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Realization of Quantum Hadamard Gate Based on
Lyapunov Method*
Jie Wen and Shuang Cong**
Department of Automation
University of Science and Technology of China
Hefei, Anhui Province, China
**Corresponding Author’s email: scong@ustc.edu.cn
Abstract - This paper studies the realization of the quantum
Hadamard gate of spin with a single electron. First the canonical
form of the unitary rotation gate which is feasibly applied in
plane control fields is given. Because the Hadamard gate can’t be
realized directly by applying the plane control fields, so the
matrix operator of Hadamard gate is decomposed into two
matrices which are feasible in canonical forms. These two
canonical matrices correspond to the rotate-operation and
reflect-operation of the vector coordinates on the Bloch sphere,
respectively. Then the Hadamard gate can be realized in two
steps by choosing appropriate control fields, in such a way the
realization of Hadamard gate becomes to design external tailored
control fields. Finally, the control fields are designed based on
Lyapunov method. Numerical simulation experiments and results
analysis are given.
Index Terms - solid state spin qubits, plane control fields,
quantum Hadamard gate, Lyapunov theory.
I. INTRODUCTION
A quantum computer which is built from a quantum
circuit containing wires and elementary quantum gates to
carry around and manipulates the quantum information can
efficiently perform certain computational tasks much faster
than the classical computers because its computational power
can increase exponentially [1, 2]. Thus quantum computers
will be a promising tool for solving intractable mathematical
problems [3]. Compare with the classical computers, quantum
computers have smaller size and own more advantages in the
applications. The physical realization of quantum computers is
a current research focus. In general, any two level quantum
mechanical system can be used to realize quantum computers
[4]. Considering the fact that various small semiconductor
devices are integrated on wafers nowadays, solid state
quantum computers have greater possibility to overcome the
problem of scalability than other quantum computer schemes
[5], e.g. nuclear magnetic resonance quantum computer [6],
trapped ions [7], etc. One of the most significant directions to
realize quantum computers is based on the spin states of single
electrons confined to semiconductor quantum dots. Quantum
computers perform logic operations by using quantum logic
gates instead of the transistors in traditional circuits.
*
This work was supported in part by the National Key Basic Research Program under Grants No. 2011CBA00200 and the National Science Foundation of China
under Grant No. 61074050.
978-1-4673-1398-8/12/$31.00 ©2012 IEEE
Xubo Zou
Department of Optics and Optical Engineering
Key Laboratory of Quantum Information
University of Science and Technology of China
Chinese Academy of Sciences
Hefei, Anhui Province, China
xbz@ustc.edu.cn
Therefore, in order to achieve the transition from theory to
application, the first step of realizing quantum computers is to
realize quantum logic gates. The Hadamard gate is widely
used in quantum computation and is universal for quantum
computation [8]. Hadamard gate is one of the most important
gates in quantum computation and is also a basic gate to
perform quantum algorithms [2]. Any unitary operation can be
approximated to arbitrary accuracy using a set of special
gates, and the Hadamard gate is always in the set.
Many quantum algorithms use the Hadamard transform as an
initial step to initialize the state with random information. That
is another application of the Hadamard gate. The function of
Hadamard gate as a one-bit gate is to put the un-
superpositioned qubit into a superposition of the basis states
[9]. As much of the quantum computer derives' power is from
superposition-based activities, Hadamard gate is crucial.
The aim of this paper is to research the realization of the
quantum Hadamard gate based on the spin of a single electron
confined to a semiconductor quantum dot. Because Hadamard
gate can’t be realized by applying plane control fields directly,
so the canonical form of the unitary rotation gate which is
feasible by applying plane control fields is given first. The
effect of unitary rotation gate to the state can be realized
through applying external tailored control fields. Then the
Hadamard gate is decomposed into two canonical matrices
which are feasible on canonical form. The two matrices
correspond to rotate-operation and reflect-operation of the
vector coordinates on the Bloch sphere, respectively.
Therefore, Hadamard gate can be realized in two steps by
choosing appropriate control fields, so that the realization of
Hadamard gate becomes to design external tailored control
fields. Finally, the control fields which perform rotate-
operation and reflect-operation are designed based on
Lyapunov stability theorem. Numerical simulation
experiments and results analysis are given through a specific
example.
II. MATHEMATICAL MODEL
The qubit is the basic unit of information in quantum
science [9]. A qubit can be in a superposition of basis states
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and is defined in a two-dimensional space called Hilbert space where, scalar control field :t  and vector e I  satisfy
H which is spanned by a pair particular orthonormal T
^ `
basis 0 , 1 , i.e. ³ :t dt T , T  >0,2S @ (9)
0

H span^ 0 , 1 `
Loss and DiVincenzo first proposed the idea to use spin
states of individual electrons confined to semiconductor
quantum dots as qubits, spin qubits [5]. Single qubit
operations can be achieved by applying pulsed local
electromagnetic fields to electrons in single quantum dots
(1) e I  cos I ˜ e x  sin I ˜ e y (10)
Taking into account to suppress the unwanted effect of
the Lorentz force which produces an accumulated phase
change, set the following constrained condition on the
direction of the magnetic field
[10]. The wave function of the electron confined to a quantum ȍt  ˜ e z 0 (11)
dot is Substituting (8) into (5), the Hamiltonian of the system can be
ȥ t  \ 1 t  0  \ 2 t  1 (2)
written as
H t  = ˜ ȍ t e I  ˜ ı (12)
with \ 1 t  and \ 2 t  satisfy the normalization condition where
2 2
\ 1 t   \ 2 t  1 (3) ª 0 cos I  i sin I º ' ~
e I  ˜ ı «cos I  i sin I » H I  (13)
ȥ t  satisfies the Schrodinger equation ¬ 0 ¼
­°i= ȥ t  H t  ȥ t  , t ! 0 Because of the commutation of the Hamiltonian in (12) at
(4) different times, i.e.
®
°̄ ȥ 0  ȥ0  Ʃ
>H t1 , H t 2 @ >= ˜ :t1 eI  ˜ ı , = ˜ :t 2 eI  ˜ ı @
where, H is the Hilbert space in (1), H t  is the
= ˜ :t1 :t 2 >eI  ˜ ı , eI  ˜ ı @ (14)
Hamiltonian of the system and can be written as
H t  = ˜ ȍt  ˜ ı (5) 0
on the basis of (12), the time evolution operator of the
where, ȍt  andı are the external control field and the spin quantum system U T  will be [13]
operator of the electron, respectively. ȍ t  and ı are T
H t dt / =
e ³0
i
defined by [11] U T  (15)
ȍt  P B g t B t  (6) e  iTe I ˜ı

Considering the eigenvalues of (13) are r 1 , the time

ı ı xex  ı ye y  ı zez (7)
evolution of the system becomes
where, P B and g t  in (6) are the Bohr magneton and the
effective g-factor, respectively; e x , e y and e z in (7) are the
U T 
1  iT
2
>~ 1
@ ~
e 1  H I   eiT 1  H I 
2
> @
 iI
unit vectors in directions of x , y and z ; ı x , ı y and ı z ª cos T  ie sin T º
« iI » (16)
are Pauli matrices. This is a mathematical model of a single ¬  ie sin T cos T ¼
electron confined to a quantum dot.
III. REALIZATION OF QUANTUM HADAMARD GATE
A. Canonical form of the unitary rotation gate
The unitary rotation gate is a common form of one-bit
gate in AMO (atomic, molecular and optical) devices and can
U T , I 
(16) is the canonical form of the unitary rotation gate which is
feasible by applying plane control fields. According to
parameters T and I , (16) can be decomposed into
ª1 0 º ª cos T i sin  T º ª1 0 º
be realized directly by applying plane control fields. The U T  « iI » « »«  iI »
(17)
Hadamard gate can’t be realized by applying plane control ¬0 e ¼ ¬i sin  T  cosT  ¼ ¬0 e ¼
fields directly. In order to realize Hadamard gate, first it needs From the right-hand side of (17), one can see that the time
to decompose Hadamard gate to several canonical forms of
evolution U T  is composed by three matrices from left to
the unitary rotation gate and then realize the unitary rotation
gates which are got through decomposing by applying plane right. According to Ref. [14], the behaviours which are shown
control fields. To do so, one select the following control field by the three matrices in the Bloch sphere are: the first and
ȍ  t  [12] third matrices are to make the qubit state on the Bloch sphere
rotate by I and  I around the z axis, respectively; the
ȍt  :t e I , t  >0, T @ (8)

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second matrix is to make the qubit state on the Bloch sphere Hadamard gate can be realized in two step operation through
rotates by  2T around the x axis. choosing appropriate control fields.
B. Realization process of Hadamard gate In the first step operation, the control field : 1 is chosen
Quantum Hadamard gate which is a one input one output in direction of y and satisfies
gate causes a rotation followed by a reflection of the Bloch Tm S
sphere representation of the qubit state called rotate-operation
³ : 1 t dt (19)
and reflect-operation, respectively [13]. Here is a simple 0 4
example of Hadamard operation. If the input state of which means that rotate-operation is realized in time interval

Hadamard gate is
1
0  1  , in the first step operation
> @
0, Tm by using : 1 . According to (19) and (16), the unitary
2 rotation gate realized by applying : 1 will be
S ª 1 1 º
under the effect of (17), the input state is rotated by 
2 « 2 2 »» §S S ·
S U1 « U¨ , ¸ (20)
around the z axis, then rotated by  around the x axis « 1 1 » ©4 2¹
2
¬« 2 2 ¼»
and finally to state 1 through rotating around the z axis
In the second step operation, the control field : 2 is
S chosen in direction of x and satisfies
 . The effects of all operations are equivalent to that
2 T S
³ : 2 t dt (21)
1 S
0  1  rotate around the y axis to 1 on the
Tm 2
(21) means that reflect-operation is realized in time interval
2 2
Bloch sphere, so the operations in this step collectively > @
Tm , T by using : 2 . According to (21) and (16), the unitary
referred to as rotate-operation. In the second step operation, rotation gate realized by applying : 2 will be
state 1 is rotated by 0 around the z axis, then rotated by
ª0  iº §S ·
 S around the x axis and finally to state 0 through U2 « i » U ¨ ,0 ¸ (22)
¬ 0¼ ©2 ¹
rotating around the z axis 0 . The effects of all operations The synthetic matrix of U1 and U 2 is the Hadamard
are equivalent to that 1 is reflected by the x  y plane to gate with an unwanted phase factor, i.e.
0 on the Bloch sphere, so the operations in this step §S · §S S ·
U 2 ˜ U 1 U ¨ ,0 ¸ ˜ U ¨ , ¸
collectively referred to as reflect-operation. This example ©2 ¹ ©4 2¹
illustrates the conclusion: the Hadamard operation is just a
ª 1 1 º
S S «
rotation of the sphere about the y axis by , followed by a i
e 2 ˜« 2 2 »
2 » (23)
rotation about the x axis by S [2]. Hadamard gate is mainly « 1  1 »
used for transforming a basis state into the superposition of ¬« 2 2 ¼»
basis states [9]. In this example, the superposition state is S
i
chosen as the input in order to illustrate the two step e 2
˜UH
operations of the Hadamard gate. The reflect-operation will
not be reflected while choosing basis state as the input of Because U1 and U 2 can be realized by applying in : 1 and
Hadamard gate. Therefore, the superposition state will also be : 2 respectively, thereby quantum Hadamard gate is realized.
selected as the input of Hadamard gate in the numerical
simulation of section V. IV. DESIGN OF CONTROL FIELDS
Matrix operator of the Hadamard gate is given by
Dynamics of the system is described by the controlled
ª 1 1 º Schrodinger equation
« 2 »»
UH « 2 (18)
­i= ȥ t  H :t  ȥ t 
1 1 » ® (24)
«  ¯ ȥ 0  ȥ 0  H
«¬ 2 2 »¼ ~
Compare (18) with (16), one can see that Hadamard gate can’t where H : t  = ˜ H I : t  . Realization of Hadamard
be realized by using (16) directly, but (18) can be decomposed gate is to design control fields which drive the system from an
into two canonical matrices in the form of (16), and then

5098
initial state ȥ 0 to a desired final state ȥ T
ȥ T satisfy
ȥT U H ȥ0
According to the realization process of Hadamard gate in
section 3.2, first the matrix operator of Hadamard gate is
decomposed into the matrix operators in (20) and (22) which
can be realized by using plane control fields directly, then the
matrix operator U1 in (20) can be realized through the control
field : 1 in direction of y and the matrix operator U 2 in
(22) can be realized through the control field : 2 in direction
of x , i.e. for a given initial state ȥ 0 , U1 acts on ȥ 0
corresponds to external control field : 1 which is in direction
of y acts on the system whose initial state is ȥ 0 and
, ȥ0 and ȥ Tm U1 ȥ0 (27)
ȥT U 2 ȥ Tm (28)
(25)
The design methods of control fields are plentiful in
which the Lyapunov method is adapted to the time-varying
system and nonlinear system, and the control fields can ensure
the stability of controlled system. So we use the Lyapunov
method to design the control fields : 1 and : 2 in this paper.
The idea of Lyapunov method is to choose a suitable
Lyapunov function V and then try to find a control so that
ensures the V is monotonically decreasing along any
dynamical evolution of control system. For the convenience of
analysis and calculation, this paper uses the real state space to
describe and research the quantum system. In order to get the
real state equation of (24), the real parts and the imaginary
parts of the coefficient matrices and the state variables in (24)

arrives on intermediate state ȥ Tm in time interval >0, Tm @; are separated. Let ȥ >x1  ix 3 x 2  ix 4 @ , because
T

the real part and the imaginary part on each side of (24) is
then U 2 acts on ȥ Tm corresponds to external control field respectively equal, the equation about real vector
: 2 which is in direction of x acts on the system whose x >x1 x2 x 3 x 4 @ is obtained
T

initial state is ȥ Tm and arrives on final state ȥ T in time x t  B : t x t  (29)

~ ~
interval >Tm , T @ . Schematic diagram of the realization process 
ª ‚ H I  
ƒ H I  º 
where B « ~ ~ » , ‚ and ƒ
is shown in Fig. 1. 
¬  ƒ H I  ‚ H I  ¼   
represent the real parts and imaginary parts, respectively.
Select the following Lyapunov function[15]
1
V x  ˜ x  x f  P x  x 
T
f (30)
ȥ0 ȥTm ȥT 2
where P is a positive definite symmetric matrix, so V  x  is
non-negative. The first-order time derivative of V  x  is
:1 :2
V  x  x  x  P x
T
Fig. 1 Schematic diagram of realization process f
(31)
According to (15), U1 and U 2 are x  x  f
T
PB : t x
Tm S
In order for the first-order derivative of V  x  to be non-
 iı y ˜
U1 e
 iı y ³0 :1dt
e 4

T  Tm S
(26) positive, choose the following control field
 k x  x f 
 iı x ˜
U2 e
 iı x
e 2 ³0 : 2 dt
: t 
T
PBx , k ! 0 (32)
Thus U1 and U 2 can be realized as long as control fields Substituting (32) into (31), one has
: 1 and : 2 satisfy (19) and (21), respectively. Then V  x   k x  x f  PBx
T
> @
2
d0 (33)
realization of Hadamard gate is to design control fields : 1 in which V  x  0 when x xf .
and : 2 in which : 1 is used to drive initial state ȥ 0 to Let x and x f are the real vectors which are obtained
intermediate state ȥ Tm and : 2 will be used to drive through separating the real parts and imaginary parts of \
~
ȥ Tm to final state ȥ T . ȥ 0 , ȥ Tm and ȥ T satisfy and \T m
respectively, B is composed by H I  which
(25) and the following relationships makes U U 1 and : 1 can be obtained by substituting all
of them into (32). : 2 can be obtained through the same way

5099
in which \T instead of \T . Therefore, : 1 and : 2 ª 0  iº §S ·
m
operator U2 « i 0 » U ¨ ,0 ¸ which is in accord
are both obtained from (32) and used to realize U1 and U 2 ¬ ¼ ©2 ¹
respectively, then realize Hadamard gate. with (16), i.e. 0 U2 ˜ 1 and can get
V. NUMERICAL SIMULATION EXPERIMENTS AND RESULTS ~ ~ ª0 1 º
ANALYSIS H I  H 0  «1 0» on the basis of (13). The control
¬ ¼
This section will illustrate the effectiveness of the control
field of this step is in the form of (32) with the parameters:
fields through a specific numerical simulation. Using the
example which is mentioned in section III.A, the input of k 0.12 ,
1 P diag (10,9,0.5,1) , x f >1 0 0 0@
T
. The
Hadamard gate is 0  1  . The first step operation is
simulation results are shown in Fig. 3 form which one can see
2
S that the probability density of state 1 tends to 0 from 1 and
rotate-operation which input state is rotated by around the
2 the probability density of state 0 tends to 1 from 0 under
y axis on Bloch sphere to state 1 and the second step the control field. It means that the spin state turns into final
operation is reflect-operation which 1 is reflected by x  y state 0 from intermediate state 1 . On the whole, the spin
1
plane to state 0 on Bloch sphere. The rotate-operation state is driven to 0 from 0  1  under the control
2
1
which the initial state and final state are 0  1  and fields :1 and : 2 which is equivalent to the effect of
2 quantum Hadamard gate. Ref. [13] also research the
1 realizes the matrix operator realization of quantum Hadamard gate and the simulation
results are shown in Fig. 4. Compare to Ref. [13], the control
ª 1 1 º fields in this paper have explicit mathematical expression and
« 
U1 « 2 2 »» §S S ·
U ¨ , ¸ which is in accord
can get the similar result through adjusting the parameters of
1 1 » the control fields.
« ©4 2¹
«¬ 2 2 »¼ VI. CONCLUSION

1 This paper research the realization of the quantum

with (16), i.e. 1 U1 ˜ 0 1  and can get Hadamard gate based on the spin of a single electron confined
2 to a semiconductor quantum dot. Hadamard gate can’t be
~ ~§S · ª0  i º realized by applying in plane fields directly, so the canonical
H I  H¨ ¸ « i 0 » on the basis of (13). In this
©2¹ ¬ ¼
step, the control field is in the form of (32) with the
parameters k 0.21 , P diag ( 2.5,0.01,2.5,1) ,
xf >0 1 0 0@ . The simulation results are shown in
T
Fig. 2 in which p0 is the probability density of the basis state
0 and p1 is the probability density of the basis state 1 . It
can be seen from Fig. 2 that the probability density of state
1 tends to 1 from 0.5 and the probability density of state
0 tends to 0 from 0.5 under the control field. It means
that the spin state turns into intermediate state 1 from initial
1
form of the unitary rotation gate is given first in the paper.
Then the Hadamard gate is decomposed into two canonical
matrices which are feasible on canonical form which
correspond to rotate-operation and reflect-operation of the
vector coordinates on the Bloch sphere, respectively. After
decomposing, the realization of Hadamard gate is to design
external tailored control fields. Then Hadamard gate can be
realized by choosing appropriate control fields in two step
operations. This paper realizes quantum Hadamard gate
through choosing an apposite Lyapunov function to design
control fields based on Lyapunov stability theory. In this
paper, the ideal case of an isolated solid state spin qubit which
doesn't have interactions with environment is considered. If
the effect of interactions with environment is considered, it
can be research by adding uncontrolled Hamiltonian to the
Schrodinger equation [16], the control fields should be
state 0  1  . The reflect-operation which the initial designed again and the obtained Hadamard gate will have
good robustness.
2
state and final state are 1 and 0 realize the matrix

5100
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Fig. 4 Simulation results in Ref. [13]

5101