lOMoARcPSD|4236305

Summary - Anatomy

Anatomy for Medical Science (University of New South Wales)

StuDocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university

Downloaded by Mustafa Dadah (mustafadadah111@gmail.com)
 lOMoARcPSD|4236305

Introductory Anatomy

Terminology

 Superficial versus deep –

Towards the surface and away
 Medial versus lateral −
Toward the midline and away
 Superior versus inferior −
Toward the head and toward the feet
 Proximal versus distal −
Nearer to the trunk and away

Note: Sagittal plane can also be called medial, and

coronal the frontal plane

Anatomical Position

 All anatomical terms refer to the anatomical

position as shown on the right
 This however should be viewed head on to
see the whole coronal plane

Downloaded by Mustafa Dadah (mustafadadah111@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|4236305

Basic Tissues

Epithelium Tissue

 Sheets of cells that line internal organs or cover the skin surface
 Connected together by junctions
 Split into two main categories
1. Skin: Such as the hard epidermis
2. Mesothelium: Lines the major cavities of the internal body

Connective Tissue

 Tissues with large amounts of intercellular material; form a matrix

 Involved in the support or protection of other tissues
 Has five main groups
1. Loose connective tissue: Includes subcutaneous tissue/fascia,
including adipose (fat)
2. Dense connective tissue: Includes patella ligament and is
made up of collagen
3. Cartilage: Exist in a semisolid matrix and covers joint
(articular) surfaces
4. Bone: Cells and collagen fibres exist in a solid matrix
5. Blood: A fluid matrix

Muscle Tissue

1. Skeletal: Striated and voluntary

2. Cardiac: Striated, involuntary
3. Smooth: Non-striated, involuntary and found in walls of organs e.g. in
the digestive system

Nervous Tissue

 Specialised tissue of nerve cells and supporting cells

 Neurons transmit and process information, sending electrical
messages along its axon

Downloaded by Mustafa Dadah (mustafadadah111@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|4236305

Skeletal System
Introduction to Bones

Functions of the Bone

 Support and protection  Blood production

 Movement  Storehouse for fats and minerals

Bone Structure

There are two types of bone tissue:

1. Spongy bone
 Made of calcium phosphate
 Bars of bone and has spaces randomly scattered in its matrix
 Bone marrow sits here
2. Compact bone
 Highly organised with concentric rings
 Has blood vessels in between the gaps

Bone Types

1. Long bones – Found in limbs, length greater than breadth, cylindrical shaft and swelling on each end
2. Short bones – Found in hand and foot; roughly cuboidal
3. Flat bones – Mostly found in the cranium; flat thin bones
4. Irregular bones – Not classified into any of the above e.g. the pelvis and vertebrae
5. Sesamoid bones – Nodules of bone found in certain tendons e.g. patella

Downloaded by Mustafa Dadah (mustafadadah111@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|4236305

Long Bones

Structure

Bone Formation / Ossification

 In an embryo, bones begin as cartilage; cartilage plates get

laid down as the template for new bones
 Blood vessels begin to grow into the bone and the cartilage
transforms into bone as cells lay down hard calcium material
 Long bones have ossification centres on both ends of the
bone
 Any cartilage still remaining is called the growth plate, and
determines the height of a person. Can be observed in
juvenile hands (right), but not in adult hands (left)

Downloaded by Mustafa Dadah (mustafadadah111@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|4236305

Axial Skeleton

Skull

The bones of the skull are divided into two groups: the cranial cavity and the face.

Downloaded by Mustafa Dadah (mustafadadah111@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|4236305

Downloaded by Mustafa Dadah (mustafadadah111@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|4236305

Vertebrae Column

Downloaded by Mustafa Dadah (mustafadadah111@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|4236305

Bones of the Thorax

Downloaded by Mustafa Dadah (mustafadadah111@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|4236305

Downloaded by Mustafa Dadah (mustafadadah111@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|4236305

Appendicular Skeleton

Clavicle

Scapula

Downloaded by Mustafa Dadah (mustafadadah111@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|4236305

Humerus

Downloaded by Mustafa Dadah (mustafadadah111@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|4236305

Radius and Ulna

Bones of the Hand

Downloaded by Mustafa Dadah (mustafadadah111@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|4236305

Pelvic Girdle

The two hip bones articulate with each other and the sacrum to form the pelvic girdle

Hip Bone (Right)

Downloaded by Mustafa Dadah (mustafadadah111@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|4236305

Femur

Downloaded by Mustafa Dadah (mustafadadah111@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|4236305

Patella

Tibia and Fibula

Downloaded by Mustafa Dadah (mustafadadah111@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|4236305

Bones of the Feet

Bone Fractures

Stages in Fracture Healing

Types of Fractures

1. Comminuted − Bone fractures into three or more pieces; common in aged, brittle bones
2. Compression − Bone is crushed; common in porous bones
3. Spiral – Ragged break occurs when twisting forces are applied to the bond; common in sports
4. Epiphyseal – Epiphysis separates from the diaphysis along the epiphyseal plate; occurs where
cartilage cells are dying
5. Depressed – Broken bones portion is pressed inward; typical of skull fractures
6. Greenstick – Bone breaks incompletely, like a twig

Downloaded by Mustafa Dadah (mustafadadah111@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|4236305

Articular System
Structurally classed based on the type of substance between the articulating bones

Fibrous Joints

Held together by connective tissue like collagen fibres; found

in cranial sutures, or the interosseous membrane

Skull Sutures

 Flat bones form from membranous sheets with

ossification centres in the middle
 In infants, the bones have get to come together and
so that have two fontanelle

Cartilaginous Joints

Bones are held together by cartilage e.g. between the ribs and
sternum, and those between vertebrae

Intervertebral Discs

 Compression of the intervertebral disc brings about

movements of the vertebral column
 As we age, the disc get more flat and so we shrink
 If too much strain is put on the disc, it can “slip” – the nucleus
pulposus herniates and presses against the spinal nerve

Synovial Joints

Downloaded by Mustafa Dadah (mustafadadah111@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|4236305

Ligaments

 Limit the range of normal movements

 Can exist to protect or hold structures in position

Bursae

 Sacks of synovial fluid occurring at areas with friction

 Can be continuous or separate from the joint synovial cavity
 Bursa surrounding tendons are called synovial sheath

Types of Synovial Joints

1. Uniaxial – gliding, hinge, pivot e.g. carpals, elbow, radioulnar joint

2. Biaxial – ellipsoid, saddle, condyloid e.g. knuckles, thumb
3. Multiaxial – ball and socket e.g. hip joint, shoulder joint

Factors Stabilising Joints

 Shapes of articulating surfaces (hip joint)

 Ligaments (ankle joints)
 Muscles (shoulder joint)

Shoulder Joint

Note: The glenoid labrum (fibrocartilage) increases the articular surface area for the humerus for stability.
The capsule is also supported by three sides of muscles, collectively known as the rotator cuff

Downloaded by Mustafa Dadah (mustafadadah111@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|4236305

Hip Joint

Downloaded by Mustafa Dadah (mustafadadah111@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|4236305

Knee Joint

The medial and lateral condyles of the femur and tibia, and the patella articulate to form the knee joint;
heavily rely on ligaments and muscles for support

Note: Knee joints have menisci, which are like cushions for the joints

Downloaded by Mustafa Dadah (mustafadadah111@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|4236305

Muscular System
Structure of a Skeletal Muscle

 Muscle fibre cells are covered in thick (myosin) and

thin (actin) filaments → striated
 In the limbs the origin of the muscle is proximal
and the insertion is distal

Downloaded by Mustafa Dadah (mustafadadah111@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|4236305

Muscle Architecture

There are 6 different types of muscles:

Note: Parallel can be called strap muscles, and convergent can be called flat.

Actors of Muscles

 Muscles do not act alone

 Prime movers (agonists) are responsible for bringing about a specific movement
 Antagonists relax while the prime mover(s) contracts e.g. triceps relax when bicep flexes
 Synergists assist prime movers to add extra force or fixate the limb

Downloaded by Mustafa Dadah (mustafadadah111@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|4236305

Muscles of the Axial Skeleton

Muscles of Mastication

 These muscles facilitate the movement of the mandible

 Act on the temperomandibular joint
 Key muscle is the masseter

Facial Muscles

Muscles of the Orbit

Downloaded by Mustafa Dadah (mustafadadah111@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|4236305

Muscles of the Back

There are 3 layers:

1. Superficial layer
2. Intermediate layer
3. Deep layer
 Post vertebral muscles that are the “true” muscles of the spine
 These are the erector spinae muscles
 Fibres run parallel and made of three columns

Intercostal Muscles

There are 3 layers of intercostal muscles: external, internal and innermost

Downloaded by Mustafa Dadah (mustafadadah111@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|4236305

Abdominal Wall Muscles

Made of four layers:

1. Rectus abdominus – Originates at pubis and inserts on costal cartilage and the xiphoid process
2. External oblique – Formes flat tendon (aponeurosis) that inserts onto midline (linea alba)
3. Internal oblique – Together with the external oblique is moves the trunk and increases intra-
abdominal pressure
4. Transversus abdominus – Increases intra-abdomnal pressure

Muscles of the Upper Limb

Muscles acting on the Shoulder Joint

Latissimus dorsi

 Originates on sacrum and iliac crest

 Twists around body and inserts onto Humerus
 Adduction, medial rotation and extension of
humerus

Trapezius

 Originates on occipital bone, ligamentum

nuchae and vertebrae T1-T12
 Inserts onto spine and acromion of scapula
 Rotates, retracts and elevates scapula

Deltoid

 Originates on scapula (spine and acromion) and

1
the lateral of the clavicle
3
 Inserts on humerus
 Mainly helps in abduction of the arm

Downloaded by Mustafa Dadah (mustafadadah111@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|4236305

Teres major

 Originates on lateral border of the scapula

 Inserts on anterior surface of the humerus
 Assists in adduction, extension and medial
rotation of humerus

Serratus anterior

 Originates on medial border of scapula

 Inserts onto top 8 ribs
 Rotates and protracts scapula

Pectoralis major

 Originates on clavicle, sternum and costal

cartilages 1-7
 Twists and inserts on shaft of humerus
 Flexes, adducts and medially rotates the
humerus

Downloaded by Mustafa Dadah (mustafadadah111@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|4236305

Rotator Cuff Muscles

 Extend from scapula to the humerus

 Tendons fuse to form the shoulder joint capsule
 Act as dynamic ligaments to hold the humerus in place during shoulder movements
 Stabilise the shoulder joint

Arm Muscles

Divided into two compartments: anterior (flexor) muscles and posterior (extensor) muscles

Downloaded by Mustafa Dadah (mustafadadah111@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|4236305

Forearm Muscles

All originate from the medial epicondyle of the humerus

Downloaded by Mustafa Dadah (mustafadadah111@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|4236305

Hand Muscles

Muscles of the Lower Limb

Gluteal Region

Downloaded by Mustafa Dadah (mustafadadah111@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|4236305

Anterior Hip Flexors

Quadriceps Fermoris

All four heads originate from either the ilium (rectus fermoris) or the femur’s shaft. They call insert onto the
tibial tuberosity via the patellar ligament

Downloaded by Mustafa Dadah (mustafadadah111@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|4236305

Thigh Adductor Muscles

Form the medial compartment of the thigh; also includes the gracilis (pubis → tibital shaft)

Hamstring Muscles

Make up the posterior compartment of the thigh (tuberosity on ischium → proximal tibia or fibula) and extend
the thigh, or flex the leg

Downloaded by Mustafa Dadah (mustafadadah111@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|4236305

Anterior Group of the Leg

Three main muscles to know (all originate on tibia/fibula and interosseous membrane)

1. Tibialis anterior → 1st metatarsal; dorsiflexes and inverts foot

2. Extensor digitorum longus → phalanges 2-5; dorsiflexion of ankle and extension of toes 2-5
3. Extensor hallicus longus → Phalanges of big toe; extension of big toe and dorsiflexion of ankle

Posterior Group of the Leg (Plantar Flexion)

 Gastrocenemius is a two-headed muscle (attached to medial/lateral tibial epicondyles)

 Soleus arises from the superior and posterior tibia and fibula
 These muscles form a common tendon, and are collectively called the triceps surae muscle

Note: Inversion/eversion, dorsiflexion/plantar flexion

Downloaded by Mustafa Dadah (mustafadadah111@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|4236305

Nervous System
Central Nervous System

Nervous Tissue

This consists of nerve cells (neurons) and supporting cells; these transmit and process information. There are
two types: multipolar neurons and primary sensory neurons

Spinal Cord Cross-Section

 Sits in the vertebral canal of the vertebral column; extends to level L ½ IV disc
 Has cervical (C5-T1) and lumbosacral (L2-S3) enlargements for the upper and lower limbs
 Grey matter is mostly cell bodies and white matter is primarily myelinated axons

Downloaded by Mustafa Dadah (mustafadadah111@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|4236305

Caudal End of the Spinal Cord

Spinal Segments

These are regions of the spinal cord giving rise to rootlets of spinal nerves
(originate at the intervertebral foramen). There are 31 pairs of spinal nerves:

 Cervical nerves: 8 pairs (C1-C8)

 Thoracic nerves: 12 pairs (T1-T12)
 Lumbar nerves: 5 pairs (L1-L5)
 Sacral nerves: 5 pairs (S1-S5)
 Coccygeal nerve: 1 pair (Co)

Spinal Meninges

Downloaded by Mustafa Dadah (mustafadadah111@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|4236305

Peripheral Nervous System

Dermatomes

This is a segment of skin supplied by a specific nerve segment, and is named according to the nerve

Brachial Plexus

Downloaded by Mustafa Dadah (mustafadadah111@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|4236305

Nerves of the Brachial Plexus

Nerve Description What it Supplies

Goes between the brachialis and Lateral forearm
Musculocutaneous
biceps brachii and ends on elbow
Lies in the middle of the anterior Forearm flexor, thumb muscles and
Median forearm and enters the hand via the skin on palmar surface of the lateral
carpal tunnel 3.5 digits
Runs medially down the arm and Muscles and skin of medial 1.5 digits
Ulnar
forearm
Passes through triceps and goes to Deltoids, teres minor and skin over
Axillary
the forearm the deltoid
Passes through triceps and goes to Extensors of the arm and forearm,
Radial forearm skin over bottom half of the first
three fingers

Note: Carpal tunnel syndrome is pins and needles in the lateral 3.5 fingers, usually caused by compression og
the median nerve by inflamed tendons

Downloaded by Mustafa Dadah (mustafadadah111@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|4236305

Nerves of the Lumbosacral Plexus

Name Description What it Supplies

Large anterior nerve at the top of the Muscles of the anterior compartment
Femoral thigh that branches into multiple of the thigh, and skin of anterior thigh
nerves and medial side of leg and foot
Large nerve on posterior thigh;
Sciatic divides into two nerves at the knee Hamstring muscles
joint
Posterior leg muscles, and skin of
Tibial On tibial side of leg
posterior leg and sole of foot
Anterior and lateral compartments of
Common peroneal Lateral side of leg
the leg, and skin of anterolateral leg

Autonomic System

Differs from the somatic nervous system by the ganglion and two neurons

Downloaded by Mustafa Dadah (mustafadadah111@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|4236305

Sympathetic Division

This division is focused on expending energy in the body e.g. causes glucose to be released into the blood or
dilates pupils (flight)

Downloaded by Mustafa Dadah (mustafadadah111@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|4236305

Downloaded by Mustafa Dadah (mustafadadah111@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|4236305

Parasympathetic Division

Pre-ganglionic nerves arise from the brain stem, reaching their targets via cranial nerves III, VII, IX and X.
The spinal segments S2-S4 reach the target by the pelvic splanchnic nerve.

Downloaded by Mustafa Dadah (mustafadadah111@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|4236305

Vagus Nerve (CN X)

 Supplies the neck viscera, heat, lungs and GIT

 Arises from both sides of the neck, and branches out to mix
with the sympathetic trunk to form the plexuses which
supply the heart and lungs
 Still going down, they form the oesophageal plexus to enter
the stomach
 Fibres eventually join at the coeliac plexus to reach
abdominal and pelvic organs

Downloaded by Mustafa Dadah (mustafadadah111@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|4236305

Nervous System II
After 5 weeks, the embryo forms 3 primary brain vesicles. The forebrain vesicle (blue) eventually divides into
the telencephalon and diencephalon

Brain

Downloaded by Mustafa Dadah (mustafadadah111@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|4236305

Function in the Cerebral Cortex

Meninges of the Brain

The pia mater adheres to the brain surface and its contours, whereas the arachnoid is separated by the
subarachnoid space (filled with cerebrospinal fluid). The dura mater lines the inner surface and forms the falx
cerebri and tentorium cerebelli

Downloaded by Mustafa Dadah (mustafadadah111@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|4236305

Cranial Nerves

Cranial Nerve Function How it enters cranial cavity

Numerous holes in the
I Olfactory Carries smell from nose
cribiform plate
II Optic Carries visual information from retina Optic foramen
Extraocular, ciliary, sphincter pupillae and levator
III Oculomotor Superior orbital fissure
palpebrae muscles
IV Trochlea Superior oblique in muscle in orbit Superior orbital fissure
V Abducens Lateral rectus muscle in orbit Superior orbital fissure
Split into 3 nerves that carry somatosensory messages:
1. Ophthalmic – Orbit, forehead and anterior scalp Ophthalmic: Superior orbital
2. Maxillary – Nasal cavity, upper jaw, teeth and fissure
VI Trigeminal skin over maxilla Maxillary: Foramen
3. Mandibular – Lower jaw, teeth, skin over rotundum
mandible, anterior 2/3 of tongue and motor for Mandibular: Foramen ovale
muscles of mastication
Supplies muscles of facial expression, glands of head
VII Facial Internal acoustic meatus
and tastes of anterior 2/3 of tongue
VIII
Carries hearing and balance from ear Internal acoustic meatus
Vestibulocochlear
IX
Somatosensory from pharynx and posterior 1/3 tongue Jugular foramen
Glossopharyngeal
Muscles of pharynx and larynx, viscera of thorax and
X Vagus Jugular foramen
abdomen, sensory from larynx and trachea
XI Accessory Supplies sternocleidomastoid and trapezius muscles Jugular foramen
XII Hypoglossal Muscles of tongue Hypoglossal canal

Downloaded by Mustafa Dadah (mustafadadah111@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|4236305

Cranial Foramina

Ventricular System

Downloaded by Mustafa Dadah (mustafadadah111@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|4236305

Eye and Orbit

Eyeball

Retina

Cone cells are concentrated in the fovea; histologically, the ganglion and bipolar cells are absent to allow light
to travel unimpeded to the photoreceptor cells

Downloaded by Mustafa Dadah (mustafadadah111@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|4236305

Visual Pathway

Extraocular Muscles

Downloaded by Mustafa Dadah (mustafadadah111@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|4236305

Ear

The inner and middle ear occupy the petrous part of the temporal bone

 The ear ossicles transmit vibrations from the tympanic membrane, amplifying them by about 20 times
 The auditory tube enables equalisation of air pressure between the middle ear and external
environment

Downloaded by Mustafa Dadah (mustafadadah111@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|4236305

Inner Ear

Made up of the bony and membranous labyrinth

1. Bony labyrinth – Three semicircular canals, vestibule and cochlea

2. Membranous labyrinth – Three semicircular ducts, utricle, saccule and cochlear duct

Cochlea

Downloaded by Mustafa Dadah (mustafadadah111@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|4236305

Hearing Mechanism

Basilar membrane properties change along its length to detect different frequencies; gets smaller as it moves
away from the apex

Vestibular (Balance) Structures in the Ear

Receptors in semicircular ducts, utricle and saccule deal with balance; vestibular hair cells bend and are
direction-selective. Two structures: crista ampullaris (angular movement) and macula vestibuli (gravity and
linear acceleration)

Downloaded by Mustafa Dadah (mustafadadah111@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|4236305

Cardiovascular System
This is made up of the heart and blood vessels. If blood is included, it is the circulatory system which is split
into two major divisions:

1. Pulmonary circuit – Right side of heart carrying blood to lungs and back to heart
2. Systemic circuit – Left side supplying oxygenated blood to all tissues and back to heart

Heart

Topography

Note: The heart lies between the 2nd rib and 5th intercostal space

Pericardium and the Heart Wall

The heart is enclosed in a membranous sac called the pericardium. The pericardial cavity contains fluid

Downloaded by Mustafa Dadah (mustafadadah111@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|4236305

External Features

Along with the apex and base, there are three main surfaces

1. Anterior (sternocostal)
2. Inferior (diaphragmatic)
3. Later (pulmonary)

Internal Features

Downloaded by Mustafa Dadah (mustafadadah111@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|4236305

Blood Flow through the Heart

Note: Although the ventricles and atrium have equal volumes of blood, the atria are thin walled as they
deliver blood to adjacent ventricles only. Ventricles however supply blood to the lungs and body!

Coronary Circulation

These supply the heart muscles itself, with two arteries arising from the aorta above the aortic valve

Downloaded by Mustafa Dadah (mustafadadah111@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|4236305

Conduction System of the Heart

Generates and conducts electrical impulses needed for the rhythmic heart muscle contraction

Lub-dub – The first sound occurs as atrioventricular valves close, beginning a systole (ventricular contraction).
Second sound occurs when semilunar valves close at the beginning of ventricular diastole (ventricular filling)

Arterial Blood Supply

Head and Neck

Downloaded by Mustafa Dadah (mustafadadah111@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|4236305

Upper Limb

Abdomen and Pelvis

Downloaded by Mustafa Dadah (mustafadadah111@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|4236305

Lower Limb

Downloaded by Mustafa Dadah (mustafadadah111@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|4236305

Venous Drainage

Downloaded by Mustafa Dadah (mustafadadah111@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|4236305

Respiratory System
Nose

The nose is made of bone, hyaline cartilage and dense connective tissue. It functions to

 Conduct air
 Filter, warm and humidify the inspired air
 Provide a sense of smell

External Anatomy

Nasal Cavity

Olfactory epithelium in the nasal mucosa in the roof contain smell receptors. The rest, ciliated pseudostratified
columnar epithelium with goblet (mucus-producing) cells moisten the air.

Downloaded by Mustafa Dadah (mustafadadah111@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|4236305

Paranasal Sinuses

Pharynx

Larynx

Extends from back of tongue to top of trachea (CV3-6); primarily functions to stop food from entering
airways. Small muscles around the arytenoid cartilage make them pivot to produce sound

Downloaded by Mustafa Dadah (mustafadadah111@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|4236305

Thorax

Ribs and Thoracic Vertebrae

At costovertebral joints, the first 6 ribs can rotate (pump-handle) whereas 7-10 only allow for slight gliding
(bucket-handle). Both allow for elevation and depression of the ribs

Note: Costovertebral joints only allow for slight gliding

Articulations

Downloaded by Mustafa Dadah (mustafadadah111@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|4236305

Diaphragm

The volume of the chest cavity changes as a result of respiratory muscles;

the diaphragm accounts for 75% of inspiratory effort

 Contracts to increase vertical dimension

 Relaxes to decrease

Other muscles that help in forced (active) respiration are the pectoris major, serratus anterior and posterior,
rectus abdominis and intercostal muscles

Intercostal Muscles

Posterior internal intercostal muscles aid in depression of ribs, they contract to bring the ribs closer together

Downloaded by Mustafa Dadah (mustafadadah111@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|4236305

Lungs

The lungs are surrounded by pleura, thin tissue that secretes slippery fluid for surface tension. The visceral
pleura covers the lungs, and parietal pleura line the rib cage and upper surface of the diaphragm

A lobule is a lung compartment made of a single arteriole, venule and terminal bronchiole wrapped by elastic
connective tissue

Downloaded by Mustafa Dadah (mustafadadah111@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|4236305

Digestive System
The gastrointestinal tract (or alimentary canal) includes the mouth, pharynx, oesophagus, stomach and
intestines. They have 6 essential functions:

1. Ingestion 4. Chemical digestion

2. Propulsion (swallowing and peristalsis) 5. Absorption
3. Mechanic digestion (chewing, mixing, 6. Defecation
churning, segmentation)

Oral Cavity

Mouth

Salivary Glands

Saliva contains antibacterial agents and salivary amylase for starch breakdown. It also aids taste receptors
and speech. Salivation is stimulated by CN VI and CN IX

Downloaded by Mustafa Dadah (mustafadadah111@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|4236305

Tongue

Assists in speech; lingual glands produce lingual lipase. Intrinsic (longitudinal, transverse and vertical) and
extrinsic muscles alter the tongue’s shape and position

Teeth

There are two types of teeth: primary and permanent. Twenty deciduous teeth appear at 6 months; there are
32 permanent teeth

Downloaded by Mustafa Dadah (mustafadadah111@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|4236305

Abdominal Cavity

Contains and protects the abdominal viscera

Peritoneum

A serous epithelial membrane that covers the abdominal cavity and organs

Downloaded by Mustafa Dadah (mustafadadah111@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|4236305

Gastrointestinal Viscera

Oesophagus (C6-T10) 25-30 cm

Involved in food transportation and peristalsis; lined with stratified squamous epithelium. Made of the
cervical, thoracic and abdominal parts

When Things go Wrong

 Histal hernia – Stomach protrudes above diaphragm
 Gastro-oesophageal reflux or ‘heartburn’ – Relaxes sphincters allow stomach acids to enter
 Achalasia – When the sphincter does not relax enough to allow food bolus’ to pass through; causes
pain and weight loss

Stomach 15-25cm

Absorbs soluble substances e.g. alcohol and aspirin. Also produces intrinsic factor for vitamin B12 absorption

Peptic ulcers can form due to an imbalance between stomach acid and lining. Stomach cancer is the most
common lethal cancer

Downloaded by Mustafa Dadah (mustafadadah111@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|4236305

Liver, Pancreas and Gall Bladder

 Liver − Synthesises bile and processes drugs/hormones

 Pancreas − Produces digestive juice (exocrine) and hormones e.g. glucagon, insulin (endocrine)
 Gall bladder − Stores and concentrates bile; emulsifies fats and enhances absorption

Small Intestines

Downloaded by Mustafa Dadah (mustafadadah111@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|4236305

Large Intestines

Blood Supply

Downloaded by Mustafa Dadah (mustafadadah111@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|4236305

Urinary and Reproductive Systems

Associated Cavities

Pelvic Diaphragm

A muscular funnel in the centre of the anal canal, urethra and vagina; positions and
supports these viscera

Perineum

Diamond-shaped area between thighs containing external genitalia

Urinary System

Functions to excrete wastes and regulate ionic composition, blood pH, volume and pressure

Kidneys

Downloaded by Mustafa Dadah (mustafadadah111@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|4236305

Ureters

Contains smooth muscle (peristalsis) and has 3 parts: abdominal, pelvis and intramural

Bladder

Muscular organ with a capacity of 800mL; lines with transitional epithelium to easily stretch

Downloaded by Mustafa Dadah (mustafadadah111@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|4236305

Male Reproductive System

Testes

 Covered by the scrotum, which is loose skin, connective tissue fascia and smooth muscle
 Cremaster muscle elevates testes when cold
 Epidydymis stores sperm for 1-2 months; propels sperm via smooth muscle

The ductus deferens and duct of seminal vesicles join to merge into the ejaculatory duct

Downloaded by Mustafa Dadah (mustafadadah111@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|4236305

Penis

Female Reproductive System

Uterus

Consists of 3 layers: the endometrium (functional and basal), myometrium and perimetrium

After the sperm cell reaches the oocyte in the ampulla, implantation in the uterus occurs after 6 days

Ovaries

Downloaded by Mustafa Dadah (mustafadadah111@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|4236305

Vagina 7-8 cm

Vulva

Note: During pregnancy, oestrogen, progesterone and prolactin cause glandular tissue in the breast to
produce milk

Downloaded by Mustafa Dadah (mustafadadah111@gmail.com)