Extension Education in the Development of Life-Related Knowledge and Skills Introduction Extension education is a part of the adult and continuing education which provides a structure for carrying out many of the practices of non-formal continuing education for adults and youths in communities. In many countries, extension education began with field of agriculture and continue on until today with attempts to broaden its scope and practices in the manufacturing and service sectors (Rahim M Sail, 1995). However, the focus of development in many developing countries is beginning to show a shift from the agricultural sector to that of the manufacturing and service sectors, with agriculture remains an important sector providing food and raw materials to support the industrial sector. In light of this new development, extension education concepts and approaches have penetrated beyond the boundaries of agriculture into the fields of preventive health, community nutrition, environmental protection, family planning and small and medium enterprises of the industrial sector (Rahim M. Sail, 1995). In all these fields where extension education concepts and approaches have been utilized, the focus is on (i) change, that is, extension education as an instrament or medium to promote change among clients; (ii) capacity building, that is, to prepare and develop clients to make decisions and solve problems on their own and (iii) enhancing the adoption of new technology and practices to improve efficiency of practices and inctease productivity of clients’ enterprises. Extension education has a strong linkage with research centres/institutes, This linkage allows extension education to secure content materials in the form of new technology/ideas/practices developed and generated by researchers to benefit extension education clients. Research centres/institutes, on the other hand, receive research agenda from extension education agents through a feedback system which enables them to plan and carry out rescarch programs and activities (see Figure 1). This relationship is a unique feature of extension education with research agencies where both play supporting roles to enhance each other’s functions. The extension education agents need to understand not only technical knowledge and practices but also knowledge of human behaviours to discharge her/his duties effectively. Likewise, researchers too need to understand and appreciate human problems, needs and interests to make their research programs and activities relevant,‘Transfer of Technology Research Agencies * Government & Sheets private agencies Extension ace Eeteaion communities Goverment & Agents #——— private institutes of neo higher education eae Feedback on problems, needs and interest of clients Figure 1: Linkage between research, extension education agents and clients Characteristics of Extension Education Generally, extension education can be characterized as a system of non-formal education which provides advisory services using educational processes to help clients acquire knowledge and skills to cope effectively with changes affecting them as well as to fulfill their needs and interests. As a system of non-formal education, extension education seeks to induce voluntary behavioural changes among its clients through inculeating capacity building elements with the goal of empowering them in the future, As an advisory service, extension education disseminates information on new knowledge, new practices and new technology based on research results generated and developed by research agencies, These advisory services are conducted with the aim of creating awareness, interest and to inspire clients to accept and adopt a new technology, a new practice or a new idea to help them solve their problems and fulfill their needs. Other characteristics of extension education are: i, Usually conducted out of school, no specific structure, no specific curriculum, no specific time and no specific place; ii, The curriculum is determined by clients and usually life-related; iii, all family members are involved wherever and whenever necessary; iv. to encourage the use of informal two-way communication channels; and v, extension education agent uses the services of local community leaders or SME supervisors to conduct any changed programsBased on the characteristics and prior discussions of extension education, it can be defined as: a non-formal education aimed at bringing changes in knowledge, attitudes, skill and practices of clients, besides building clients’ capacity and potentials to make their own decision, solve their own problems and to accept or reject a new technology disseminated by an extension education agent (Rahim M. Sail, et al. (in press)).. The definition focuses directly on change and development of life-related knowledge and skills through non-formal education programs with the ultimate aim of increased commitment and motivation of clients to be empowered. Scope of extension education and services The fields of adult education, communication studies and human resource development (HRD) have influenced a great deal the scope and strategies of extension education and services. The transfer of technology (ToT) and the capacity building models of extension education work are two dominant models that form the scope of present-day extension education services. The field of human resource development in combination with adult education have created opportunities for extension education concepts and scope to be transferred to other disciplines as long as human beings are the subjects of focus for development. In line with this combination and development, extension education services could be- applied to improve performance of enterprises efficiency and productivity, especially SMEs (Knowles, Holton & Swanson,1998). The basic tenets in the concepts and strategies of extension education that have widened its scope and services to industrial setting include (Rahim M. Sail, 2016): i acquisition of knowledge (technical, administrative and management) as the first building block of capacity building of clients to affect changes in attitude, skill and practice) (see Figure 2). ii continuous learning by clients is usually life-related to improve performance and productivity; iii, clients are to participate in all facets of program development from planning, implementing, monitoring and evaluating of any new program to inculcate the senseof belongingness, motivation and commitment to ensure success of the program developed; and iv. capacity building becomes a critical precursor to empowering clients to succeed on their own efforts and thus, reduce the perpetual dependency syndrome from others. SH 5. Increased * | capacity of agonts & clients 2. Attitude ae 4. Practice 6. Increased bunaing internal ‘commitment & motivation < Figure 2: Clients capacity building for increased intemal commitment and motivation to be empowered (Source: Rahim M Sail, 2016) 1. Knowledge Work practices in extension education In general, an extension education agent performs two basic tasks: (j) human resource development (HRD); and (ii) transfer of technology (ToT). In HRD function, an extension education agent builds clients’ capacity and potential through participation of clients in program development activities such as planning, implementing, monitoring and evaluating, Clients are involved in every facets of the program development processes, that is, giving ideas, discussing local issues and problems, identifying local needs and interests and highlighting local norms, traditions and values besides learning how to plan, implement, monitor and evaluate. Non-formal teaching and learning methods, such as small group discussion, method and result demonstrations, and study tours, are used to provide basic knowledge and rationales for each of the program development process discussed. The HRD function, if properly planned and executed, would create awareness, commitment and motivation among clients to ensure sustainability and success of a program. In addition, HRDfunctions would inculcate the sense of pride and belongingness to a program among clients. ‘This is an important first step to making clients to be empowered. The ToT function provides technology information acquired form research centrev/institutes to be transferred to clients to improve efficiency and increase productivity of clients’ enterprises. The ToT function requires an extension education agent the ability to match technology information with needs and problems of clients. The ability to package technology information and selecting appropriate teaching and learning methods are also important functions of extension education agents in ensuring a high rate of adoption of new technology among clients. In carrying out HRD and ToT functions, an extension education agent needs basic science and technical knowledge, basic ability to communicate effectively, non-formal, continuing education strategies and a basic knowledge and understanding of human behaviours. Both HRD and ToT functions are complimentary in nature and should be carried out simultaneously to be effective and rewarding to benefit the clients. An extension education agent plays an important connecting role in the linkage between research and extension work requirements and that of client’ (see Figure 3). Besides disseminating research results, an extension education agent has to be familiar and knowledgeable with current government policies, existing market and credit systems as well as she/he is accessible to the new media and internet technology to hasten her/his work. In this context, an extension education agent must-be uptodate with extension education work requirements, ability to motivate clients to assume leadership roles, besides having the ability to plan and implement teaching and learning situations in the context of adult and non formal education, 5 Clients” capacity building & Work requirement of extension ‘Competency of Extension : agent education agent Poteste Sevclonmese SSS 1. Decision making skill [ 1. Research results: new 2. Problem solving skill technology, new knowledge 3. Developing leadership | & practices See) ‘Human resource 2. Current government policies |e] development fiction ¢ —] oon agriculture & rural ‘ (HRD) | development & ‘elon a Sp jocsMEs) 4, Development of 3, Effient market and eredit ‘Transfer of technology management skill systems function (ToT) 5. Development of local socioeconomic 4, Accessible to new media & institutions. intemet technology t 6, Build business & 6 commercial outlookand potential development and transfer of technology. Figure 3: Work and competency requirement, clients” capacity building << tet (Source: Rahim M. Sail, 2008 with some adaptations) The extension education work requirements are tools for extension education agents to perform her/his HRD and ToT functions, while the client’s capacity building and potential development are goals to be achieved. The success of extension education agents in discharging her/his HRD and ToT functions depends on her/his ability to (i) translate esearch findings into easy to follow procedures and instructions; (ii) plan and develop non- formal education teaching and learning materials; (iii) get clients to participate meaningfully in the teaching and learning processes; and (iv) guide clients to practise what have been taught to provide confidence and continuity. Procedures of program development in extension education work Program development procedures in extension education work comprises three interrelated components: (i) planning; (ii) implementation; and (iii) monitoring and evaluation, Flint (1972) defined program development as a process of working together with advisory groups of selected clients in situational analysis, determining needs and problems, developing program objectives, prioritizing implementation procedures as outlined in the work schedule and carrying out monitoring and evaluation of programy achievements. 3. Monitoring and evaluation Areas of overlapping of the three components indicating the three components are interrelatedeee 7 . + Figure 4: Components of program development in extension education work ‘There exist several models of program development in the literature. Some of them are the Tyler Model (1949), Boyle Model (1981), Freire Model (1970) and Cervero and Wilson Model (1995). The Tyler Model is a classical model used by other models as a basis for program development, although the model was developed for formal education situation, Four basic questions were put forward by Tyler: (i) what program objectives were to be achieved? (ii) what learning experiences were required to achieve the objectives?; (iii) how would the learning experiences be organized?; and (iv) were the objectives realized? Boyle (1981) expanded the Tyler model with additional four ideas: i, identify program rationales: why program is developed, for whom and what program impact; ii, carry out situational analysis where program is to be implemented; iii, develop objectives based on the situational analysis; iv. identify resources and support available to implement a program; v. develop and organize a schedule of leaning experience activities; vi, _ implement learning experience activities according to priority; ‘Vii. determine accountability and program impact; and viii, document in writing the program developed and the evaluation results to be carried out, ‘The Boyle Model of program development requires data or information as basis for effective planning. Freire (1970) developed a program development model known as the critical model with the aim of seeking justice and faimess between the “haves” and the “haves not” in Brazil. Fraire started adult education classes to teach the poor landless farmers to read, write and count. When these poor farmers were literate, Freire exposed them to the national constitution and made them to understand their privileges and rights as citizens of Brazil. Through thisexposure, the poor farmers began to demand their fair share of the country’s wealth. Freire strongly believed that the demand for justice and fairness as bestowed in the national constitution could be achieved through understanding of interests between the poor farmers and that of the rich land owners. This understanding and subsequent actions undertaken by both parties had resutted in SS{08299 the conflicts in peace and harmony. Freire’s model adds two other aspects of Boyle model: (i) to determine and understand citizens’ rights and privileges through the constitution which could be shared; and (ii) to ensure continuous learning among clients through regular training programs. Cervero and Wilson negotiating interest model (1995) is the most popular model where groups, instead of individuals, are involved in negotiations to create ideas and identify strategies how a program is to be planned, implemented and evaluated. This model focuses on shared responsibility among stakeholders to ensure the program developed reflects the need and problems of the group. Past experiences showed that program developed using the negotiating interest model were more successful in their implementation and gave greater impacts to their client groups. The negotiating interest model is flexible, can accommodate current issues, local situations, problem needed immediate solutions and allow organization with initial ideas to be represented. The element of planning, implementing, monitoring and evaluation are similar to the Boyle model. Program development and planned change Planned change is a conscious, deliberate and collaborative efforts to improve the operation ofa social system for individuals or groups using knowledge (Bennis et al.,1970). Knowledge becomes an important ingredient to any change programs as it will ensure sustainability of the change to benefit the social system. Collaborative efforts between a change agent and the Social system clients are encouraged to train local leadership with problem solving and decision-making skills. Whatever concepts and definitions of planned change, they should result in changes that are based on facts, accurate and all actions are geared towards the achievement of program objectives. One of the most quoted theory of planned change is the equilibrium theory of change or force ficld theory of change (Lewin, 1951; Dyer,1984). The assumption of this theory is that when there are driving forces to initiate change, there will be an equal amount of restraining forces to counter them to create an equilibrium situation,‘A social system is comfortable with the equilibrium state where there is no change to adapt to (see figure 5 and figure 6). A social system that remains static (equilibrium) accepts no change, they prefer a status quo (Figure 5). Figure 6 indicates the opposite of Figure 5. Additional driving forces are introduced while restraining forces are reduced, creating @ disequilibrium situation, According to the theory, when disequilibrium situation occurs, the social system is ready to accept change. Restraining forces equilibrium Driving forces Figure 5: Driving and restraining forces are in equilibrium state with no change (Source: Lewin,1951) Reduce restraining forces | State of disequilibrium ie Additional driving forces Figure 6: Driving forces are more than restraining forces: disequilibrium state and ready to accept change (Source: Lewin,1951) Lewin describes this as an unfreeze situation where a social system is ready to accept change. Examples of unficeze situation are acquisition of new knowledge from research, exposure through training programs, study tours and visiting successful projects (driving forces), while keeping and practising negative attitudes through isolation from verifiable information about a situation, not willing to collaborate with those who have been successful and inculcating a passive working habit are examples of restraining forces. ‘When the unfreeze situation is stabilized, then move them towards the desired change. Continue on the application of driving forces for change and continue on the actions toreduce restraining forces until a social system begins to intemalize the change as something that they are proud of. When this is achieved, freeze them back to sustain the change made, Unfrceze [—+| Move —> Freeze To prepare for ‘Make the Sustain the change change change Figure 7: Lewin’s model of planned change process Lippitt et al. (1958) expanded Lewin’s idea of planned change to focus on improving a social system with an outside or inside help. Lippitt expanded Lewin’s model to include the following: ik, iti iv, develop an interest to change: a social system is exposed to various changes that they could easily follow or do from other social systems. This exposure could be done through training programs, study tours, and watching videos of successfil projects carried out by other social systems; establish change relationship: a change agent establishes cordial relationships with a social system, carry out regular meetings to discuss issues, problems and opportunities, identify resources available and plan a set of training programs to upgrade knowledge and skills to carry out the planned change; introduce the change (move): when a social system is ready to accept change through the exposure as in (ii), move them to a level to achieve short, medium and long-term goals of the planned change. The achievement of short-term goal is important to inspire a social system to do more and committed to continue on until completion to achieve all objectives planned. stabilize and strengthen the planned change (freeze/sustain): once all objectives are realized, stabilize and strengthen the change through diversifying into other programs that would benefit the social system in the long-term, Learn to use the new media and internet technology to expand the scope of the planned change. 10Vv. Prepare for a terminal relationship (sustain and ownership): In any planned change work, a change agent must prepare a social system to take over the administration and management of the change. From the first day of planning a program, through the implementation period and through the process of monitoring and evaluating, a social system is involved thoroughly in all the processes. These involvements are part of training to introduce a social system with hands on knowledge and skills to manage a program of planned change. This process is to empower a social system with commitment to succeed. In program development, introducing planned change as a process and a strategy would be most likely to succeed compared to programs of the evolutionary process. Planned change programs use facts and available data as basis for planning and implementation. Usually, a planned change program involves relevant stakeholders in all its processes. ‘Components of program development a) Planning: focuses on activities of collecting, analyzing and interpreting of data, either primary or secondary data, as basis for planning. Feasibility studies are often used to collect these data for a specific area/location where the program is to be implemented to ensure validity, sustainability and success of a program. Flint (1970) outlined 10 steps/ activities of program development in extension education work. Eight (8) of the steps in Flint program development model are planning activities, reflecting the importance of planning component in the overall program development. Evaluation 1. Develop and/or work with a group of clients. 2. Collect 10. Evaluate achievement 9, Implement | informationidata implementation 3, Analysis plan information! data 8, Develop work 4. Identity, schedule problems/needs: 7. Select focus 5. Develop & zat objectives prioritize objectives 6. Develop and/orThe first four (4) steps in the Flint model are situational analysis where problems, needs and interests of client are identified. An example of situational analysis is depicted in Figure 9. ‘The ‘what is? situation or the present situation represents the production of rice in area A, which is 5 tons/ha/planting. Through observation and fact-finding mission, some farmers in area A have achieved rice production of 10 tons/ha/planting, while a research plot in same area has produced 12 tons/ha/planting. Area A has the potential to produce a much higher production ‘The’what ought’ to be situation 10 tons/ha/planting (rice) Exist a gap as basis for planning Problems, needs& interest ‘The ‘what is situation (present situation) Figure 9: Situational analysis of rice as shown by the ‘what ought” to be situation. There exist a gap between the ‘what is” and the ‘what ought’ to be situation. This gap represents the problems, needs and interests to produce 10tons/ha./planting of rice. Further analysis of the gap shows that many rice farmers in area A do not follow rice planting practices as recommended by the research agency. In other words, the rice farmers do not follow all good argicultural practices (GAP) of rice planting. Example of GAP that farmers do not follow are: (j) they do not use high quality certified seeds; (ii) they do not follow strictly the water irrigation schedule; (iii) they do not follow type, amount and when fertilizers are to be used as recommended; (iv) they do not control weeds completely ; and (v) they do not follow in detail the post harvest technology practices. Based on the situational analysis, an extension education agent and a group of farmers plan a changed program to increase rice production to 10 ton/ha./planting to be implemented. 12To develop program objectives and to determine priorities are the next step in the implementation of a planned change program. In relation to increasing rice production, an example of program objective is a follows: For 30 rice farmers in area A to increase their rice production from Stons/ha/planting to 10 tons/ha/planying following all the good argicultural practices (GAP) as recommended by a research agency in three (3) years starting, from next planting season. specific; M-measureable; A=attainable; alistic; and T=time bound ‘When the main objective has been developed, several suppporting objectives are planned to achieve the main objective. Example of suppporting objectives are: For 30 farmers in area A to acquire knowledga and skills in: i. selecting high quality seeds from a credible supplier ii, fertilizer application with the right type, right amount and right timing; iii, water management is to follow the established schedule; iv, carry.out weeds and pests control; and V. carry out post-harvest technology activities as recommended in the GAP Based on the main and supportive objectives, an extension education agent and her/his group of clients must ensure that the resources for implementation are adequate. The resources usvally include budget, physical inputs, adequately trained clients and supporting staff. In case, if resources are found to be inadequate, they must be replaced as soon as possible to avoid unnecessary delays in implementation. Long-term and big programs must be able to accommodate changes to suit current needs. In other words, implementation of a program of planned change must fot be rigid and be as flexible as it can be as long as the main objective can still be achieved. The last activity in planning is to develop a work schedule for implementation. This schedule outlines what to do, when to do it, where to do it and who is responsible to do it. (Table 1).Table 1: Work schedule for implementation of planned change program ‘What When Where | Whois Equiment Remark | responsible | _ required Selection high Two @) weeks [KADA | Individual | = Price of seeds as of | quality seeds before sowin, office __| clients || Jast season Fertilizer ‘As recommended [Rice | Individual | righttype, | Fertilizer is application bytheresearch | field | clients right amount | adequate & agency available i ight time if Follow as Rice | Individual | - Water supply is management scheduled field | clients adequate Control weeds & [Follow schedule [Rice | Individual | Weedicides, | Weeds & pests are pests & when necessary | field | clients pesticides & | under control pa sprayers Follow post harvest | During and after [Rice | Individual_| Combine. | Minimum wastage technology harvesting field | clients harverster | and ost + activities Components of program development (b) Implementation Bi learning experiences through non-formal modes. These activities become essential to carry cally, an extension education program focuses on teaching and learning and developing out HRD and ToT functions. Learning experiences are designed to make clients understand and acquire knowledge and skills. Usually, a learning experience goes through five (5) senses of taste, hear, see, smell and touch. The more senses are used in any teaching and learning situation, the more effective it is for the learning experience. The development of learning experiences is based on the teaching objective to be achieved. As an example, if an extension education agent is to increase clients’ knowledge in promoting their SME"s products, several teaching and learning methods could be used. Some teaching and learning methods used are watching videos and discussion, listening and discussions with those who have experiences in promoting their products and watch actual promoting activities being carried out. 4Table 2: Teaching objective, teaching method and learning experience Teaching objective Teaching method Learning experience To increase knowledge &|Lecture & discussion, | Listening, secing & touching skill in product promotion | practical session & watch product to be promoted. | videos Clients try/do— some | promoting exercises. To change attitude Forunvdiscussion/study Clients discuss issues, tour/ result demonstration | problems, needs. and interests. Acquire knowledge, skills and willing to take leadership roles. Learning experiences are organized according to levels and series. The organization of learning experiences follows specific criteria such as: (i) continuity; (ii) sequence; and (ii) integration. Continuity: a learning experience is organized in such a manner with the second one is based from the first learning experience and the relationship between the two learning experiences is obvious. As an example, if an operator of one SME wants to expand his successful business from one locality to other localities, she/he can expand it using the new media and internet technology to promote her/his business widely. In this example, the teaching objective is to teach the SME operator how to use the new media and intemet technology, while the teaching methods could be ‘hands on’ or practical training and method demonstration on how to use the new media, The learning experience, in this case, is that the SME operator is given the opportunity to try out and practise product promotion through the new media and internet technology Sequence: organizing learning experiences should start from an easy one to a more difficult one so as to ensure that clients can follow and understand them, Try to use simple and easy to ‘understand language in the teaching objective and teaching method. The teaching objective is 15,to expand his business through bank loan while the teaching method is to listen to a bank officer how to make bank loans. Integration: to relate what had been learned in promoting and marketing of one product could be applied to promote and market other products in an effort to integrate His/iter business. The teaching objective is to expose an SME operator to several business opportunities while the teaching methods are study tours, watch videos on successful entrepreneuf, ‘The learning experience is to try out a few businesses on a small scale to start with. Monitoring and evaluation Monitoring and evaluation are the third component of the program development process after planning and implementation. This component is as important and critieal as planning and implementation to ensure the overall success of planned change program, All the three components move in synchronization to each other and become an important management strategy to ensure resources are utilized efficiently to achieve program goals and benefit the target clients. Definition of monitoring Monitoring is a process to determine the ‘health’ of a program through identification of adequacy of inputs, strength or weakness of procedures or strategies while the program is implemented. ‘Health’ is used to denote whether or not the inputs and strategies for implementation are in good working order as planned. Health is also used to determine the adequacy of knowledge and skills of clients as well as extension education agents. The information gathered is used to improve a program while it is being implemented. The objectives of monitoring are to: (® ensure implementation of a program is as scheduled; (i) ensure inputs (staff, budget, time and expertise) for implementation are adequate; (iii) ensure the strategy/procedure for implementation is as planned and effective to achieve program objectives; 16(iv) give uptodate data/information to make a decision on whether or not to continue, to make changes or to stop the implementation of a program; (v) ensure every program activity implemented follows the schedule to avoid wasting of resources and delay in completion; and (vi) have baseline data to carry out final evaluation of a program, Monitoring data can be quantitative or qualitative in nature. Monitoring is carried out regularly. If the duration of a program is one year, it is highly recommended that monitoring is done for every three months to determine achievement at a particular stage. Whatever shortcomings or weaknesses found should be attended to immediately so as to ensure implementation process is on track to achieve program intended goals. Monitoring data are collected, analysed and interpreted quickly and used as basis to overcome problems and improve implementation activities. Qualitative methods, such as observation, ask clients and extension education agents directly, are often used in monitoring a program, Evaluation Strategy Physical Input Time frame Monitoring process ‘Staff Budget Evaluation Figure 10: Monitoring process in program development 7Evaluation Program evaluation is a process to determine whether or not program objectives have been achieved partially or in full. Program evaluation is to determine program impacts on individuals or on a community. The results of program evaluation are usually used as basis for planning other future programs, Functions of program evaluation are to: (@ determine whether or not program objectives are achieved; (i) identify strengths or weaknesses of overall strategies/procedures, besides the adequacy or inadequacy of resources in implementing a program; (iii) determine and improve accountability of clients, stakeholders, extension education agents and tax payers; (iv) inform the public as a public relation strategy for program promotion; () form a basis for additional budget request, when necessary, to continue a program; and (vi) provide accurate data with the intent of continuing or terminating a program and/or to improve future programs Criteria, evidence and judgement in evaluation Criteria forms the backbone of a formal evaluation. It is a standard to evaluate a program. Criteria is developed first before conducting an evaluation. Criteria is a measurement where a Program is evaluated based on accurate data. Criteria has quantitative and qualitative aspects. ‘An example: 90% of participants who attended a youth training program was satisfied with the quality of lecture and discussion. 90% is the quantitative aspect while quality of lecture and discussion is the qualitative aspect. Aspects of quantitative and qualitative of criteria are normally obtained from previous evaluation/or research results (literature review), Evidence: is related to data or information collected from a program that is ongoing or that hhas been completed as a basis for making a judgement. Data/information collected as evidence must be reliable and valid and they are analysed to determine whether or not 18program objectives have been achieved. Bennett (1975) outlined six (6) levels of evidence to evaluate a program (see Figure 11). 6. Change in practice 5. Change in knowledge, attitudes, skill & practice 4, Reaction 3, Clients’ involvement 2. Activity 4. Input Figure 11: Level of evidence in program evaluation (source: Bennett, 1975) The lowest form of evidence in program evaluation is input used, clients’ activities, involvement and reaction as well as to determine changes in knowledge, attitude, skill and practice, Change in clients’ practice as a result of adopting a new technology and committed to continue on to practice on sustained basis is the highest form of evidence in program evaluation. ludgement: in evaluation, judgement is made for a program that is being evaluated. Is the program successful or otherwise. Usually, there are five (5) program characteristics that are being judged in an evaluation. They are: (@ quality — how is the quality of the contents, learning experiences and how competent is the facilitator? How is the reaction of the clients on the training program? (i relevance — is the program achieving clients’ satisfaction and expectation? Is the lecture/discussion easy to follow and to understand? 19(iii) effectiveness — what has been achieved through the training program? What level of program objectives have been attained? Have the program objectives been fully achieved? What impacts on individuals and community as a whole? (iv) efficiency - has the resources been utilized according to plan? Are the resources used to the maximum? Any resources go to waste (v) benefit — what benefits accrued by clients following the program? Are the benefits cost effective and can be sustained? Non-formal and formal evaluation One makes evaluation everyday, i.e. the non-formal evaluation. In non-formal evaluation judgement is made first before evidence and criteria are presented. Ali, our supervisor, should be promoted to a manager, says our general manager. The general manager makes a judgement about Ali’s position. When asked why Ali should be promoted, the general manager says” Ali always completes his tasks with high quality on time, Ali is hardworking and comes to work even on weekends to complete his tasks on time. What the general manager has done: (i) Ali should be promoted (judgement); (ii) Ali completes his tasks with high quality on time (criteria); and (iii) Ali is hardworking and comes to work even on weekends (evidence). Judgement > Criteria > Evidence is a formulation of non-formal evaluation In a formal evaluation, criteria is developed first followed by evidence before making judgement. Using Ali’s example: Criteria for promotion Evidence Judgement © Complete task with high * Hardworking © Qualify to be quality on time © Come to work on promoted weekend, if necessary Criteria > Evidence > Judgement 20‘Non-formal and formal evaluations are useful to evaluate a planned change program. Non- formal evaluation is associated with monitoring or process evaluation where qualitative procedures, such as observation, in-depth interviews and FGDs, are usually used to determine the ‘health’ of a program while it is being implemented. Formal evaluation, on the other hand, is carried out at the end of a program to determine whether or not the program objectives have been achieved and what impacts the program have on the clients and the community. Usually, scientific procedures are used in the formal evaluation. Models of evaluation One of the popular models of evaluation used in program of planned change is the CIPP model (Stufflebeam, 1968). Figures 12 shows the model diagrammatically, (1) Context evaluation (to facilitate | (4) Product evaluation (to facilitate decision on planning). What needs to be | recycling decision for future programs in done. Feasibility study to get accurate | other areas). Is the program successful? projected data to plan Can the strategies/procedures be repeated in other programs? OD (2) Input evaluation (to facilitate decision | (3) Process evaluation (to facilitate on structuring —_resources for | decision on implementation of a implementation). How to distribute | program). Do activities implemented resources? Data to indicate priority according to plan and order? Why? And why not. Figure 12; CIPP model of evaluation for decision making in program development (source: Stufflebeam, 1968) The CIPP model of evaluation requires reliable and valid data. To make accurate decisions about program planning, program implementation and program monitoring and evaluations. aIf accurate and reliable data are collected, analysed and interpreted, the success rate of any program of planned change is high, thus maximizing resources used to the satisfaction of all stakeholders. - Kirkpatrick model of training evaluation Kirkpatrick (1996) introduced four (4) levels of effective training evaluation: (i) reaction; (ii) learning; (iii) change in behaviours; and (iv) result to be achieved (see figure 13), The achievement of each level influences subsequent achievement until Level 4 where the goal of any training program is the achievement of the training objectives as planned. Level 4 [To what extent the achievement of objectives planned as a result of learning | activities with subsequent reinforcement Level3 [To what extent training participants can apply what they have learned in learning activities when they are back in work situation Level2 | To what extent training participants acquire knowledge, shift and change their attitudes through participating in learning activities. Level! |To what extent training participants react positively or negatively towards learning activities Figure 13: Kirkpatrick model of training evaluation (source: Kirkpatrick, 1996) In 2010, Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick raised the issue of return on investment verses return on expectation. It is extremely difficult to calculate return on investment on training. However, Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2010) came out with the idea of return on expectation with level 4 as the starting point to measure training participants performance in job situation. There was no complete agreement among stakeholders on this idea too. Whatever it is, training of staff in organizations is necessary to equip them with knowledge, skills and perhaps change in attitudes to prepare them with current and future expectations of work. Coneluding remarks The chapter begins with the concept of extension education as a part of the adult and continuing education. The field of agriculture has been and still is the focus of extension 22education work, although extension education concepts and characteristics have penetrated into many other fields of the service and manufacturing sectors. Extension education has a strong linkage with research centres to obtain its contents to be transferred to clients. Also, extension education has a strong bondage with clients and bring back their problems, needs and interests to research centres as agenda for researchers to plan and carry out their research activities and programs, Extension education is a system of non-formal education which provides advisory services using educational processes to help clients acquire knowledge and skills and to fulfill their needs and interests. ‘The field of adult education, communication studies and human resource development have influenced the scope and strategies of extension education to life-related knowledge and skills besides capacity building of clients to improve program efficiency and increase productivity of extension education programs. Program development in extension education comprises three interrelated components of planning, implementing, and monitoring and evaluation. The three components form the basis of program development of planned change in extension education work, especially those that are required to acquire life-related knowledge, skills, change in attitude and skills to be empowered. References Bennett, C. (1975). Up the hierarchy. Journal of Extension, 13(2), 7-12. Boyle, P. G. (1981). Planning Better Programs. New York: McGraw-Hill. Cervero, R. M., & Wilson, A. L. (1995). Responsible planning for continuing education in the health professions. Journal of Continuing Education in the Health Professions, 15(4), 196-202. Flint, B. (1970). Program Development in the Lousiana Cooperative Extension Service. Lousiana: Cooperative Extension Publication. Freire, P. (1970). Pedagogy of the Oppressed. New York: Continuum. Kirkpatrick, D. (1996). Training and Development. Great ideas revisited. 50(1), 54-59. Kirkpatrick, J.D., & Kirkpatrick, W.K. (2010). Training on Trial. New York, NY: AMACOM. Knowles, M. S., Holton Ill, E., & Swanson, R. (1998). The Adult Learner: The Definitive Classic in Adult Education and Human Resource Development, Houston, TX. TX: Gulf Publishing Company. 23Lewin, K. (1951). Field Theory in Social Science. New York: Harper & Row. Lippitt, R., Watson, J., Westley, B., & Spalding, W. B. (1958). The Dynamics of Planned Change: A Comparative Study of Principles and Techniques. New York, NY: Harcourt, Brace & World, Rahim M. Sail, Lailawati Mohd Salleh & Hanina Hamsan (in press). Pendidikan Pengembangan: Membina Keupayaan Klien untuk Memindah Teknologi Baharu. Rahim M Sail (2016). Extension education for a developed Malaysia: relevance and its applicability for clients’ capability and capacity building. Kertas dibentangkan di Intemational Agricongress 2016: Enhancing Green Agriculture (4-6 Oktober, 2016; Hotel Bangi-Putrajaya, Malaysia). Rahim M_ Sail (2008). Konsep dan Amalan Pendidikan Pengembangan. Buletin Pengembangan Pusat Pengembangan, Keusahawanan dan Pemajuan Profesional (APEEC), UPM, Serdang. Rahim M_ Sail (2008). Konsep dan Amalan Pendidikan Pengembangan. Buletin Pengembangan Pusat Pengembangan, Keusahawanan dan Pemajuan Profesional. Rahim M Sail & Mazanah Muhamad (1994). Factors associated with non-adoption of technology by rubber smallholders. Pertanika Journal Social Sciences and Humanities, 2 (1): 29-41. Rahim M Sail (1995). Extension Education for Industrialising Malaysia: Trends, Priorities ‘and Emerging Issues. Syarahan Inaugural. Serdang: Universiti Pertanian Malaysia. Rahim M Sail (2009). Kompetensi pembangunan sumberdaya manusia dan pemindahan teknologi dan kaitannya dengan prestasi kerja ejen pendidikan pengembangan. Akedemika. Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi. Tyler, R. W. (1949). Basic principles of curriculum and instruction. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press Wilson, A. L., & Hayes, E. (Eds.). (2009). Handbook of adult and continuing education. John ‘Wiley & Sons, Rahim M Sail UPM, Serdang, Malaysia 3 10 October 2019 24Biodata Rahim M Sail is an Emeritus Professor in Extension Education and Human Resource Development at University Putra Malaysia. Has been involved in teaching extension education and human resource development courses at undergraduate and graduate levels. Has conducted research which had been published in Malaysian and International journals 25