro+s+- # *o#+-" u1u  ? M ∈ Sp (IR) det M = 1  2N


<BDFO0X<L U Q L ?7DFO  ˆO3 L6T8 ;K[]9IAI]3Š9IK: G bK5>R0L-I]Z

.!/ M JM = J
t

⇒ det( tM ) det(M ) = 1
⇒ (det M )2 = 1
⇒ det M = ±1
D /ŒX :LnL 8!ZT8!3Zi):I M
ZT8!=15iR0ZTZ78;]=1bB‹N?R”˜p8!3;K57=?8!3 c!bK3b]67R\5>6T=?;KI F /ˆw3L-I]: 5ŒbK;]6T=?67I
2

!
h X X i
F2 = lim  F2 − q i Pi + q i Pi .
→1
i i
| {z }

w:SR039 !S803RN Pa=19I]3h5>= 5>b/!SR0N?8067Z /l…R06d;]8!3h57=?3):=157b"!803980=15dR ‚!80=?6

F2 ()

=0 det 1l = +1

det(M ()) = +1
8@P M ()
I]ZT5iN?R576>R03nZT˜p8!6TJR\57=?8!3; R03803=?):IAR0ZTZ78;]=?bKIA‹ F2 ()
/
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/ rt+s+- # *o#p+ " u   t

M JM = J ⇔ M J tM = J



<BDFO0X<L U+Q L ?7DFO  /mˆw3 J{:N 5>=?LnN?=?IA‹ chR0:n; ‰IMLR06 J !‹

96T8!=157IOLSR06 J  t
M JM = J ⇔ t
M J = JM −1

J tM = M −1 J.
ˆw3J”:N157=?LN1=?IŒ‹c!R0:; ‰ICLSR06 M


M J tM = J.

. = :<B SVCE: g ˆw3 Z7IAL6T8!L 80Z7IC9ICJM803)5767IK6“:nIAN?R{5>6>R\3ZT˜p8!6TJRt5>=?803

 s

 2P
q= sin Q
 √ mω

p = 2P mω cos Q
I]Z|5i; R03803=?):ICI]3Š9bKJM8!3h576>R03h5i):ICN†RJRt5>67=1;]I 7R\;]8!z=1I]33nIOI]ZT5iZ|Y JmLN1I];K57=?):I\/
 s 
∂q 2P ∂q sin Q
 = cos Q =√ 
M =

 ∂Q mω ∂P 2mωP 


 ∂p √ ∂p
r
mω


= − 2P mω sin Q = cos Q
∂Q ∂P 2P

 s 
sin Q 2P
0 1
!  −√ cos Q 
M =

 2mωP mω 

−1 0 

r
mω √ 

− cos Q − 2P mω sin Q
2P

 s 
2P √
 cos Q − 2P mω sin Q  !
t  mω  0 1
MJ M = MJ   =

 sin Q
r
mω

 −1 0
√ cos Q
2mωP 2P
yf /{/ / ”/
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wˆ 3 L-8!Z7IC5>8!: T8!:67Z ~x = (q , . . . , q ; p , . . . , p ) IK5 ~y = (Q , . . . , Q ; P , . . . , P ) /iX 8!=15

:n3I'˜p8!3;<5>=?803 Z7; R\N†R0=167I 9nIN PQbK5 Rt5ƒ9: ZTYZ|5>[]JmI0/•ˆw3 L-I]: 5 ;]8!3nZ7=19b]6TI]6 ;]8!JmJMI :3I
1 N 1 N 1 N 1 N

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v
LSR06dN†R{6TI]N?R\5>=18!3 
∂v t ∂v
= M .
F3I  I<5)! ∂~x ∂~y

∂v X ∂v ∂yj X ∂v X
t
 ∂v
= = Mji = M .
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∂xi j ∂yj ∂xi j ∂yj j
ij ∂yj
 

! !
t ∂u t ∂u
= M.
∂~x ∂~y

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I]3 ˜p8!3;<5>=?803Š9nIA;KI]N1:=LSR06d67R0LL-8!6T5iR0:G ‚\R067=?R0zN?IKZ ~x ~y
! ! ! !
t ∂u ∂v t ∂u ∂v
{u, v}~x = J = M J{ztM}
# V /ED!D %
∂~x ∂~x ∂~y | ∂~y
=J
= {u, v}y~

2  &)+-r " 'u 1j : < U D :<L 8: DF?EX X DFO: X<LM? O
FQ UW? Q O L S0Q U ;O : L U+Q O0X DFUWBQ L ?7DFO  Q O DFO 
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(
{Qi , Qj }Q,P = {Pi , Pj }Q,P = 0
{Qi , Pj }Q,P = δij .

”PaR0L67[KZŒN1Iw5>‰bK8!67[KJMIAVn/WD !803Š9n8!=15iR ‚!80=?6

 

(
{Qi , Qj }q,p = {Pi , Pj }q,p = 0
{Qi , Pj }q,p = δij .
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JRt5>=?803O9b S3n=?ILSR06N?R€98!33nb]II<G LN?=1;]= 5>IH9I˜p8!3n;K5>=18!3Z Q (q, p, t) I<5 P (q, p, t) !oN1I]Z;]6T8 ; ‰nIK5>Z

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= :<B SVCE: g fg803Z7=19b]6T8!3Zi‹38!:n‚0I R0:N†R{5>67R03ZT˜p8067JMR\5>=18!3

 s
. 

q=
2P
sin Q
 √ mω

p = 2P mω cos Q.
∂q ∂p ∂q ∂p
{q, p} = −
∂Q ∂P ∂P ∂Q
s s
2P √ 1 2 1 √
= cos Q 2mω √ cos Q − √ sin Q 2P mω(− sin Q)
mω 2 P mω 2 P
2 2

v&R{5>6>R\3ZT˜p8!6TJRt5>=?803ƒI]Z|5yz=1I]3 ; R\38!3=1:nI0/
= cos Q + sin Q = 1.

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K=H+
∂F
.
#Vn/ED\V %
… IK:n5  8!3 5>6780:n‚!IK6 F 5>I]Ng:nI K = 0 X =€;\PaIKZT5mN?I ;]R0Z*!N?IKZ38!:n‚0I]N?N1I]Z‚\R067=?R0zN1I]Z Q IK5
∂t
ZT8!3h5i9I]Zi;]8!3nZT5 R\3)57I]Z !-9n8!3;C9I]Zd=13)57b]c!67R0N?IKZ€L6TI]Jm=?[]6TI]ZdZ7=803ŠN1I]Z“;K8!3Z7=19[]6TIC;]8!JmJMIy9I]Z

i

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P i

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‹N†RZ780N?:n57=?8!3 9: L6T8!zN1[]JmI0/

i i i i

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2 i i

 ∂F2

 pi =
#Vn/EDt` %





∂qi

∂F2
 Qi =


 ∂Pi


 ∂F2
H+ = 0
R ‚!IK;“N†RŒ;K8!39= 5>=18!3”=1JMLN1=?;K=15>I):IgN?I]Z 2n bK):SR\5>=18!3ZH6TI]N1=†R03h5N?I]Z p , q R0: G P , Q ;]8039:=1Z7I]3h5


∂t
‹ 9I]ZCI GnLn67I]ZTZ7=18!3ZAL 8!:n6 ):=I]3 ˜p8!3h5C9IKZC‚\R06T=†R0znN?I]Zy; R03803=?):IKZ*!;0PQI]ZT5 ‹  9=?6TI):=
i i i i

Z>Rt5>=?Z|˜R0Z7ZTI]3h5iN?IKZi;K678; ‰IK57ZŒP9nIB, Q…8!=?ZTZ78!3Š; R\38!3=1:nI]Z]/

i i

fg8!JmJMI p = ∂F !SN†R”57678!=1Z7=1[]JmIwb]):SR\57=?8!3 9:ŠZTYZ|5>[]JmI # Vn/WD\` % L-I]:n5 1<5>67IC6Tb]b];K67= 5>I

i
2
∂q i

H q ,...,q ,
1 n
∂F 2
,...,
∂F 2
!
,t +
∂F 2
= 0.
#Vn/WD!_ %
∂q1 ∂qn ∂t
 
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fyPaIKZT5Œ:3IC;]8039=157=?8!3 3nb];]IKZ7Z7R0=?6TIB):IA98!= 5“Z>R\57=?Z|˜R0=?6TI F2 (qi , Pi , t)
/

*O ? L ?7DFO lN PabK:R\5>=18!3 R0: G 9nb]67= ‚!bKI]ZiLSR06T57=?IKN?N?IKZ
!
∂f ∂f ∂f
H q1 , . . . , qn , ,..., ,t + =0
∂q1 ∂qn ∂t
9SR03Z N PQI]Z7LR0;]I 9nI]Z ˜p8!3n;K5>=18!3Z ‹ n + 1 ‚0R\67=†R\zN?IKZ f (q , . . . , q , t) Z]PaR0LL-I]N1N?IN P
 ; Q L ?7DFO
 8 Q B ? C LNDFO  0Q  D
? / 1 n

fg8!JmJMIO;KIK5757IBbK):SR\5>=18!3 ˜R0=15d=13)57I]6|‚!I]3n=?6 n + 1 9b]6T=1‚0b]I]ZŒLSR06|5>=?IKN?N1I]Z*! N†RZ780N?:n57=?8!3 c!bK3b]67R0N?I/!

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R0=?N1N?IK:67Z !n;]80JMJmIOI]N1N?Iw3IO˜R0= 5d=?3h5>IK6T‚0I]3=16“:nIBN1I]Z“9bK67=1‚0b]IKZy9I f !nZ7= f I]ZT5iZT8!N?:n57=?8!3'! f + c !
1 n+1

8@P c IKZT5:3nI ;]8!3Z|5 R03h57"I !lI]Z|5mR0:Z7ZT=€Z780N?:n57=?8!3/ vPQ:3Iƒ9nI]Z;]803ZT5>R03h5>I]Z9PQ=?3h57b]c!67R\5>=18!3 I]Z|5

98!3;:3nIM;K8!3ZT5>R03h5>IMR099= 5>= ‚!I0/xŒ:n5>6TI]JmI]3h5A9=1*5 !&N†RƒZ780N?:n57=?8!3 c!bK3b]67R0N?I9IN PabK:R\5>=18!3 9I

yR0Jm=?N 5>8! 3 !R0;K8!z= !)ZT=I]N?N1IwI<G =1ZT5>/I !SL IK:n5iZ]PQb];K67=?6TICZ78!:ZiN†R”˜p8067JmI
f (q , . . . , q , t) = S (q , . . . , q , α , . . . , α ; t) + α .
# V /ED0‘ %
: I<‚!IK38!3Z ‹
38\5>67I L678!znN?[]JmI =?3= 5>=†R\N !wI<5;]8!3nZ7=?9nb]67803Z'N†R 5>67R03ZT˜p8067JMR\5>=18!3 c!bK3b]67R\5>6T=?;KI
1 n 1 n 1 n n+1

/”fg8!JmJMI S IKZT5CZT8 
N?:n57=?8!3 9nIAN PabK):SR\5>=18!3 9I
yR\JM=1N15>80 3 !R0;K8!z= ! F Z>R\57=?ZT˜R\=15“N PabK:R\5>=18!3 # Vn/WD!_ % /l… R06dR\=?N?N1I]:6T*Z !
F (q , . . . , q , P , . . . , P ; t) ≡ S(q , . . . , q , α =P , . . . , α =P ; t)
2 1 n 1 n 1 n 1 1 n n

8!3L IK:n59b]Jm8!3h5>6TI]6):IdZ7= S(q , . . . , q , α , . . . , α ; t) IKZT5N†RwZT8!N?:n57=?8!3c0b]3bK6>R0N1I“9:L678!z 

2

N?[KJM/I !N?IKZ“b]):SR\57=?8!3Z 1 n 1 n


∂F2


 pi =
 ∂qi

 ∂F2
 Qi = .
;]8!3n9:=?ZTI]3h5O‹m9I]ZŒI<G L6TI]Z7ZT=?8!3nZw=?39nb]L-I]39SR\3)57I]ZwL-8!:6dN1I]Z I<5 !-98!3n;{‹:3IB576>R03nZT˜p8!6

∂Pi

JRt5>=?803 ; R03n8!3=?):I\/ v&R'˜p8!3;K57=?8!3 F R\=?3ZT=g9b!S3=?I IKZT5P98!3n;ŠQN?R'Z78!N1:n5>=18!3 9: L6T8!zN1[]JmI

i i

=?3= 5>=?R0N?IKJMIK3)5 L-8!Z7b # Fs/ # Vn/WD\` % % / 2

F3L67R\5>=1):"I !S8!3 L6T8 ;K[]9IA9ICN†R”˜/R .]8!3 Z7:n=1‚\R03h5>I 

.!/iF;]6T=?67ICN PabK:R\5>=18!3 9I
yR0Jm=?N 5>8!3 !R0;K8!z=
!
∂f ∂f
H q1 , . . . , qn ; ,..., ; t = 0.
∂q1 ∂qn
D /Œfg‰IK67; ‰IK6yN†R{ZT8!N?: 5>=?803 c!b]3bK6>R0N1I
S(q1 , . . . , qn , α1 ; . . . , αn ; t)
I]3Š8!JmIK5T5 R03h5dN†R{;K8!3Z|5 R03h5>IBR099n=15>= ‚!I αn+1
/
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Vn/iF39bK9:=167IŠN†R˜p8!3;K57=?8!3 c!b]3nb]6>Rt5>67=1;]I ):=i;]8!3n9:=15‹

K=0
9 b 3=?IOLSR\6  F2 (q1 , . . . , qn , P1 , . . . , Pn ; t)

F2 (q1 , . . . , qn , P1 , . . . , Pn ; t) ≡ S(q1 , . . . , qn , α1=P1 , . . . , αn=Pn ; t)

`/iF G L67=1JMIK6“N?IKZ q IK5 p I]3 ˜p8!3;<5>=18!3 9I]Z Q I<5 P ‹N PaR0=?9nIw9I]Zib]):SRt5>=?803Z
i i i i

∂F2


 pi =
 ∂qi

 ∂F2
 Qi =
 .
∂Pi

fg8!JmJMIN?IKZ I<5 ZT8!3h5H9IKZH;]8!3nZT5 R\3)57I]Z !h8!3{Rd5>6780:n‚!b€N?RiZT8!N?: 5>=?803Bc!bK3b]67R0N?I9:{Ln678!zN1[]JmI

=?3n=15>=?R0N /{v&IKZBQ;K8!3Z|5 PR03h5>IKZ Q I<5 P L IK:n‚!IK3)5 1K5>6TIR7T:ZT57b]I]ZBL 80:6C:nIMN1I]ZA;]8!39n=15>=18!3ZCR0:G
i i

N?=1JM= 5>IKZgZ7:n6 q (t) IK5 p (t) Z78!=1I]3h5iZ>R\57=?Z|˜R0=157I]Z]/

i i

. = :<B SVCE: gˆwZT;]=?N1N†R\57I]:6 ‰SR06TJM8!3n=?):I

i i

p2 mω 2 2
H= + q .
ˆw3; ‰nI]67; ‰nIB:3nIA˜p8!3n;K5>=18!3 ):=Z>R\57=?Z|˜R0=15
2m 2
f (q, t)
 !2 
1  ∂f ∂f
+ m2 ω 2 q 2  + = 0.
2m ∂q ∂t
fg‰IK67; ‰8!3nZyN†R{ZT8!N?: 5>=?803 Z78!:ZdN?R˜p8067JmI
f (q, t) = f1 (t) + f2 (q)
 !2 
df1 1  df2
⇒ + + m2 ω 2 q 2  = 0
˜p;<5 /9I
dt
|{z}
t
2m dq
|
˜p;<5 /9I
{z }
q


 df1

 = −α


 dt
⇒  !2 

 1  df2 2 2 2


 +m ω q = α
 2m dq


 f1 (t) = −αt + β
⇒ df2 √

 = ± 2mα − m2 ω 2 q 2
dq
 
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v&RZT8!N?: 5>=?803 c!b]3bK6>R0N1IC9ICN PQb]):SR\57=?8!3 9I
ŒR0JM=1N1578!3 !R\;]8!z=-I]Z|5i98!3;C98!3n3b]ICLSR06
Z q q
⇒ S(q, α, t) = dq 0 2mα − m2 ω 2 q 0 2 − αt
0

H  β !S):=3PQI]Z|5Œ):PQ:3IA;]803ZT5>R03h5>IBR099= 5>=1‚0I"!3 Pa=13)57I]6|‚ =1I]3h5iLSR0Zd9SR03nZ S /

fg8!3ZT=?9bK678!3Zi98!3n;AN?R”˜p8!3;<5>=?803 c!b]3bK6>R\5767=1;]I
Z q q
F2 (q, P, t) = dq 0 2mP − m2 ω 2 q 0 2 − P t.
ˆw3 R
0


∂F2 q
p = = 2mP − m2 ω 2 q 2
∂q
Z q
∂F2 m
Q = = −t + dq 0 √
∂P 0 2mP − m2 ω 2 q 0 2

fg8!JmJMION?R{L67=1JM= 5>=1‚0Iy9I √
1 I]ZT5ixŒ67;]ZT=?3 x !
a2 − x2 a
r Z
m q 1
Q = −t + dx q
2P 0 1− mω 2 2
x
xy6T;]ZT=?3
2P
r s s
m 2P mω 2
= −t + q
2P mω 2 2P

= −t +
1
q
mω 2 xŒ67;]ZT=?3 s

ω 2P
s
2P
⇒ q = sin ω(t + Q)
mω 2

q = a sin(ωt + θ)

 :<BQ U ; :
 P = bK3I]6Tc!=?I ,

 :<BQ U  ;  :  Cˆw3 L 8!:n676>R\=15O;K678!=167I{):I p I]Z|5C5>8!: T80:67ZOL-8!Z7= 5>= ˜ /”F3 ˜R0=15*!R0L6T[]Z q !=?N
˜R0:n5d; ‰80=?Z7=16“N PaR0:n5767IOz67R03; ‰I/! = −√2mα − m ω q /l…N?:nZiZ 6 p = mq̇ ,
dS 2 2 2

max

<O LN:<U SVU
<L7Q L ?7DFO'8: S  fgI€3PQI]Z|5LSR0Z LSR06 ‰R0Z>R06T9):Pa803RwR0LL-I]N1bgN?RŒZ780N?:n57=?8!3B9I€N PQb]):SRt5>=?803

dq

9I
ŒR0Jm=?N1578! 3 !R0;]8!zn= S /@f€R0N?;K:N?8!3nZMIK3I  IK5N†R 9b]6T=1‚!bKI57805 R0N1I9nI S LSR06m6>R\LL 806T5R0:
5>IKJMLZ 
dS ∂S X ∂S X ∂S
= + q̇i + Ṗi .
dt ∂t i ∂qi i ∂Pi
„0– 
'
   "%$' #*,! 
 - +*,!

 R0=1Z Ṗi = 0
;]R06 Pi =
;K8!3Z|5 R03h5>I\/ xŒ=?3ZT= !
dS
= −H +
X
pi q̇i = L
#Vn/WD!„ %
dt
#Vn/ED\e %
i
Z t
⇒ S(t) − S(t0 ) = L(q, q̇, t0 )dt0 .
t0

x : 3I ;K8!3Z|5 R03h5>I L6T[]Z ! S ;K8!676TI]Z7L-8!39‹ N PaR0;<5>=?803 ; R0N1;]:N1b]I N1I N?803c 9I]Z'576>R TIK;K578!=?6TI]Z
L‰hYZ7=1:nI]Z*!g= /QI0/9IKZ576>R TIK;K578!=?6TI]Z‚6>R0=1JMIK3)5ZT:=1‚=1I]ZLSR06N1I ZTYZT57[]JmI0/ Fl3 ˜R0= 5)!8!3 L IK:n5
J 1]JmI Jm8!3h5>67IK6'):I S(q , . . . , q ; α , . . . , α , t) = L (q , . . . , q ; q̇ , . . . , q̇ , t ) dt !
Z t

; R\N?;]:nN?b]IlN1IN18!3cd9IN†R€5>67R TI];<5>8!=167Il):= R0676T=1‚!IlIK3 ! ! !tN?I]Z

0 0
1 n 1 n 1 n 1 n

bK5>R03h567IKN?=1b]ZB‹ t IK5R\: G q (t ), . . . , q (t ) / fgqI];K(t)=g9== )5 !Hq;KIK5T.5>.Iƒ. 6TqI]JM(t)R067=):qIƒ3 PaIKZT5α9,PaR0. :. .;K,:α3I

t0
1 1 n n 1 n

:n57=?N?= 5>bOL-8!:6d67bKZ78!:n967I{N PabK):SR\5>=18!3Š9I

ŒR0Jm=?N1578! 3 !R0;]8!zn= €L-8!:6d; R\N?;]:nN?I]6 S 9PaR0L6T[]ZŒ;]IK5T5>I
0 1 0 n 0

I<G L6TI]ZTZ7=?8003 ! =1N˜R0:n5;]8033SR 15>67I“N1I]Zl5>67R TI];<5>8!=167I]Z !)98!3;iR ‚!8!=16l67b]ZT8!N?:mN?IdL6T8!zN1[]Jm"I !hIK5 Z7=S803ƒR

67bKZ78!N1: N1IALn678!zN1[]Jm"I !S=1N3PQYŠRmLN?:nZyR0:n;]:3IA6>R\=?Z78039IB67bKZ78!:9n67I”N PabK):SR\5>=18!3 9I
ŒR0Jm=?N1578! 3 


!R0;K8!z= /

. = :<B SVCE: iˆw3'Z7IBL6780L 8!ZTI{9IB67IK57678!: ‚!I]6yN†Rm˜p8067JmIB9I S L 8!:n6ŒN Pa8!ZT;]=1N?N†Rt5>I]:n6“‰SR067Jm8!3=1):I

‹LSR06|5>=?6“9nIAN?R{Z78!N1:n5>=18!3 ;]8033):I 
q(t) = a cos(ωt + α), q̇(t) = −aω sin(ωt + α)
(
q(t1 ) = q1 = a cos(ωt1 + α)
⇒ a, α
IK3Š˜p8!3n;K5>=18!3 9I q 1 , q2 .
q(t2 ) = q2 = a cos(ωt2 + α)

1 2 mω 2 2
L = mq̇ − q
2
Z
2
t2
S = L(q, q̇, t) dt
t1
Z t2  
1 2 2 2 1
= ma ω sin (ωt + α) − mω 2 a2 cos2 (ωt + α) dt
t1 2 2
Z
1 t2
= − ma2 ω 2 cos 2(ωt + α) dt
2 t1
" #t
1 2 2 sin 2(ωt + α) 2
= − ma ω
2 2ω t1
1 2
S = − ma ω [sin 2(ωt2 + α) − sin 2(ωt1 + α)]
4
√
sin 2x = 2 sin x cos x = 2 1 − cos2 x cos x
q
a2 sin 2(ωt2 + α) = 2a cos(ωt2 + α) a2 − a2 cos2 (ωt2 + α)
q
= 2q2 a2 − q22
  
) - +*!   ,* +


H
-! !,!%  $   „.
 
1 q q
⇒ S = − mω q2 a − q2 − q1 a2 − q12 .
2 2
2
x€5757I]3h5>=18!3 ,24N˜R\:n5dI]3;K8!67IAI<G L6T=?JmI]6 a I]3 ˜p8!3;<5>=?803Š9nI q 1 , q2

(
q1 = a cos(ωt1 + α)
q2 = a cos(ωt2 + α)
xy6T;];]80Z = ωt + α
xy6T;];]80Z = ωt + α
(
q1
a 1
q2

xy67;K;]8!Z q − xy67;K;]8!Z q = ω(t − t )

a 2

2 1

…8!:n6iZT=?JmLN?= SI]6 ! L-8!ZT8!3Z q = 0 IK5 at = 0 !sR0N18!67aZ α = /

2 1

π
1 1 2

−q2
q2 = −a sin(ωt2 ) ⇒ a =
sin(ωt2 )
s
q a2
q2 < 0 ⇒ a2 − q22
−1 = −q2
q22
s
1 2 1 1
⇒ S = + mωq2 2 − 1 = mωq22 cot(ωt2 )
2 sin (ωt2 ) 2
 s
 ∂S 1 q
a2 − q22


 = mωq2 − 1 = mω

∂q2 sin2 (ωt2 ) !
 ∂S 1 ω mω 2 a2
= mωq22 − 2


 =−

∂t 2 sin (ωt2 ) 2

I)

 3;    -  /  1

  -0/ *3 /   H
$1 0(
 1  - 1
t

v 8!67ZT:nI“N PQ‰SR0Jm=?N1578!3=1I]3O3I€9nb]L-I]39LSR\ZH9:”57I]JmLZ*!!803L IK:n5 578!: T8!:6TZ ; ‰IK67; ‰IK6lN†RŒZT8!N?: 5>=?803

Z78!:nZŒN?R”˜p8!67JmI
S(q , . . . , q ; α , . . . , α ; t) = W (q , . . . , q ; α , . . . , α ) − α t.
# V /ED0‡ %
F36TI]L-8!6T5>R03h5Œ;KIK5T5>ICI<G L6TI]Z7ZT=?8!39SR03ZdN PabK:R\5>=18!3 9I
yR0Jm=?N 5>8!3 !R0;K8!z= !)8!3 57678!:n‚0I
1 n 1 n 1 n 1 n 1

H q ,...,q ;
1 n
∂W
,...,
∂W
!
=α . 1
# V /WV!– %
∂q ∂q
fgIK5T5>Ib]):SRt5>=?803I]ZT5AR\LL IKN?bKI{N P
 ; Q L ?7DFO  Q U Q <L
<UW?EX<L ?  ; :8: Q B ? C LNDFO  0Q 
D ? /Aˆw3L IK:n5
1 n

Z7=1JMLN1I]JmI]3h5€N Pa: 5>=?N1=?ZTI]6L 8!:n6€; R0N1;]:N1I]6 S / R0=?Z€803 L IK:n5db]chR\N?I]JmI]3h5g:n5>=1N?=?ZTI]6 W L-8!:6g˜R\=?67I

:3IO5>67R03Z|˜p8!67JMR\5>=18!3 ; R\38!3=1:nI 


2 F (q , . . . , q ; P , . . . , P ; t) = W (q , . . . , q ; α =P , . . . , α =P ).
1 n 1 n 1 n 1 1 n n
# V /WVn. %
 „!D 
'
   "%$' #*,! 
 - +*,!

gf 8!JmJMI W 3IC9b]L-I]3n9LSR\Zi9nI t S! 803Š57678!:n‚0I 


 ∂W
 pi =
#Vn/WV!D %






∂qi
∂W
 Qi =



 ∂Pi



ˆw3Š‚08!=15d):IO578!:n5>IKZdN?I]Z“‚\R06T=†R0zN1I]Z Q Z78!3h5i;KY;KN?=?):IKZ*!S9PQ8@P

K(Q1 , . . . , Qn , P1 , . . . , Pn ) = P1

# Vn/aV!V %
i

Ṗi = 0, i = 1, . . . , n,
IK5i):IO5>80:n5>IKZiN1I]Z“‚\R067=?R0zN1I]Z Z78!3h5i;KY;]N1=?):IKZ*!s9PQ8@P
# Vn/aV0` %
P2 , . . . , Pn
Q̇i = 0, i = 2, . . . , n.
w:SR03h5Œ‹ Q !IKN?N1IOI]ZT5i98033b]ICLSR\6 Q = t + Q !nL:=?ZT):I Q̇ = ∂K = 1 /

1 1
0
1 1

24NI]Z|5iLSR06T˜p80=?Z“LN1:ZdR ‚0R\3)5>R0c!IK: G 9IC;]803Z7=19b]6TI]6dN†R{5>67R03Z|˜p8!67JMR\5>=18!3ƒLN1:Z“c!bK3b]67R0N?I

∂P 1

#Vn/WV!_
F2 (q1 , . . . , qn ; P1 , . . . , Pn ; t) = W (q1 , . . . , qn ; α1=β1 (P1 , . . . , Pn ), . . . , αn=βn (P1 , . . . , Pn )),
8@P N?IKZ β (P , . . . , P ) ZT8!3h5Œ9nI]Zd˜p8!3;K57=?8!3nZ“:n=9b S3n=?Z7ZTI]3h5Œ:3; ‰R03c!IKJMIK3)5Œ9IO‚\R067=?R0zN1I]Z]% /
vI]Zd38!: ‚!I]N1N?IKZi;K8 806798!3n3b]IKZiZT8!3h5y9n8!33bKI]ZiLSR06 
i 1 n


 ∂W
 pi = (q1 , . . . , qn ; β1 (P1 , . . . , Pn ), . . . , βn (P1 , . . . , Pn ))
#Vn/WV0‘ %




 ∂qi

n
X ∂W ∂βj

 Qi =
j=1 ∂βj ∂Pi






wR03nZg;]I<5757Iy˜p8!67J”:N†R\57=?8!3c0b]3bK6>R0N1=?Z7bKI"!N?IKZ ;K8 8!6T98!33nb]I]Z Q Z78!3h5g578!: T8!:n67Z;KY;]N1=?):I]Z !n9PQ8@P


K(Q1 , . . . , Qn , P1 , . . . , Pn ) = β1 (P1 , . . . , Pn ).


Ṗ = 0 i
/l… R\6i;K8!3h5>6T"I ! Q̇ = ∂β !9PQ8@P
i
1
i

∂Pi

Qi (t) =
∂β1
t + Q0i
#Vn/WV!„ %
∂Pi
wˆ 3 IKZT5Œ98!3;”R0676T=1‚!bA‹m:3IA67I]Ln67b]ZTI]3h5 Rt5>=?803'9: Z|YZT5>[KJMIB8@P N?RJM8!= 5>=1bw9I]Zi‚\R067=?R0zN?IKZdZ78!3h5
9IKZm;K8!3Z|5 R03h5>IKZIK58@P N PWR0: 5>67IJM8!= 5>=1bM9IKZ‚0R\67=†R\zN?IKZ{R0:c0JMIK3)57I]3h5N?=13b R\=?67IKJMIK3h5R ‚!IK;ŠN1I
5>IKJMLnZ]/
fgI54YL I9I5>67R03ZT˜p8067JMR\5>=18!3O; R03n8!3=?):IlIKZT5:n5>=1N?=1Z7bHL-8!:69b!S3=16N1I]Z‚\R06T=†R0zN1I]Z&R0;<5>=18!3  R\3c!N?I
#p‚08!=?6iXI];K57=?8!3 `/aV % /
0
4 fg8!JmJMION?R{;]8!3Z|5 R03h57I IKZT5ib]c!R0N?IC‹N PQb]3nI]67c0=?"I !n8!3 N†R38057IOZ78!:n‚0I]3h5 E /
α 1
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*O
N PQb]):SR\57=?8!3 9I
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1

0 # V /WV!e %
fgIyZTI]6>RBI]3ƒLSR\6T5>=1;]:N1=?IK6N1IŒ;]R0ZgZT= q IK5 3PWR\LLSR067R0=?ZTZ7I]3h5g9SR03Z N PQb]):SR\57=?8!3M9I
ŒR0JM=1N1578! 3 
f (q , . . . , q ; t) = f (q ) + f (q , . . . , q ; t).
1 n 1 1 2 n

!R0;]80z=S):IŒLR06lN PQ=?3h5>IK67Jmb]9=?R0=?6TI 9PQ:3IiI<G L6TI]ZTZ7=?803  ):=s3I“˜R0= 5LSR0Zl=?3h57I]6T‚0I]3=16

∂f
1 ∂q1

N?IKZdR0:n5>6TI]Z€‚\R06T=†R0zN1I]Z 8!: N?IKZdR0:n5>6TI]Z“9bK67= ‚!b]IKZdLSR06T57=?IKN?N?IKZ]/ vlPQb]):SRt5>=?803Š9nI

yR0Jm=?N 5>8! 3 !R0;]80z=

∂f
φ q , 1 1 ∂q1

Z]PQb];K67=15iIK3I  I<5
! !
∂f ∂f ∂f ∂f
H1 φ 1 q1 , , q2 , . . . , qn ; ,..., + =0
∂q1 ∂q2 ∂qn ∂t
 !

 ∂f ∂f ∂f

 H1 α 1 , q 2 , . . . , q n ; ,..., + =0

∂q2 ∂qn ∂t
⇔ !

 ∂f
 φ1 q 1 , = α1


;]IC):=&Z]PQb];K67=15*!I]3:n5>=1N?=1Z>R03h5 f I<5 f !

∂q1
0
1
 !

 ∂f 0 ∂f 0 ∂f 0

 H1 α 1 , q 2 , . . . , q n ; ,..., + =0

! ∂q2 ∂qn ∂t

 df 1
 φ1 q 1 , = α1


dq1

= :<B SVCE:  X = q IKZT5 ;<Y;]N?=1):I"!i8!3L-I]:n5ƒ; ‰8!=?ZT=?6 φ q ,  = df / ˆw3 I]3 9bK9:= 5

.
IK5 p = α = ;]8!3Z|5 R03h57I0/
df1 1
1 1 1 dq1
dq 1
f =α q
3Z|Y Z|5>[KJMIIKZT5O9= 5  DFB SVCEA<LN:<B:<O L X
NS0Q U+Q CE:iZT=9I”L678; ‰II]3 L678; ‰I8!3'L-I]: 5OZ7bKLSR067IK6
1 1 1 1 1

5>8!: 5>I]ZdN1I]Z“‚\R067=?R0zN?IKZ]/lˆw3ŠRmR0N?8!6TZ 

f (q , . . . , q ; t) =
1 n
X n
f (q ; α , . . . , α ) + f (t)
k k 1 n
#Vn/WV0‡ %
0

R ‚!IK; φ q , df ! = α
k=1

k
k k k
dq
IK5 H (α , . . . , α , t) + df = 0.
k

v&RmZT8!N?:n57=?8!3 9nIA;KIK5T5>IAb]):SR\57=?8!3 3IC˜R0=15“dtR0LLSR067R ?5767Iw):PQ:3IB;]8!3nZT5 R\3)57I”R\99=157=1‚0IO:n=L IK:n5

n 1 n

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JMIK3h5Œ9n:Š57I]JmLZ*!803 R  H

f (t) = −H (α , . . . , α )t ≡ −E(α , . . . , α )t.

0 n 1 n 1 n
# V /a`h– %
 \„ ` 
'
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 - +*,!

v&R˜p803;K57=?8!3 , . . . , q ; α , . . . , α , t) ):=L-I]6TJMI<5i9IA˜R\=?67ION?R{5>6>R\3ZT˜p8!6TJRt5>=?803 ; R03803 

=?):ICIKZT5i9ICN†S(q
R”˜p8!6TJMI
1 n 1 n

n
X
S(q1 , . . . , qn ; α1 , . . . , αn , t) = Sk (qk ; α1 , . . . , αn , t) + S0 (α1 , . . . , αn , t).

F3˜R0=15*! Z7= N PQ8!3 Rƒ9PaR0z 80679Z7bKLSR06TbmN?RM‚\R067=?R0zN1I q ! S 3nI9b]L-I]39 ):I9I α IK5OLSR\ZO9I]Z

k=1

9I J 1]JmI"!gZ7=y803
Z7bKLSR06TI'I]3ZT:=157I N?R ‚\R06T=†R0zN1I q ! S 3nI'9b]L-I]3n9LSR0ZM9I]Z
1 1 1
α ,...,α
2 n
/ …R06;]8!3h5767I"!=?Ng9b]L-I]39 9I / 24N“Z7IK6>R0= 598!3;ƒ˜R\: G 9I ;K678!=167I ):I 3I
2 2

9bKL IK39 ):IC9I α !I<5ŒN PabK;]6T=15>:n67IO;]= 49IKZ7ZT:αZŒIKZT5iN†R{ZTI]:N1ICb];]6T=157:67ICc!bK3b]67R0N?IOL-8!Z7ZT=?zN1I0S/

α ,...,α
3 n 1 k

. = :<B SVCE: X gfg88!6T98!33bKI]ZdZ7Ln‰b]6T=?):I]ZK/

k

!
1 2 p2θ p2φ
H= p + + + U (r, θ, φ).
2m r r 2 r 2 sin2 θ
X :LnL 8!ZT8!3Zi):I U (r, θ, φ)
Z780=15“9ICN?R˜p8067JmI
b(θ)
U (r, θ, φ) = a(r) + .
vPabK):SR\5>=18!3 9I
yR0Jm=?N 5>8!3!R0;K8!z=-Z]PQb];]6T=15 r2

!2  !2  !2
1 ∂f 1  ∂f 1 ∂f ∂f
+ a(r) + + 2mb(θ) + + = 0.
2m ∂r 2mr 2 ∂θ 2mr 2 sin2 θ ∂φ ∂t

• H
?= 39bKL IK39SR03h5i9: 5>IKJMLZ → f (r, θ, φ, t) = f (r, θ, φ) − Et 0

• φ
;KY;]N1=?):I → f (r, θ, φ) = f (r, θ) + p φ, (p = ;]803ZT5>R03h5>I % /
0 00

Z>R\57=?ZT˜R\=15€N PabK):SR\5>=18!3 
φ φ

00
f (r, θ)
!2  !2 
1 ∂f 00 1  ∂f 00 p2φ
+ a(r) + + 2mb(θ) + = E.
2m ∂r 2mr 2 ∂θ 2mr 2 sin2 θ
ˆw3J”:N157=?LN1=?IiLSR06 r2


!2  !2 
r2 ∂f 00 1  ∂f 00 p2φ
− − r 2 a(r) + Er 2 = + 2mb(θ) + .
2m ∂r 2m ∂θ sin2 θ
ˆw3L-I]: 5dZ7b]LR067IK6 r I<5 θ

f 00 (r, θ) = f1 (r) + f2 (θ)
 !2

 df2 p2φ

 + 2mb(θ) + =β
sin2 θ

 dθ
!2


 1 df1 β

 + a(r) + =E
2mr 2

2m dr
     ' #*!  

'    „!_
vI]Zd;]8!3nZT5 R\3)57I]ZŒ9Pa=13h5>b]c06>R\57=?8!3 ZT8!3h5 pφ , β
IK5 E /
s
Z
p2φ
⇒ S(r, θ, φ; pφ , β, E; t) = −Et + pφ φ + β − 2mb(θ) − dθ
s
sin2 θ
Z
β
+ 2m(E − a(r)) − dr.
r2

 



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)+(  9  -  /

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9ICN?=1z IK6T57b0/vPQb]3IK67c!=1IAZKPabK;]6T=15  T + V /

1

T = mr 2 θ̇ 2
 2
V = −mgr cos θ
×
r
∂L
θ pθ = = mr 2 θ̇
∂ θ̇
p2θ
⇒ H(θ, pθ ) = − mgr cos θ.
2mr 2
vPabK):SR\5>=18!3 H(θ, pθ ) = E
;]8!3n9:=15i‹
q
pθ = ± 2mr 2 (E + mgr cos θ).

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• − mgr ≤ E < mgr

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E + mgr cos θ > 0

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⇒ cos θ > −
R ‚!I];
mgr
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⇒ −θ 0 < θ < θ 0 , cos θ 0 = − .
mgr

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9PQ:3IB˜p803;K57=?8!3 W (q, α) /€vIAL678!znN?[]JmICI]Z|5w98!3n;B9IB9bK57I]6TJM=13I]6dN†R˜p8!3;<5>=18!3 β(P ) 57I]N?N1I
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F2 (q; P )

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dQ ∂ ∂F2 ∂ 2 F2 ∂P
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 R0=1Z ∂P
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I I
∂ ∂F2
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∂ I ∂W
= (q; α)dq.
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I
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F2 (q; I) ≡ W (q; α=β(I)).

`/iv&R{‚0R\67=†R\zN?I w IKZT5ŒR0N18!67Z“9b!S3=1IALR06
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∂I
_ /ivIC38!:n‚0I]N&‰SR0Jm=?N 5>8!3=1I]3MI]ZT5i98033bALSR06
K(w; I) = α = β(I).
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dw ∂K dβ
= =
dt ∂I dI
dβ
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dI
dβ
⇒ w(T ) − w(0) = T
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dI

dβ
⇒ 2π = T
dI
2π dβ
⇒ ω ≡ = .
T dI

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∂q
Z Z
S= (pq̇ − H)dt = p dq − Et.

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p2 mω 2 2
H(p, q) = + q .
… 80:6Œ;KIBZ|YZT5>[KJMI/! W (q; α) = ± dq 2mα − m ω q / xy: ;K8!:6TZŒ9:ŠJm8!:n‚!IKJMIK3h5)! q
2m 2
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0 2 2 02
0

H(p=0, q) = α
s s
2α 2α
⇒ − ≤q≤
mω 2 mω 2
 q q 
Z 2α Z 2α
1  mω 2
q −
mω 2
q
⇒ I = β −1 (α) = q 2mα − m2 ω 2 q 2 dq − q 2mα − m2 ω 2 q 2 dq  .
2π − 2α
mω 2
2α
mω 2

…80Z78!3Z q=
s
2α
sin θ ⇒ dq =
2α
s
cos θ dθ
mω 2 mω 2
q √
⇒ 2mα − m2 ω 2 q 2 = 2mα cos θ
!s
1
Z π/2 √ Z −π/2 √ 2α
⇒ I = 2mα cos2 θ dθ − 2mα cos2 θ dθ
2π −π/2 π/2 mω 2
r s
mα 2α α
= 2
= .
2 mω ω
ˆw3IK39nb]9:= 5d):I β −1 (α) =
α
ω
⇒ β(I) = ωI,
Z q q
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i
i
i

/ rt+s+- # *o#p+ "    0 

V =V

F3I  IK*5 !!I  I];<5>:8!3nZHN?I; ‰SR03c0I]JmI]3h59Ig‚\R06T=†R0znN?Il9SR03Z N PQ=?3h5>bKc!6>R0N1I98!33R03h5 V /HˆO3B5>6780:n‚!I

V =
Z
D dP dQ
Y
i i
#p`/1.,_ %
8@P D IKZT5N?I 7R0;]80z=?IK03 !w;0PQI]Z|5 4‹ 49=167I N?I 9b<5>IK67Jm=?3SR03h5 9I N†R JMR\5>6T=?;]I9nI]ZŠ9b]6T=1‚!bKI]Z9I]Z
Ω0 i

R03;K=?IK33I]Zl‚\R067=?R0zN1I]ZHLSR\667R0LL-8!6T5R\: Gm38!:n‚0I]N1N?I]ZK/F3M: 5>=?N1=?Z7R03h5N?IKZ3n805 R\57=?8!3nZ;]8!JmLSR0;<5>I]Z !

8!3ŠR
#p`/1. ‘ %
 Z Z
0
 V = d~x, V = d~y
Ω Ω0

R0=1Z“;]8!JmJmI M IKZT5iZTYJmLN?IK;K5>D=1):="I ! det (M ) .

 −1


 
det M = det M −1 = 1 ⇒ D=1
Z Z
⇒ V = Dd~y = d~y = V 0 .
Ω0 Ω0
yf /{/ / ”/
3nI{I<G5>IK3Z7=18!3'=1JML-8!6T5>R03h5>IA9I”;KIK5T5>I{L6T8!L-8!Z7= 5>=?803IKZT5O):IBN?IB‚08!N?:nJMIA9SR03ZyN PQI]Z7LR0;]IB9I]Z
L‰SR\Z7I]ZiI]Z|5y;K8!3ZTI]6T‚0b{R0:Š;]80:67Zi9:57I]JmLZ]/ …80:6d9b]Jm8!3h5>6TI]6i;]I]N?R
!=1NZ7: 5Œ9IC9b]Jm8!3h5>6TI]6

):I{ZT=N1I”ZTYZ|5>[]JmI{IKZT5O9bK;]6T=15ŒLSR06 ~x ‹mN PQ=?3Z|5 R03h5 0 IK5yLSR06 ~y (~x) ‹N Pa=13ZT5>R03h5 t ! N†RMJMR\5767=?;KI



M
9b S3n=?ICLSR06 t

∂yi
Mij =
I]Z|5iZTYJMLnN?I];<5>=1:nI0/ ∂xj

…80:6&Z7=?JmLN1= SIK6N?IKZ3805 Rt5>=?803Z*!o8!3A9b 3=15&N Pa8!L-b]67R\5>IK:69=1 bK67I]3h57=?I]N D : IR 2n

→ IR2n ×IR2n


D~y =
∂~y
!
= M.
#p`/ .o„ %
∂~x
vPabK):SR\5>=18!3 9:ŠJM8!: ‚!I]JmI]3h5iI]3Š3805>R\5>=18!3Z“;K8!JMLR0;K57I]ZdZ]PQb];K67=15
∂
~yt (~x) = J
∂H
!
◦ ~yt (~x).
#p`/ .,e %
∂t ∂~x
 
 
*,  &  #*%$ -
 eh„
X =8!3ŠR0LLnN?=?):ION Pa80L bK6>R\57I]:6“9=1 bK67IK3)57=?IKN9ICLSR06|5ŒI<5d9PaR0:n5>6TI"!S=1N ‚=?I]3h5
∂
(D~y) = J D
∂H
" ! #
◦ ~y (D~y),
#p`/ .,‡ %
8!:ŠI]3;K8!67I
∂t ∂~x

∂
−J (D~y) = D
∂H
! !
◦ ~y (D~y).
#p`/WD0– %
…67I]3R03h5yN?R”5>6>R\3Z7L-8!Z7bKI"!s=?N-‚=?I]3h5
∂t

∂~x

∂ t
− (D~y) tJ = t (D~y) t D
∂H
! !
◦ ~y ,
#`n/ED . %
∂t ∂~x
Z78!= 5)!Ln:=?ZT:nI t
J = −J
!
∂ t
(D~y)J = t (D~y) t D
∂H
! !
◦ ~y .
#`n/ED!D %
∂t ∂~x
F3J{:nN15>=1LN?=?R03h5 p# `/WD0– % LSR06 − t(D~y)
‹c!R0:; ‰ICIK5 p# `/ED0D % LSR06 (D~y)
‹m9n678!= 5>I"!n=?N ‚=1I]3h5
∂ ht i
(D~y)J(D~y) = t (D~y)
"
t
D
∂H
!
◦ ~y − D
∂H
◦ ~y
#
(D~y).
#p`/WD0V %
∂t ∂~x ∂~x

 R0=1Z D
∂H
!
=
∂2H I]ZT5iZ|Y JmbK5767=1:nI"!S9PQ8@P
∂~x ij
∂xi ∂xj

∂ ht i

;K57I #`/WD\` %
(D~y)J(D~y) = 0
∂t
t
⇒ (D~y)J(D~y) = = J
L:=1Z7):I D~y| = 1l / fy/{/ / ”/
fgIK5T5>I L6780L67=1bK5>bI]ZT5;K8!33):I Z780:ZN?Iƒ3n8!J 9I

DFU A<B:8: G?7DF;
? C CE: N?IM‚!8!N1:JMI9I
t=0

N PQI]ZTLSR0;]I 9I]ZL‰SR0ZTI]ZI]ZT5 ;]8!3nZ7I]6|‚!b“R\:”;]80:67Z9:”57I]JmLZ]/ fgIK5T5>IgLn678!L6T=?b<5>bI]ZT5˜p8!39SR\JMIK3)5>R0N?I



L 80:6HN†RŒ9 b S3n=15>=18!3”9nI“N PQb]):=?N1=?z6TI57‰I]6TJM89nY3SR0Jm=?):I\/ 3I€9bKJM803ZT576>R\57=?8!3{LnN?:ZHc0b]3bK6>R0N1I

9IC;]IC67bKZ7:N 5 R\5iZTI]6>R98!3n3b]IAR0:ŠLSR067R0c!6>R\L‰IA_ /WD{9:; ‰R0L=15767IOZT:=1‚\R03h5 /


 


%
# J$&#     ' '   !

 )+(  9  -  / 

3!X
 X<LNA<B: 8 FOVQ B ?  ;4:wI]ZT5A:3ZTYZT57[]JmIM9n8!3h5”N Pab<5 R\5CIKZT5B9b];K67=15ALSR\6A:n3 ‚0I];K57I]:6 ‹
;]8!JmL-8!Z>R03h57I]ZdIK5i98!3h5dN Pab<‚!8!N1:n5>=18!3 I]Z|5Œ6Tb]c!=1IOLSR06“:3nIAbK):SR\5>=18!3 9=  b]6TI]3h5>=1I]N1N?Iw9: L6T~xI]Jm=?IKn6

8!679n67IC9: 54Y L-I

−→
~x˙ = F (~x).
#_ /. %
= :<B SVCE:  3mZTYZT57[]JmId‰SR0Jm=?N1578!3=1I]3{IKZT5:3ZTYZT57[]JmIŒ9 Y 3R0JM=1):I0/ Fl3mI  IK5*!)I]3m3805 Rt5>=?803
.
;]8!JmLSR0;<5>I/!

!
∂H −→
~x˙ = J = F (~x),
∂~x
R ‚!IK; Fi (~x) =
X
Jij
∂H
, J=
0 1l
!
.
j ∂xj −1l 0

… R06”;]8!3h5>6TI"!H578!:Z”N1I]ZBZTYZT57[]JmI]Z9nY3SR0Jm=?):IKZ{3IƒZT8!3h5{LSR\Z{9I]Z”ZTYZT57[]JmI]Z‰SR0Jm=?N 5>8!3n=?I]3nZ]/
… R06I G I]JmLN?I/!N?R 9IKZ7;]6T=?Ln57=?8!3 9 Pa:3 Z|Y Z|5>[KJMI JMR0;]6T8!Z7;K8!L=?):IL IK:n5Z7Iƒ˜R0=167I ‹'N PWR\=?9IM9I
):I]N1:nI]ZO9IKc!67bKZw9I”N1=?z-I]6|5>bAL 8!:n6ŒN1I]Z7):IKN?ZwN1I]ZŒb]):SR\57=?8!3ZŒ9:'Jm8!:n‚0I]JmI]3h5w8!3h5y:3'5>IK67JmI
9=?ZTZ7=1LSR\5>= ˜ / yI57I]N1Z{ZTYZT57[]JmI]Z3IƒL-I]: ‚!I]3h5mLSR0<Z 1K5>6TI 9b];K67= 5>Z{LSR\6{:3 ‰SR0Jm=?N 5>8!3n=?I]3 / …R06
R0=?N1N?IK:67Z !9SR03ZAz-I R0:;K8!:L 9PaR0:n5>6TI]ZA;]8!3h57I<G5>IK*Z ! 9nI]ZAb]):SR\57=?8!3ZC9I;KI54YL-IR\LLSR067R0=?ZTZ7I]3h5]/
vPa8!z TIK5“9IŒ;]Iw; ‰R0L=15767IŒI]ZT5€9Iw9=1Z7;]: 5>I]6 :3 ;]IK6T5>R0=?3M38!J{z6TIy9PaR0ZTL IK;K5>Z“9nI]Z€L6T8!L6T=?bK57b]Z 9I
;]IKZŒZ|Y Z|5>[KJMIKZ]/
…8!:n6:3m57I]NZ|YZT5>[KJM/I !)=?NnLR0Z7ZTIiIK3c!b]3bK6>R0Nn:3IdIK5l:3nI“Z7I]:nN?I“Z780N?:n57=?8!3{LR06:3L 80=?3h598!3n3b
~x 0
/ ˆO3ŠR0LnL IKN?N? I DFLI<5Œ803Š3n805>I φ~ (~x ) N†R{ZT8!N?:n57=?8!3 ~x(t) 5>IKN?N1IO:nI ~x(t = 0) = ~x /
t 0 0

e!‡
‡!– 

  -!% *:$+ #*,!  $      !) #" $ 
  

 )76   - 
!3 /
0   -  
-  &- 
 1   9 -  

   

X 8!= 5 V ≡ V (0)
N?Iw‚08!N?:JmIw9PQ:398!JMR0=?3I M 9SR\3ZdN PQI]Z7LR0;]IA‹ n 9=?JmI]3ZT=?8!3nZ*!
V =
Z
dx1 . . . dxn
# _ /WD %
IK5iZT8!=15 N?Iw‚08!N?:nJMIO9ICZT8!3=1JR\c!I /
M

V (t) φt (M )

V (t) =
Z
dy1 . . . dyn =
Z
J(t, x)dx1 . . . dxn
# _ /aV %
8@P J(t, x) I]Z|5yN1I 7R0;]80z=?IK3Š9nIAN?R”5>67R03ZT˜p8067JMR\5>=18!3ƒ9I /
φt (M ) M

~x 7→ ~y ≡ φt (~x)

FZ7Z7R,Y08!3ZŒ9IC; R0N1;]:N1I]6 dV = lim V (∆t) − V (0) /

xy:ŠL6TI]Jm=?I]6g8!6796TICI]3 ∆tdt!S803 R  ∆t
∆t→0

−→
~y = ~x+ F (~x)∆t + O(∆t2 )
# _ /Q` %
∂yi
= δij +
∂Fi
∆t.
# _ /W_ %
∂xj ∂xj

… 80Z78!3Z A = ∂F / vI 7R0;K8!z=?IK3 9I ;]IK5T5>I5>67R03Z|˜p8!67JMR\5>=18!30! det(1l + A∆t) !wI]Z|5Š:3

ij
i

L-8!N1Y3—!JmI9I9IK∂xc!67b n I]3 ∆t /…8!:6C;]R0N?;K:N?IK6ON†R 9b]6T=1‚0b]I dV !=?NHZT: 5”9I;K8!33SR 15>6TImN1I

j
 

5>IK67JmIO9PQ8!6796TI. !S;0PQI]Z|5  ‹ 49=167ION?=13b R\=?67IŒI]3 ∆t / R0=?Z 1l + A∆tdt ZKPabK;]6T=15



 
1 + A11 ∆t A12 ∆t A13 ∆t . . .

A21 ∆t 1 + A22 ∆t A23 ∆t . . . 

//
 
 .

 A31 ∆t ...t ... ... 


R0=?ZT8!3Z“:3Š9b<‚!I]N18!LL-I]JmI]3h5i9:Š9bK57I]67Jm=?3R03h5dZ7I]N18!3 N†RL6TI]Jm=?[]6TIO;]8!N18!33I\/24N ‚=?IK3)5

 
 1 + A22 ∆t A23 ∆t . . . 
//

 
det(1l + A∆t) = (1 + A11 ∆t)  A32 ∆t 1 + A33 ∆t . . . 
 
 

//
 

 A12 ∆t A13 ∆t . . . 
−A21 ∆t  

 

//
 

 A12 ∆t A13 ∆t . . . 
+A31 ∆t  

 
  * -!% 

  )  '   +- 

 ‡n.
IKZT5O˜R0;<5>I]:n6O9Pa:n3 9nbK5>IK67Jm=?3SR\3)5y98!3h5CN†RML67IKJM=1[]67IBN?=1c!3I”IKZT5 /
v IM5>IK67JmIM;K8!676TI]ZTL 8!3n9SR03h5{IKZT5{9n8!3;9 Pa8!6T967ImZ7:nL bK67=?IK:6”80: b]c!R0N‹'DŠ(AI<5{L-∆tI]:n5A1K57∆t
An1 ∆t
67IM8!.JM. .)=1Z]/
12 13

xy=13Z7=
det(1l + A∆t) = (1 + A11 ∆t)(1 + A22 ∆t) . . . (1 + Ann ∆t) + O(∆t2 )
X
= 1 + ( Aii )∆t + O(∆t2 )
i

# _ /W‘ %
= 1 + (TrA)∆t + O(∆t2 )
−→
= 1 + (div F )∆t + O(∆t2 ).
ˆw3IK39bK9:= 5d:nI
Z −→
V (∆t) = V (0) + div F d~x ∆t

# _ /W„ %
M
Z
dV −→
⇒ = div F d~x
dt M

3ŠZTYZT57[]JmIBIKZT5i9= 5  FD O0X :<U

FQ L ? I]3 ~x ZT= div −→
F=0
I<5R8 ?EX X<? S0Q L ? Z7= div −→
F<0
/
. = :<B SVCE: X 

.!/ŒXYZT57[]JmIB‰R0JM=1N1578!3=?IK3 
q̇i =
∂H ! ṗi = −
∂H
.
∂pi ∂qi
X ∂ q̇i X ∂ ṗi X ∂ 2 H X ∂2H
div F~ = + = − = 0.
∂qi i ∂pi i ∂pi ∂qi i ∂qi ∂pi
vI]ZŠZTYZT57[]JmI]ZŠ‰SR0Jm=?N 5>8!3=1I]3ZMZ78!3h5;]8!3nZ7I]6|‚\R\5>= ˜pZ]/ ˆw3@6TIK5>6T8!:n‚0I N1I ’“‰b]8!6T[]JmI 9I
i

v=?8!: ‚ =1N?N1I0/
D / 8!67;KI 9Iƒ˜p678\575>IKJMIK3h5L678!L-8!6|5>=?8033I]N1N?IM‹N†R ‚=157I]Z7ZTI  z̈ = −ż / …80Z78!3Z ż = x /
vPab<‚!8!N1:n5>=18!3 I]Z|5Œ6Tb]c!=1IOLSR06“N PabK: 5>=?803 ẋ = − x = F (x) !9PQ8@P τ
τ
−→ 1
div F = − < 0.
vICZTYZT57[]JmIBIKZT5i9=?ZTZ7=1LSR\5>= ˜ / τ

 )

/ .-  9

- &- 9N- 
3 S DF? O L  = : p# 8!: S DF? O L 8
 ; ? C ? U :C80: S DF? O L2X<? O ; C ?7:<U % I]ZT5”:3 L-8!=13)5 ~x ):=Z>Rt5>=?Z|˜R0=15
/ Š3 57I]NL-8!=13)5dL-I]: 51<5>6TIA;K8!JmJ{:3Š‹LN?:ZT=?IK:67Z“5>67R TI];<5>8!=167IKZ]/


∗
−→

F (~x ) = ~0
∗
‡hD 

  -!% *:$+ #*,!  $      !) #" $ 
  

. = :<B SVCE:  … I]39n:N?ICZ7=1JMLnN?I

Portrait de phase du pendule simple
2



 ṗθ = −mgr sin θ = 0
1
pθ
 θ̇ = =0
ˆw3ŠRm9nI]: G L-8!=13)57Z nG I]Z

mr 2
 
pθ 0

• θ = 0 (E = −mgr)
−1
• θ = π (E = mgr)

−2
−5 −3 −1 1 3 5

vI]ZL-8!=?3h57Z nG I]Z3I ZT8!3h5LSR0Z{5>80:Zb]):= ‚0R\N?I]3h57Z9: L 8!=13h5{9Iƒ‚:I 9I N?R ZT5>R0z=?N1=157b0/ yI
θ

˜R".K8!3 c!b]3bK6>R0N1I"!S8!3 9=1ZT57=?3c!:nICV54YL-I]Zi9ICL 80=?3h5>Z nG IKZ 

I]ZT5 QFX
>B SVLNDFL ?  ;4:<B:<O L X<L Q CE:Z]PQ=?NSI<G =1ZT5>Ii:3m‚!8!=1Z7=?3R0c!Id9I ~x 5>IKN-):I/! L-8!:6l5>80:n5
• ~x∗
~x
9SR03Zd;KIC‚08!=?ZT=?3SR\c!"I ! lim φ (~x) = ~x / ∗

I]ZT5ZT5>R0zN1I ZKPa=1NhI<G =?Z|5>I:3B‚08!=?ZT=?3SR0c0I9I ~x 5>IKN):/I !!L-8!:65>8!: 5 ~x 9SR03Z;]Il‚!80=?Z7=13SR0c!I/!

t ∗
t→+∞

• ~x∗
6TI]ZT57IB9R03Zd:3 ‚!8!=1Z7=?3R0c!Iw9I ~x ∀ t > 0 /∗

I]Z|5y=13ZT5>R0zN?IyZ7=?3n8!3/
φ (~x)
t ∗

• ~x∗

…80:6Œb<5>:9n=?I]6dN?RZ|5 R0zn=?N?= 5>bw9 Pa:3L 80=?3h5iZ7=?3nc!:N?=1I]6 !nN†RL6TI]Jm=?[K67ICbK5>R0L IA;]803Z7=1ZT5>IA‹˜R0=?6TIC:3I

N?=13b R\67=?Z7R\5>=18!3 9nI]Zmb]):SR\57=?8!3ZmR0: ‚!80=?Z7=13SR0c!I 9n: L-8!=?3h5ZT=?3c0:N?=1I]6]/ …N1:ZL67bK;]=1Z7b]JmI]3h*5 !g8!3
L-8!Z7I ~y = ~x − ~x IK5i8!3 3ICchR06T9IC:nIAN1I]Z“5>IK67JmI]Z“N1=?3b]R0=?6TI]Z€IK3 ~y 
∗

−→ −→
~y˙ = ~x˙ = F (x) = F (~x + ~y) = F (~x ) +
∗
−→
∗
D F
−→

(~x )~y + . . .
∗
# _ /ae %
D~x
R ‚!IK; A ≡ D F (~x ) ! A = ∂F (~x ) /
−→

∗ ij
i
∗
D~x ∂x
ˆw39n8!=15“9n8!3;CbK57:9=?IK6dN PQb]):SR\57=?8!3 ~y˙ = A~y /
j

v&RZ78!N1:n5>=18!3 9IC;]I<575>IAb]):SRt5>=?803ŠIKZT5
~y (t) = eAt ~y(0),
8@P N PQI<G L-8!3IK3)57=?IKN?N?IO9 Pa:3nIAJMR\5767=?;KIwI]Z|5i9b S3n=?ICLSR06


+∞
X Bn
exp(B) = .
n=0 n!
  * -!% 

  )  '   +- 

 ‡!V
F3I  I<5)!
+∞
X A n tn
exp(At) =
n=0 n!
+∞
d X tn−1
⇒ (exp(At)) = An
dt n=1 (n − 1)!
+∞
X tp
= A Ap = A exp(At)
p!
fy/ {/ / ”/
p=0
d
⇒ (exp(At))~y(0) = A exp(At)~y (0) = A~y(t).
dt
X :LL-8!ZT8!3ZA:nImN?RƒJRt5>67=1;]I A ZT8!=15w9=†R0c08!3SR0N1=?Z>R\zN?I/! I<5B9nb]Z7=1c!38!3nZALR06 a ! j = 1, . . . , n !
Z7IKZŒ‚\R0N?IK:67ZdL6T8!L6TI]Z*!GQTSVUW?7DFUW? ;K8!JMLnN?I<G IKZ*!sIK5iLSR06 ~z ! j = 1, . . . , n !SN?IKZd‚0I];<5>I]:n67ZwL6T8!L6TI]Z
j

R0Z7ZT8 ;K=?bKZ]/ j

wR03Z !SN PabK:R\5>=18!3

n
C
# _ /a‡ %
L IK:n5 1K5767ImZ7=?JmLN1I]JmI]3h5O67bKZ78!N1:II]39b];K8!JML-8!Z7R03h5 ~z 9SR03nZAN?R zSR0Z7Im9IKZA‚0I];K57I]:6TZ”L6T8!L6TI]Z
~z˙ = A~z

9I A /…80Z78!3ZiI]3ŠI  IK5 
~z(t) =
X
c (t)~z .
j j
# _/1.,– %
vPabK:R\5>=18!3 ~z˙ = A~z Z]PQb];K67=15 j

X X
ċj (t)~zj = aj cj (t)~zj
j j
⇒ ċj (t) = aj cj (t), j = 1, . . . , n
cj (t) = cj (0)eaj t .
v&RZT8!N?: 5>=?803 c!b]3bK6>R0N1ICZ]PQb];]6T=15d9803;
⇒

~z =
X
cj eaj t ~zj .
# _/1.!. %
R0=1Z ;K8!JMJmI A I]ZT5g:3IiJRt5>67=1;]I“6Tb]I]N1N?I/!ZT= ~z I]Z|5gZT8!N?: 5>=?8030! Re (~z) I]Z|5“R0:nZ7Z7=sZT8!N?:n57=?8!3 /HF3
j


I  IK*5 !SN†RLSR06|5>=?Iy67b]IKN?N1IO9ICN PQb]):SR\57=?8!3 ~z˙ = A~z ZKPabK;]6T=15 d (Re ~z) = ARe ~z /

v&RZT8!N?: 5>=?803 c!b]3bK6>R0N1IC9SR03Z IR ZKPabK;]67= 5i98!3; 
dt
n

# _/1.oD %
 
n
X
aj t
~y = Re  c e ~z , c ∈ C.
j j
 j
j=1

&v R Z|5 R0z=1N?= 5>b 9nb]L-I]39@9:@ZT=?c!3nI 9nI]ZŠLSR06T57=?IKZ 67b]IKN?N1I]Z 9I]Z a / ˆw3 L IK:n5Š9b]Jm8!3h5>6TI]6 N?IKZ
67bKZ7:N 5 R\57ZiZT:=1‚\R03h57Z  j
‡0` 

  -!% *:$+ #*,!  $      !) #" $ 
  

•
X= Re a < 0, ∀ j !SR0N18!67Z ~x I]ZT5RQFX
FB SVL DFL ?  ; :<B:<O LMX<L7Q CE:</
X= Re a > 0 L 80:6dR0:ŠJM8!=13Z€:3nIC‚\R0N1I]:6“9nI j ! ~x I]ZT5i=13ZT5>R0zN?I\/
j ∗

• j ∗

wR03nZ€N?IŒ; R0Z 8@P L-8!:65>8!: 5  !nI<5€8@P L-8!:6gR0:ƒJm8!=?3Z:3IŒ‚0R\N?I]:n6g9I

!j sN PaR03SR0N Y ZTIC9: Re L6T8!zaN1[]Jm≤IO0N?=?3nb R06T=?Z7bO3nIBL-I]6TJMI<5ŒReLR0ZŒa 9nIB=;K08!3;]N1:67I/! I<5iN†RZT5 R\z=?N1=15>by9b]L-I]39
j j

9IKZB5>IK67JmI]ZA38!3 N?=13b R0=167IKZ]/ƒvPQbK57:9Im9IN?R Z|5 R0zn=?N?= 5>bR0:49IKN†‹ 9IN?R N?=?3nb R06T=?Z>Rt5>=?803I]ZT5B:3
Z7: TIK5i;]8!JmLN1I<G IC:n=Z78!6|5d9:;]R096TIA9nIA;KIB;K8!:6TZ]/
 :<BQ U  ;4: HX I]:nN?ZgN1I]ZZTYZT57[]JmI]Z€9n=?Z7ZT=?LSRt5>=1˜pZL-I]: ‚!I]3h5dR ‚08!=?69I]Z L 80=?3h5>ZZ7=13c!:N1=?I]6TZR0ZTYJm L 
5>8\5>=?):IKJMIK3h5yZ|5 R0zN1I]ZK/ŒF3'I  I<)5 ! Re a < 0 ∀ j ⇒ Tr A < 0 /dxŒ=?3ZT= !sL 80:6ŒN1I]ZŒZTYZT57[]JmI]Z
;]803Z7IK6T‚\R\5>= ˜p*Z !iIK5 IK3 LR06T57=?;]:nN?=?IK6MN1I]ZƒZ|YZT5>[KJMIKZ ‰SR0Jm=?N1578!3=1I]3Z !€N?IKZ L 8!=13h5>Z nG IKZ Z78!3h5ŠR0:
j

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‰SR0Jm=?N 5>8!3n=?I]3nZ ˜R0= 5“N PQ8!z TI<5d9:LR06>R0c06>R0L‰nIOZ7:= ‚0R\3)5]/
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-  -

 / 3  -  / ' 
R/.- 1
 
  - / 
 

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9:˜p8!67JMR0N1=?Z7JmIgN?R0c!67R03c!=1I]3/ ˆw3ML-I]:n5 b]c!R0N?IKJMIK3)5lN1I€5>67R0=157I]69SR03nZ N1I“; R096TIŒ9n:M˜p8!6TJR0N1=?ZTJMI
‰SR0Jm=?N 5>8!3n=?I]3 / fg80JMJmI“N?IKZbK):SR\5>=18!3Zl9I
yR0Jm=?N 5>8!3”Z78!3h5 9I]Zb]):SR\57=?8!3nZ9n=  b]67IK3h5>=?IKN?N1I]Z9:
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80:Zd67I]LR06T578!3Zd98!3;C9PQ:3ŠZTYZT57[]JmIB9nb];]6T=15dLSR\6iN1IOL 8\5>I]3h57=?I]N

V (~q) = V (~q ) +∗
1 X 2
∂ V
(q − q )(q − q ).
i i∗ j j∗
# _ /1. V %
2 ∂q ∂q
i j

8@P ~q = (q , ..., q ) I]ZT5N†R L-8!ZT=15>=18!3 9PQb]):=1N?=?zn67I0/ vIKZ38\5 R\57=?8!3ZZ78!3h5;]I]N1N?IKZ 9I N†R

i,j

Z7IK;K57=?8!3 D/W
V ! IK5gN PQ8!3ƒZ7IyL678!L-8!ZTIw9Iy6TIK˜R0=167IŒN?IyJ 1]JmIi; R0N1;]:N-9SR03ZgN?Iy;]R096TIw9:ƒ˜p8!6TJR0N1=?ZTJMI
∗ 1∗ n∗

‰SR0Jm=?N 5>8!3n=?I]3 /
…67IKJM=1[]6TIObK5 R\L I  ’6>R03Z|˜p8!67JMR\57=?8!3 9IAvI]c0I]396TI0/
L =
1X
mij q̇i q̇j − V (~q)
#_ /. ` %
2 i,j

pi =
∂L
=
X
mij q̇j
# _ /1.,_ %
Z780=15 # _ / .,‘ %
∂ q̇i j

p~ = M q~˙ ⇒ ~q˙ = M −1 p~

T =
1 t˙ ˙
~qM q~ =
1 t t −1
p~ M M M −1 p~ =
1 t t −1
p~ M p~
# _ / .o„ %
2 2 2
   ' 
  * -  ' #*,!'
*,-!  $
) - +*,!- !

‡h_
Z780=15
T =
1 t −1
p~M p~
# _ /1. e %
L:=1Z7):I t
M −1 = M −1
‚ :Š):I M
IKZT5iZTYJmbK5>6T=?):I\/xŒ=?3ZT=
2

H=
X
pi q̇i − L = t p~M −1 p~ −
1 t −1 1t
p~M p~ + V (~q) = p~M −1 p~ + V (~q).
# _ / .,‡ %
i 2 2
yIK: G =?[]JmICbK5>R0L I l …8!=?3h5 n G I0/



∂H ∂V
# _/ED0– %


 ṗi = −=− =0

 ∂qi ∂qi
 ∂H X 
 q̇i =

 = M −1 pj = 0
 ∂pi j
ij

vI]Zd;]8039=157=?8!3nZ ∂V
=0
ZT8!3h5ŒbK):=1‚\R0N1I]3h5>IKZŒ‹;KI]N?N1I]Z“9bK67= ‚!b]IKZŒ9n:N?R0c!6>R\3c!=?IK3/
vI]Z&;]8039=157=?8!3nZ ∂qi
X
M −1

p = 0 ∀i
=?JmLN?=1):I]3h5):I p = 0 ∀ j ; R06 det (M −1
)=
/
j j
ij
j
(det M )−1 6= 0
’678!=1Z7=?[KJMIybK5 \R L I lF):SR\5>=18!3ZdN?=13b R\67=?ZTb]IKZ]/l…80Z78!3Z


yi =
(
qi − qi∗ , i = 1, . . . , n # _/ED . %
pi−n , i = n + 1, . . . , 2n
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 n  

# _/ED!D %
 X



 ẏi = M −1 yj+n i = 1, . . . , n
 ij
j=1
 n
X



 ẏi = − K(i−n)j yj i = n + 1, . . . , 2n

j=1

v&RJR\5767=1;]I A 9b!S3=?ICLSR\6 Aij =

∂Fi IKZT5i98!3;C98033b]ICLSR\6
∂xj

A=
0 M −1
!
.
# _/ED0V %
−K 0
v&RZ78!N1:n5>=18!3 c!b]3nb]6>R\N?ICI]Z|5Œ9n8!3;C9ICN†R”˜p8!6TJMI
# _/ED\` %
 
n
X
~y = Re  cj eaj t ~zj  ,
j=1
 ‡!‘ 

  -!% *:$+ #*,!  $      !) #" $ 
  

8@P N?I]Z a Z7803)5wN?I]ZŒ‚0R\N?I]:n67ZyLn678!L6TI]ZO9I A IK5wN?I]Z ~z N1I]Zy‚0I];K57I]:6TZOL6780L67IKZCR0Z7ZT8 ;K=?b]ZK/

vPQb]):SR\57=?8!3 ; R\6>R0;<5>b]6T=?Z|5>=?):IC9IC;KI]Z“‚\R0N?IK:67ZdL6T8!L67IKZdZ]PQb];]6T=15
j j

det (A − λ1l ) = 0
# _ /WD!_ %
ZT8!=15
2n

det
−λ1l M
n
−1
!
= 0.
# _ /WD0‘ %
−K −λ1ln

/ rt+s+- # *o#p+ "   det (A − λ1l2n ) = 0 ⇔ det(−M ω 2 + K) = 0

Q
:  λ = iω

 <BDFO0X<L U+Q L ?7DFO


 
det (A − λ1l2n ) = λ2n det 1l2n − Aλ−1

 
1ln −M −1 λ−1
1l2n − Aλ−1 =  
Kλ−1 1ln

=
1ln
−1
0
!
1ln −M −1 λ−1
!
# _ /ED0„ %
Kλ 1ln 0 1ln + KM −1 λ−2
⇒ det(1l2n − Aλ−1 ) = det(1ln + KM −1 λ−2 )
⇒ det(A − λ1l2n ) = det(λ2 1ln + KM −1 )
= det(λ2 M + K) det M −1
  # _ /ED\e %
| {z }

xy=13Z7=
6=0

det(A − λ1l2n ) = 0 ⇔ det(λ2 M + K) = 0

⇔ det(−ω 2 M + K) = 0,
L:=1Z7):I λ = −ω / 2 2 yf /{/ / ”/
DFO0X
 ; :<O : …l:n=?Z7):IgN?I]Z ω ZT8!3h567bKI]N?Z !0N1I]Z‚\R0N1I]:6TZ L6T8!L6TI]Z a ZT8!3h5=?JMR0c!=13SR0=?6TI]Z
L:6TI]ZK/€ˆw3ŠR98!3;C9IKZŒ8!ZT;]=1N?N†Rt5>=?803Z 3n8!3 R\JM8!6|5>=1I]Z]/
j j = iωj

  ro  #p+ " 2- p!++srt+-"")"&+sr\ S

X = 8!3ƒ9bKZ7=?c03IwLSR06 P N Pa=1JML:nN?Z7=18!3c!b]3nb]6>R\N?=?ZTb]IŒ;]8!3 T:nc!:b]IO9nI Q !nN Pa‰SR\JM=1N15>803=?IK3mLn67I]3n9 N†R
˜p8!6TJMI i i

H=
1 X
P +ω Q . i
2 2
i
2
i
 # _ /ED\‡ %
2 i
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‰SR06TJM8!3n=?):I]Zl9I“˜p6Tb]):I]3n;]I]Z ω /vIdZTYZT57[]JmIŒIKZT5 bK‚=?9IKJMJmI]3h5Z7bKLSR067R0zN?I\/vI]Zl=?3h57b]c!67R0N?IKZ
L67IKJM=1[]6TI]Z Z78!3h5ŠN?IKZ b]3IK67c!=1I]Z E = 1 P + ω Q 9I]Z 9=1 bK67I]3h57Z8!ZT;]=1N?N†Rt5>I]:n67Z]/•v&IKZ
i
 

‚\R067=?R0zN?IKZOR0;<5>=?803ZOR0ZTZ78;]=?bKI]ZOZT8!3h5B9n8!323bKI]ZCLSR06 I = E /ω /{Fl3 Jmb];]R03=?):I):SR\3)57=?):/I !

2 2 2
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i X i i

L67[KZ]/ i
i i i

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1 2
1 2

# _/WV!– %

∂V


 m1~¨r1 = −
∂~r1
 ¨r2 = − ∂V
 m2 ~

∂~r2
‡!e 

  -!% *:$+ #*,!  $      !) #" $ 
  

R ‚!IK; V =−
Gm1 m2 / ˆw3Š9nb S3= 5i9IC38!:n‚0I]N?N1I]Z“;K8 8!6T98!33nb]I]ZiLSR06 
|~r1 − ~r2 |
~ ;]I]3h5767IA9Pa=13I]6|5>=1I
(
m ~r + m ~r = (m + m )R,
1 1 2 2 1
~ 2 R
~r = ~r1 − ~r2
# _ /WV . %

 ~r1 = m2
~r +R~
m1 +m2
⇒  ~ −m1 ~
r2 = ~r + R.
v IMJm8!:n‚0I]JmI]3h5{9n: ;]IK3)5767IM9IJMR0Z7ZTIMIKZT5”67I];<5>=1N?=?c03I:3=1˜p8067JmI0/ X =l8!3Z7IMLN†R0;KIM9R03Z”N1I
m1 +m2

67b<˜pb]6TI]3h5>=1I]N9:Š;]IK3)5767IA9ICJR\Z7Z7I/! R~ = ~0 /
m ~¨r − m ~¨r =
1 1 2 2
2m m ¨ 1 2
~r = −2
∂V
, V =−
Gm m 1 2 # _ /WV!D %
Z780=15
m +m 1 2 ∂~r r

m̃~¨r = −
∂V
, m̃ =
m m 1
=
2 JMR0Z7ZTIC67b]9n:=157I . # _ /aV!V %
…80:6dN†R{‚\R067=?R0zN?I ~r !S803 R:∂~3ŠrJM8!: ‚!I]JmI]3h5im;]IK3h+5>6>R\mN / v&ICJm8!JmI]3h5d;]=13bK57=?):I ~σ = ~r ∧ p~ I]Z|5
1 2

;]803Z7IK6T‚!b ⇒ Jm8!:n‚0I]JmI]3h5iLN†R\3/
wR03nZiN1IOLN†R\3Š9n:Jm8!:n‚0I]JmI]3h)5 !S=13)576789:=1Z78!3Z“9nI]Zd;]88!679n8!33bKI]ZiL 8!N?R0=?6TI]ZK/

~er ~v = ~r˙ = ṙ~er + r θ̇~eθ

r θ
~σ = ~r ∧ m̃~r = m̃r 2 θ̇~ez = σ~ez

vICN†R0c!67R03c!=1I]3ƒZKPabK;]6T=15
# _ /WV\` %
L = T −V
1 2 1 2 1 2 2
T = m̃~v = m̃ṙ + m̃r θ̇
2 2 2
 2
2
1 2 1 m̃r θ̇
= m̃ṙ +
# _ /WV!_ %
2 2 m̃r 2
1 2 σ2
= m̃ṙ +
# _ /aV!‘ %
2 2m̃r 2
1 ˙2 σ2
⇒ L = m̃rt + − V (r).
vPabK3I]6Tc!=?ICZKPabK;]67= 5d98!3; 
2 2m̃r 2

1
E = m̃ṙ 2 + Ueff (r), Ueff (r) =
σ2
− V (r).
# _ /aVh„ %
2 2m̃r 2
  )*

 

 ,*    -! ‡!‡
 DFC ; L ?7DFOS0Q UWL ? <;C ?7A<U : 



 r = r0 =
;KZT5>IR6Jm=?3n=?J{:J 9I Ueff
σ2 ⇒ ṙ = 0.
 E=
 + V (r0 )
2m̃r02

H
r0

dUeff σ2 Gm1 m2
= − 3
+ = 0
dr m̃r r2
m̃2 r 4 θ̇ 2 Gm1 m2
⇒ − + = 0
m̃r 3 r2
Gm1 m2
⇒ θ̇ 2 = 3
s r
Gm1 m2
⇒ ω =
r3

HJDFL7Q L ?7DFO0XU
8 ;? LN: X HˆO3m; ‰8!=1Z7= 5:3mZTYZT57[]JmIi9 Pa:3n=15>bKZl9SR03ZlN?IK):I]N G = 1 ! r ! m + m =

1
!HI<5{8!3 L 8!ZTI m = µ /vI]ZR0: 5>67IKZ”c!67R039IK:67Z”Z78!3h5R\N?8!6TZB98033b]IKZ{LSR06 m = 1 − µ ! 1 2

! K
I 5 / yR03ZCN?I{6TbK˜pbK67I]3h57=?I]N (0xy) !N?I{N?R0c!67R03c!=1I]3
2 s 1
Gm m
):=9b];K67= 5ŒN1IOJM80:n‚!IKJMIK3)5i9I m Z]PQb]r;K67=15 
1 2
r = µ r = 1−µ
1 2 ω= 2
=1

L =
1  2
m ẋ + ẏ − V 2
 # _ /WV0e %
# _/WV!‡ %
2
1−µ µ
V = −m −m
8@P ρ , ρ Z78!3h5ŒN?I]Z“9n=?ZT5>R03;KI]Zd9I m ‹ m I<5 m I<5d9b]L-I]39nI]3h5w9: 5>IKJMLnZ]/
ρ 1 ρ2

1 2 1 2

v y u

m2
ω
0 x
m1

42 NI]Z|5lLN?:nZH;]8!JmJm8 9I 9I“LSR0ZTZ7IK69SR03ZN1Ig67b<˜pb]6TI]3h5>=1I]N (0uv) N1=?b€R\: GR0Z|5>6TI]Z m I<5 m / w R\3Z

;]IC67b<˜pb]6TI]3h5>=1I]N !SN?R”‚=15>IKZ7ZTIBZKPabK;]67= 5 1 2

~v = u̇~i0 + v̇~j 0 + ω~k ∧ (u~i0 + v~j 0 )

= (u̇ − vω)~i0 + (v̇ + uω)~j 0
# _/a`h– %
 .,–!– 

  -!% *:$+ #*,!  $      !) #" $ 
  

1 2 1 1
⇒ mv = m(u̇ − vω)2 + m(v̇ + uω)2
# _ /a`n. %
2 2 2
1 1 2 1
= mu̇ + mv̇ + mω(uv̇ − v u̇) + mω 2 (u2 + v 2 ).
2

… R\6ŒR\=?N?N1I]:6TZ*!N?IKZi9n=?ZT5>R03;KI]Z I<5 ZT8!3h5y98033b]IKZŒLR06

2
ρ1 ρ2
2

2

(
ρ21 = (u + µ)2 + v 2 # _ /a`hD %
vICN†R0c!67R03c!=1I]3ƒ9n:L6T8!zN1[]JmIC‹mV;K8!67LZdZKPabK;]67= 5i98!3;
ρ22 = (u − 1 + µ)2 + v 2 .


1
L = m(u̇2 + v̇ 2 ) + m(uv̇ − v u̇) − mU (u, v)
# _ /a`!V %
8@P ((u, v)
I]Z|5Œ:n3L-805>IK3h5>=?IKNI  I];<5>= ˜ 98033bALSR06
2


1
U = (u2 + v 2 ) −
1−µ µ
− .
# _ /a`0` %
2 ρ1 ρ2

 ∂L

 = mu̇ − mv


 ∂ u̇
# _ /a`h_ %



 ∂L

 = mv̇ + mu
∂ v̇
 ∂L ∂U


 = mv̇ −



 ∂u ∂u

 ∂L ∂U

 = −mu̇ −
∂v ∂v

# _ /a`!‘ %

 ∂U

 mü − mv̇ − mv̇ + m =0
⇒ ∂u

 mv̈ + mu̇ + mu̇ + m
∂U

=0
∂v

ZT8!=15 # _ /a`h„ %

 ∂U
 ü = 2v̇ −

∂u

 v̈ = −2u̇ −
 ∂U
∂v
 <: BQ U  ;4:8!3CL-I]:n5R06T67= ‚!I]6‹d;KI]ZbK:R\5>=18!3ZLSR06N1I]Z ˜p8067J{:N1I]Z‰R0z=157:I]N1N?IKZ9IN PaR0;K;]b]N1b]67R\5>=18!3
I]3Š=?3n;]N?:R03h5dN?I]Z€57I]6TJMIKZi9 PaIK3)576>R ?3I]JmI]3h5iIK5d9nI”fg8067=?80N?=?ZK/


fg8!JmJMIMN?IMN†R0c!67R03c!=1I]33Iƒ9bKL IK39 LSR0Z{I GnLnN?=?;K=157I]JmI]3h5{9: 57I]JmLZ*!=1NY R :3I =13h5>b]c06>R0N1I

L6TI]Jm=?[]6TI 
∂L ∂L ;K57I
# _ /Q`he %
h(u, v, u̇, v̇) = u̇ + v̇ −L =
∂ u̇ ∂ v̇
2 2

# _ /a`!‡ %
⇒ mu̇ − m6 u̇v + mv̇ + m6 uv̇
1 21 2
− mu̇ − mv̇ − m6 uv̇ + m6 v u̇ + mU (u, v) = E
# _ /E_\– %
0
2 2
1  2

2
u̇ + v̇ + mU (u, v) = E . 0
2m
  )*

 

 ,*    -! . –n.
ˆw3m; ‰nI]67; ‰nIŒ9IKZZ78!N1:n5>=18!3Z 57I]N1N?I]Z :nIiN1I€;]8067LZ9I“JMR0ZTZ7I Z78!= 5lR0:67IKL 8!Z9R03ZN?Ig67bK˜pbK67IK3 
5>=1I]N (0uv) L:=1Z7):PQ=?N980=15,1<5>67IA‹:3IC9=1ZT5 R\3;]I nG IC9I mm IK5 m ! ⇒ u̇, v̇ = 0 /
fg8!JmJMIB9SR03ZON1I”; R\Zw9:L6T8!zN?[KJMI”‹ D;]8!6TLZ*! Z7= 803Z7ILN?R0;]I”‹ƒ:3I<G5>6TI]J{:nJ 9I !N?R
1 2

5>67R TI];<5>8!=167IO9PQb]3IK67c!=1I E = mU ;K8!676TI]ZTL 8!3n9'‹ u̇ = v̇ = 0 !Z78!= 5 u, v = ;]8!3nZT5 R\3)57I0/ U

fg‰I]6T; ‰8!3ZŒ98!3;CN1I]Z“I<G5767I]J”:JMZd9I U /l24N?ZdZ7803)5i98033b]ZdLSR\6
0

# _/E_ . %
 ∂U

 =0

∂u
 ∂U
R ‚!I];


 =0
∂v

∂U 1 1
= −u − (+1 − µ) −

2(u + µ) − µ −
1 1

2(u − 1 + µ)
 
# _ /W_!D %
3
2 ρ32
# _/E_0V %
∂u 2 ρ1
∂U 1−µ µ
= −v + v 3 + v 3
Z78!= 5 ∂v ρ1

ρ2

# _/E_\` %
 ∂U


 = −v f (u, v)
∂v !
∂U 1 1
R ‚!I];


 = −u f (u, v) + µ(1 − µ) 3 − 3

∂u ρ1 ρ2
1−µ µ
f (u, v) = 1 − 3
− 3.
ρ1 ρ2
.   ; R0Z  / v&R JR\Z7Z7I m IKZT5 R\N?=?c03b]I R ‚!IK; m IK5 m / ˆw3R ρ = |u + µ| !
v = 0
ρ2 = |u − 1 + µ|
/24NS˜R0:n5; ‰IK67; ‰IK6gN?IKZ I G5>67IKJ{:JmZl9IŒN?RC˜p803;K57=?8!3 g(u) 98033b]IŒLSR06
1 2 1

g(u) = − u −
1 2 1−µ
−
µ
.
# _/E_!_ %
ˆw6*! 2 |u + µ| |u − 1 + µ|

g 00 (u) = −1 −
2(1 − µ)
−
2µ
< 0 ∀u
# _ /E_\‘ %
IK5 -L 8!:6 !
|u + µ| 3
!
|u − i + µ|3
/
V I<G5>6TI]J{:JmZ*!g:3L-8!:6 u < −µ !€:3
L-8!:6 −µ < u < 1 − µ I<5:3
L 8!:n6
g(u) → −∞ u → ±∞ u → −µ u → 1 − µ
⇒
/
D
  ;]R0Z  v 6= 0 /mxyN?8067*Z ! f = 0 /v&R 9I]:Gn=1[]JmIMbK):SR\5>=18!3 =?JmL 8!ZTI ρ = ρ /…8!ZT8!3Z
µ>1−µ

ρ =ρ =ρ 1 2
/vlPQb]):SRt5>=?803 f = 0 98!33I 1 2

1−µ µ
1− − 3 = 0
# _ /W_!„ %
ρ 3 ρ

vI]ZiVmR0ZT5767I]Z“˜p8!6TJMIK3h5d:3Š5767=?R03c!N1Iwb]):=1N†R\57b]6>R\N ⇒ DL-8!=13)57Zd9PabK):=?N1=?z6TI0/
3
⇒ ρ = 1 ⇒ ρ = 1.
 ,. –hD 

  -!% *:$+ #*,!  $     !) #" $     

F3N?=13b R\67=?Z7R03h5mN PQ‰SR0Jm=?N1578!3=1I]3 R0:n578!:6M9I ;KI]Z L-8!=?3h5>Z !€8!3L-I]: 5ƒ9bKJM8!3h5767I]6M):Pa=1N?ZMZ78!3h5

ZT5>R0zN1I]ZdZ7= 27µ(1 − µ) < 1 /
wR03nZiN1IO; R0Zd9:ŠZTYZ|5>[]JmI”X 8!N?IK=?N 0:L= 5>IK*6 !

mJ
µ= = 0.000954.
fgIK5T5>IC;]8039=157=?8!3 IKZT5iN†R06Tc!I]JmI]3h5“6TI]JmLN?=1I0/
mS + m J

 )

   /!1  
  &- 
   - / 
 
 

v 8!67ZT):Pa:n3 ZTYZT57[]JmIOI]ZT5g=?3h5>bKc!6>R\zN?I/! N1IŒJm8!:n‚0I]JmI]3h5dR”N1=?I]:mZ7:n6€:3Iy‚\R06T=?b<5>bi9Iw9=1JMIK3Z7=18!3

):=RN†R”578!L-8!N?8!c0=?Ii9Pa:n3 578!67I\/fgI]N?R=1JML-8!ZTIwR0: Jm8!:n‚!IKJMIK3h5d:3IO;]IK6T5>R0=?3IO6Tb]c!:nN†R06T=15>b 
n
N?IOJm8!:n‚0I]JmI]3h5iI]Z|5ŒJ”:N157=?L-b]67=18 9n=?):IiI]3 5>I]6TJMIC9IKZ“‚0R\67=†R\zN?IKZ“R03c!N1I]ZK/
…80:6CN?I]ZOZ|YZT5>[KJMIKZB3n8!3=13h5>b]c06>R0zN1I]
Z N PQ=?JmJmI]3ZTI{JR7T8!67= 5>b , 8!3 3IL-I]:n5ALSR0ZC;]R06>R0; 
5>bK67=1Z7I]6ŒN?IBJM8!: ‚!I]JmI]3h5C‹MN PaR0=?9IC9IB‚0R\67=†R\zN?IKZŒ;K8!3ZT5>R03h5>IKZO8!:'L-b]67=18 9n=?):I]ZK/O…80:6yZTI”˜R0=?6TI
:3I=?9bKI9nIN?R 6Tb]c!:N?R067= 5>b 8!:
9IŠN PaR0zZTI]3;KI 9I67bKc!:N†R\67=157b 9: JM80:n‚!IKJMIK3)*5 !€=?NdIKZT5
;]80JMJm8 9nIw9IO5>67R0;]IK6i;KIC: Pa8!3R0LL-I]N1N?Iw:n3I9X : <L ?7DFO8: DF? O  Q U
</lfgI<575>IC38\5>=?803ŠIKZT5iLSR06 
5>=1;]:N1=?[K67I]JmI]3h5:n57=?N?IiL-8!:69I]Z€Z|YZT5>[KJMIKZd‹DA9nI]c!6Tb]Z€9IyN?=?z-I]6|5>b\/fg8!3ZT=?9bK678!3nZ€:3ƒZ|Y Z|5>[KJMI


R0:n578!38!JmIO9bK;]67= 5dLSR06“N1IO‰SR0Jm=?N1578!3=1I]3
H=

2 1 2

p + p + V (x, y),
# _ /W_0e %
IK5w;]8!3ZT=?9bK678!3nZwN PQ‰hY L-I]6TLN†R\3'9 b 3= 2mLSR\6 y = 0 /CX =N PQ8!3';K8!3Z7=19[]6TI{:3I”8!67z= 5>IB98!33bKI{IK5
x y

):PQ8!3{N†RdZ7:n=15 R0:{;]80:67Z9:B57I]JmL*Z !!N PaIK3Z7IKJ{zN1I 9IKZ L-8!=?3h57Z (x, p ) 8!zn57I]3):ZH; ‰SR\:nIg˜p8!=?Z&):I

;]803ZT57=15>:nIy;KIw):Pa803 R0LL-I]N?N1IŒ:n3IJX : <L ?7DFO8: DF? O  Q U
</HfgIy5>IK67JmIy9IyZ7I];<5>=18!3‚=?IK3)5
x

9ICN PQbK57:9IO9ICZ|Y Z|5>[KJMIKZŒ=13)57b]c!67R0zN1I]Z]/ wR03Zd;]IC;]R0ZdN?IwJm8!:n‚0I]JmI]3h5ŒRN1=?IK: Z7:6“:3 5>8067"I !nIK5


y=0
N†R{ZTI];<5>=?803 9IA…8!=13; R06Tbw;]806767IKZ7L-8!39‹{N PQ=?3h5>IK67ZTI];K57=?8!3 9nIA;KIw5>8!6TICR ‚!I];CN Pa‰hYL IK67LN?R03 y = 0 /
X =N?IKZA˜p6Tb]):I]3n;]I]Z ω IK5 ω Z78!3h5{=13;]80JMJmI]3ZT:6>R\zN?IK*Z !N†R Z7I];<5>=18!3 ZTI]6>RL678!c067I]ZTZ7= ‚!I]JmI]3h5
67IKJMLnN?=?I IK3Z7:n=1‚\R03h5:n3I ZTI]:N1I8!6Tz=157I ; R06MN?I JM80:n‚!IKJMIK3)5M3PQI]Z|5ƒLSR0ZML bK67=18 9=1):I0/ …R06
1 2

;]803)5767/I ! ZT=IKN?N1I]ZdZ78!3h5Œ;]8!JmJmI]3ZT:6>R0znN?I]Z !SN?ICJm8!:n‚!IKJMIK3h5yIKZT5ŒL bK67=?89=1:n"I !SIK5Œ8!3Š3IC5>6780:n‚!I

):PQ:3 380J{z67I 3=9ICL 80=?3h5>Z“IK3ZT:=1‚\R03h5i:3IC8!6Tz=157IO98!33bKI0/
wR03nZmN1Iƒ; R\Z9I ZTYZT57[]JmI]Zm38!3 =?3h5>bKc!6>R\zN?IK*Z !N PQI<G L-b]6T=?I]3n;]I L6780:n‚!I ):I 9IK: G Z7= 5>:SRt5>=?803Z
Z7803)5iL-8!Z7ZT=?zN1I]Z 
N?RyZ7IK;K57=?8!3;K8!676TI]Z7L-8!39R03h5l‹w:3I“8!6Tz=157Ig6TI]ZT57I“:3I€;K8!:6Tz I€zn=?I]39n b S3=1I€9SR03nZN?IgLnN†R03
•
(x, p )
/ˆO3ŠLSR06TN?IO9I BDF;
:<B:<O LMU
; C ?7:<U /
N?R Z7IK;K5>=18!3 ;]8!6T67IKZ7L-8!39SR03h5‹ :3I8!6Tz=157I;]8!6T67IKZ7L-8!39 ‹ :3@IK3Z7IKJ{zN1I9I L 8!=13h5>Z
x

•
6Tb]LSR06|5>=1Z 9IŒ˜"R .]8!3MI]6T6>R\57=?):Iy9R03Z€N1IŒLN?R03 (x, p ) /lˆw3ƒLSR06TN?Ii9I9BDF;
:<B:<O L  0QD 
L ?  ;4:</

x
 
 
 *,!'      
 - +*,!- !'
  . –!V
…8!:n6i:n3ICb]3IK67c!=1IA9n8!33bKI"!s8!3 L IK:n5iZ7IO5>6T8!:n‚0I]6i9SR03ZdN PQ:3 9IKZd57678!=1Z“; R0ZdZT:=1‚\R03h5>Z
’8!:n57I]ZiN?I]Z“8067z= 5>I]Z“ZT8!3h5i67b]c0:N?=1[]67IKZ]/
24NY R;K8 I Gn=1ZT57I]3;KIB9PQ8!6Tz=157I]Z“67bKc!:N1=?[]6TI]Z“I<5Œ9 Pa8!6Tz=157I]Zd; ‰SR08\5>=?):IKZ]/
•

’8!:n57I]ZiN?I]Z“8067z= 5>I]Z“ZT8!3h5i; ‰SR08057=?):I]ZK/

•
•

3I<G IKJMLN1I“;]N?R0Z7ZT=?):I€IKZT5;]IKN?:= 9:JM89[]N1Ig9I

ib]380 3 
iI]=?N1I]ZH9n b S3=SLR06HN?Ig‰SR0Jm=?N1578!3=1I]3 

1 2  1
H= px + p2y + x2 + y 2 + x2 y − y 3 .
vI]Zd;]8!:n67z-I]Zi9PabK3I]6Tc!=?ICL-805>IK3h5>=?IKN?N1Iy;]803ZT5>R03h5>IA8!3h5ŒN?R”˜p8!67JmIOZ7:n=1‚\R03h5>I
2 3


•
•
E=0
E
L-IK5>= 5 ⇒ x=y=0
⇒ x2 + y 2 = 2E ⇒
;]IK67;]N1I]Zi9IC6>R Y!803 √
2E
1
• E=
6
1 2 1 2 1 1
x + y + x2 y − y 3 =
2 2 
3  6
1 1 1 2 1 3
⇔ x2 +y = − y + y .
 R0=1Z 2 6 2 3

  
1 1 2 1 3 1 1 1
− y + y = +y + αy + y 2
6 2 3 2 3 3
1 α 1 2 1 1
= + y + y + y + αy 2 + y 3
6 2 6 3 3

α 1  2
=− 
 ⇒ α=−
2 3 
3
⇒
 1
 1 1 1 2

 +α=− ⇒ α=− − =−
y8!3;/!sL 8!:n6 !8!3R
6 2 2 6 3
 1 
E=
6
   
1 1 1
x2 +y = +y (1 − y)2
2 2 3

1
y = −
8!:







2




 1−y
8!:
⇒ x= √


 3






 y−1

 x= √
3
 ,. –0` 

  -!% *:$+ #*,!  $        !) #" $ 


fgIK5T5>IC;]80:67z-IC9b S3n=15i:3 5>67=?R03c!N1IybK:n=?N†Rt5>b]67R0NIK3)5767ICN?IKZdL 8!=13h5>Z

√ ! √ !
3 1 3 1
A = (0, 1), B= − ,− , C= ,− .
2 2 2 2

Henon−Heiles Contours d’energie

1.3

E=1/6
0.8

y 0.3

−0.2

−0.7
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 L67R\5>=1:nI]JmI]3h5C5>8!:n57I]ZAN?IKZO8!67z= 5>IKZA;K8!39:n=?Z7IK3h5{‹ 9IKZBZTI]!; 
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9I]Z ? W; U  Q L ?7DFO0X €:3nI”8!6Tz=157IB6Tb]c!:N1=?[K67ICZ7IBZ7b]LR067IBI]3'9IK: G 8!: IK3'LN?:nZ7=?IK:67Zi8!6Tz=157I]Z]/iX=
;]ICL‰bK38!Jm[]3IAZ7IC6TI]L6T8 9:n=15d=?3n9b S3n=?JmI]3h5)!=1N ;K8!39:= 5Œ‹9n:; ‰SR\8!Z]/
vPaI GnIKJMLnN?ICN?IOLN1:Z“;]8033): I]Z|5i;]I]N1:=9ICN P Q<S&SVC ?  Q L ?7DFO CED ?EX<L ?  ;4: 
DF? O L X  = : X
xn+1 = 4λxn (1 − xn ).
 
x∗ = 4λx∗ (1 − x∗ )

(1)

 x∗ = 0
1

 1 − 4λ − 4λx∗ ⇔ x(2)
∗ = 1− .
4λ
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 L7Q ? C ? L
 yR03ZgN1Iy;]R0Zg9PQ:3IwR0LLN1=?; Rt5>=?8030!hN PQb]):SR\57=?8!3MN?=13b R06T=?ZTb]IiR0:n578!:6g9 Pa:3L 8!=13h5 nG I

;]8039:= 5i‹ 
# _ /E„0_ %
vICL 8!=13h5 nG IBIKZT5i98!3n;AZ|5 R0znN?IOZ7=&I<5dZ7I]:nN?I]JmI]3h5iZ7= |f (x )| < 1 !Z780=15 −1 < f (x ) < 1 /
0 0 n
x − x = f (x )(x
n ∗ − x ) = (f (x ) ) (x − x )
∗ n−1 ∗ ∗ 0 ∗
0 0

…80:6dN PaR0LLN1=?; Rt5>=?803N?80c!=?Z|5>=?):/I ! f (x) = −8λx + 4λ

∗ ∗

f x 0

(1)
= 4λ ⇒ x
∗
 ZT5>R0zN?IOZT= |4λ| < 1 ⇒ λ < 1
(1)
∗
  4
f 0
x(2) = −8λ + 2 + 4λ = −4λ + 2
ZT5>R0zN?IOZT=
∗

(2) 3
x∗ −4λ + 2 > −1 ⇒ λ <
I<5ŒZT= 1
−4λ + 2 < 1 ⇒ λ > .
4

4

X<; BDFO0X 
1
⇒ x∗ = 0
λ<
Z|5 R0znN?I
1
<λ<
4
3
⇒ x∗ = 1 −
1 ZT5 R\zN?I
 w:ICZ7ICLSR0ZTZ7I  5  =?NN18!67ZT):I 4 4
λ > 3/4

4λ

wR03nZ{:3 L6TI]Jm=?I]6A5>IKJMLZ !H;]IL 8!=13h5 nG Iƒ98033IƒN1=?I]:'!HLSR06B:3Iƒz= ˜p:67;]R\5>=18!30! ‹ :3 ;KY;KN?I

9PQ8!679n67IBD !):=&98!3n3ICN?:= 4J 1]JmIŒ3SR\=?Z7Z7R03;KIB‹:3Š;KY;]N1IC9Pa806796TIA`
!IK5ŒR0=13Z7=9nIAZT:=157I0/
3 
 <CE: 8 DFU+8 U : n I]ZT5:n3 I]3ZTI]J{zN1I 9I L-8!=?3h5>Z nG I]Z9I f = f ◦ . . . ◦ f 57I]N1Z{):I
! /vIw38!J”z67IŒ9Iw;KY;KN?I]Zg9IK‚=?IK3h5“=?3 3= ):SR\39 λ


(n)

R\5T5>I]=13h5dN†R”‚\R0N?IK:6 λ = 0.89 . . ./xy:Š9I]N?

‹ !N1IOZTYZT57[]JmIB9I<‚=?I]3h5i; ‰SR08\5>=?):I\/
x = f (x ) x = f (x ), . . . , x = f (x )
2 1 3 2 1 n

vPaI G L 8!Z7R03h5O9IvY!R0L 80:38,‚ IKZT5O3nb]chR\57=1˜L-8!:6 ! I<5O=?N&IKZT5OL-8!Z7= 5>= ˜R0 :  9I]N?

‹ !-Z>R0:n˜
∞

L-8!:6“):I]N1):I]Zd˜pI]3 1<5>6TI]Zd8!: 9σIC38!:n‚0I R0:G ;KY;]N1I]ZŒλR0L<LSR\λ6>R0=1Z7Z7IK3h5 /lF3LR06T57=?;]:nN?=?IK*6 !8!3 L IK:n5

∞

9bKJM8!3h5767I]6d):IC):SR039 λ = 1 ! σ = ln 2 /

<BDFO0X<L U+Q L ?7DFO  R0=?ZT8!3Z€N1IO; ‰SR03c!IKJMIK3h5y9IO‚\R06T=†R0zN1I 1 
x = (y + 1)
2
yn+1 = 2xn+1 − 1
xn+1 = 4xn (1 − xn ) = (yn + 1)(1 − yn ) = 1 − yn2

R0=?ZT8!3Z“9ICLN1:Z“N?IO; ‰R03c!IKJMIK3)5Œ9IO‚\R067=?R0zN1I /
⇒ yn+1 = 1 − 2yn2 .
y = sin θ
sin θn+1 = 1 − 2 sin2 θn = cos(2θn )
π
⇒ θn+1 = −2θn + .
fg8!JmJMIg;0PQI]ZT5l:n3I€5>67R03ZT˜p8067JMR\5>=18!3{N?=13b R\=?67I/!\803mIK39b]9:n=15=1JMJmb]9=?R\5>IKJMIK3h5 ):I
2
σ = ln 2
/
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  .0.!.

Application logistique
1

x1=0.2
0.8

x1000−x1050
0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

 ]* *,ro S0*,%rt{h*,ro S"&qs 

wR03Z N PQI<G I]JmLN1IiLn67b];Kb]9IK3h5)!N1I]ZR\57576>R0;<5>IK:67ZZ78!3h5g;]8!3Z|5>= 5>:bKZ 9PQ:3ƒ3n8!J{z6TI 3= 9nIŒL-8!=?3h57Z
):=&Z78!3h5ŒR\5757I]=13)57Z“Z7:;K;]IKZ7Z7= ‚!IKJMIK3)5OR0: ;]8!:6TZŒ9nIAN Pa= 5>bK6>R\57=?8!3/ R0=1Z“=?NI Gn=1ZT57IA9nI]ZiZTYZT57[]JmI]Z
):= L-8!ZTZ7[]9nI]3h5“9IKZ€R\5T5>6>R\;K5>IK:67Z LN?:nZ ;K8!JMLnN?=?):bKZ]/ Fl3LSR06T57=?;K:N?=1I]6*!h=1NSI<G =?Z|5>IŒ9I]Z ZTYZT57[]JmI]Z


L 80:6”N1I]Z7):IKN?Z{N PWRt575>67R0;K57I]:6B;]8!3nZ7=?Z|5>IƒIK3 :3 380J{z67I=?3 S3n= 9IL 8!=13h5>ZA:n=€;]8!3nZT5>= 5>:IM:3

I]3ZTI]J{znN?IC9IC9=?JmI]3nZ7=?803ƒ˜p6>R0;<5 R0N1I #38!3 IK3)57=?[K67I % / ˆO3ŠLSR06TN?IO9PEQ L L U+Q <LN:<; U
<L U+Q O :</
. = :<B SVCE: lR0LnLN?=1; R\57=?8!3ƒ9nI
ib]3803
(
xi+1 = yi − ax2i + 1
yi+1 = bxi .
v&R c!:67IC;K8!676TI]Z7L-8!39 R0: G LR06>R0Jm[K5767IKZdR&6{.!/a`I<5Œz 6C– /WVn/
vI]Z“5>‰bK8!67=1I]ZiR0;<5>:IKN?N?IKZ“9ICN†R{5>:n67z:N1I]3;KICZ78!3h5izSR0ZTb]I]ZiZ7:n6i;KI]Zi9I]:G =?9bKI]Z
•
ZT:=157IA=13 S3=1Iw9ICz= ˜p:67;]R\5>=18!3Z ⇒ R0LLSR06T=157=?8!3ƒ9n:; ‰SR\8!Z
•
R\5T5>67R0;K57I]:6dbK576>R03nc!I0/
…8!:n6iLnN?:Zd9IC9b<5 R0=1N?Z*!‚!8!=16“;]8!:n67Zd9IC` 
 R033bKI …‰hY ZT=?):IA38!3ŠN?=13b R0=167IŒIK5i; ‰SR08!Z)6\/


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Application de Henon − Attracteur Etrange

0.4

0.2

y 0

−0.2

−0.4
−2 −1 0 1 2