Summary Muscles and Muscle Tissue Ch9

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Summary - Muscles and Muscle Tissue (Ch9).pdf
Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology I (University of Wollongong)
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CH 9 MUSCLES AND MUSCLE TISSUE

MUSCLE TISSUES

Skeletal muscle tissue:
• Attached to bones and skin
• Striated (have obvious stripes called striations)
• Voluntary (conscious control)
• Powerful

Cardiac muscles tissue:
• Only in the heart
• Striated
• Involuntary

Smooth muscle tissue:
• In the walls of hollow organs (eg. stomach, urinary bladder, airways)
• Not striated
• Involuntary

SHS111 Anatomy & Physiology I -‐ 1

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Special Characteristics of Muscle Tissue:

• Excitability (responsiveness or irritability) – ability to receive and respond to stimuli
• Contractibility – ability to shorten when stimulated
• Extensibility – ability to be stretched
• Elasticity – ability to recoil to resting length

Muscle Functions:
1. Producing movement: of bones or fluids (eg. blood)
2. Maintaining posture and body position
3. Stabilizing joints
4. Generating heat (especially skeletal muscles -‐ important for maintaining normal body temperature)

Other functions: protection (skeletal muscles), regulate the passage of substances through internal body openings (smooth
muscles)

SKELETAL MUSCLE

GROSS ANATOMY
• Each muscle is served by one artery, one nerve and one or more veins
• Can only contract in the presence of nerve stimulation (nerve ending controls its activity)
• Rich blood supply (use huge amounts of energy and require continuous delivery of oxygen and nutrients via the
arteries)
• Connective tissue sheaths:
-‐ Epimysium – dense regular connective tissue surrounding entire muscle
-‐ Perimysium – fibrous connective tissue surrounding fascicles (groups of muscle fibres)
-‐ Endomysium – fine areolar connective tissue surrounding each muscle fibre
-‐

• Muscle attachments:
-‐ Direct – epimysium of muscle is fused to the periosteum of bone or perichondrium of cartilage
-‐ Indirect – connective tissue wrappings extend beyond the muscle as a ropelike tendon or sheetlike
aponeurosis


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MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY
• Cylindrical cell 10 to 100 µm in diameter, up to 30cm in length
• Multiple oval nuclei just beneath its sarcolemma (plasma membrane)
• Many mitochondria
• Sarcoplasm (cytoplasm of a muscle cell) – contains glycosomes for glycogen storage, myoglobin for O2 storage
• Contain many myofibrils, sarcoplasmic reticulum, and T tubules

è Myofibrils
-‐ Densely packed, rodlike elements
-‐ ~80% of cell volume
-‐ Exhibit striations: perfectly aligned repeating series of dark A bands (myosin) and light I bands (actin)
-‐ Contain the contractile elements of skeletal muscle cells

è Sarcomere
-‐ Smallest contractile unit (functional unit) of a muscle fibre
-‐ The region of a myofibril between two successive Z discs
-‐ Composed of thick and thin myofilaments made of contractile proteins (actin and myosin)
Features of a sarcomere:
-‐ Thick filaments: run the entire length of the A band
-‐ Thin filaments: run the length of the I band and partway into the A band
-‐ Z disc: coin-‐shaped sheet of proteins that anchors the thin filaments and connects myofibrils to one
another
-‐ H-‐zone: lighter midregion where filaments do not overlap
-‐ M line: line of protein myomesin that holds adjacent thick filaments together

è Thick filament – myosin
-‐ Each myosin molecule consists of two heavy and four light polypeptide chains
Rodlike tail:
-‐ contains 2 intertwined helical polypeptide heavy chains
Two globular heads:
-‐ contain 2 light polypeptide chains each
-‐ binding site for actin and ATP
-‐ During contraction the heads link the thick and thin filaments together, forming cross bridges
-‐ ATPase enzymes (split ATP to generate energy for muscle filaments)

è Thin filaments – actin
-‐ Twisted double strand of fibrous protein F actin
-‐ F actin consists of G (globular) actin subunits
-‐ G actin bears active sites for myosin head attachment during contraction
-‐ Tropomyosin and troponin: regulatory
proteins bound to actin (block
interaction between actin and myosin,
allowing muscle to relax)


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è Elastic filament
-‐ Composed of the giant protein titan (extends from the Z disc to the thick filament and then runs
within the thick filament, forming its core, to attach to the M line)
-‐ Holds the thick filaments in place
-‐ Helps muscel cell to spring back into shape after being stretched

Skeletal muscle fibres contain two sets of intracellular tubules that participate in regulation of muscle contraction: the
sarcoplasmic reticulum and the T tubules.

è Sarcoplasmic reticulum
-‐ Network of smooth endoplasmic reticulum surrounding each myofibril
-‐ Pairs of terminal cisternae form perpendicular cross channels
2+
-‐ Main function is the regulation of intracellular Ca levels

è T tubules
-‐ Continuous with the sarcolemma (plasma membrane)
-‐ Penetrate the cell’s interior at each A band-‐I band junction
-‐ Associate with the paired terminal cisternae to form triads that encircle each sarcomere

Triad Relationships (SR and T tubules):
-‐ SR and T tubules come into closest contact in the triads
-‐ T tubules conduct impulses deep into muscle fibre
-‐ Integral proteins of the T tubule protrude into the intermembrane space and SR cisternae membranes
-‐ T tubule proteins: voltage sensors
2+
-‐ SR foot proteins: gated channels that regulate Ca release from the SR cisternae

CONTRACTION
• Contraction: the activation of myosin’s cross bridges, which are the force-‐generating sites
• The generation of force
• does not necessarily cause shortening of the fibre – shortening occurs when tension generated by cross bridges on
the thin filaments exceeds forces opposing shortening

SLIDING FILAMENT MODEL OF CONTRACTION
• in the relaxed state – thin and thick filaments overlap slightly
• during contraction – myosin heads bind to actin, detach, and bind again, to propel the thin filaments toward the M
line (thick filaments do not move) à when this event occurs simultaneously in sarcomeres throughout the cell, the
muscle cell shortens

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• as the muscle shortens – H zones disappear, I bands shorten, distance between successive Z discs is reduced, A
bands move closer together but do not change length (A band does not change length because thick filaments do
not change length)

PHYSIOLOGY OF SKELETAL MUSCLE FIBRES

Requirements for Skeletal Muscle Contraction:
• activation: neural stimulation at a neuromuscular junction
• excitation-‐contraction coupling:
-‐ generation and propagation of an action potential
along the sarcolemma (plasma membrane)
2+
-‐ final trigger: a brief rise in intracellular Ca levels
(regulatory signals

Step 1 = the activation step – occurs at the neuromuscular junction and sets
the stage for the events to follow
Step 2 and 3 = link the electrical signal to contraction (excitation-‐contraction
coupling)

Events at the Neuromuscular Junction:
• the nerve cells that activate skeletal muscle fibres are called
somatic motor neurons
• axons (long threadlike extensions of motor neurons) travel from
the CNS via nerves to skeletal muscles
• each axon forms several branches as it enters a muscle
• each axon ending forms a neuromuscular junction with a single
muscle fibre


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• each muscle fibre has only one neuromuscular junction, located midway along its length
• axon terminal and muscle fiber are extremely close -‐ axon terminal and muscle fibre are separated by a gel-‐filled
space called the synaptic cleft
• synaptic vesicles in the axon terminal contain the neurotransmitter acetylcholine (ACh)
• junctional folds of sarcolemma – provide a large surface area for the millions of ACh receptors located there
• SO: neuromuscular junction includes – axonal endings, synaptic cleft, junctional folds

BASIC EXPLANATION – How does a motor neuron stimulate a skeletal muscle fiber?
When a nerve impulse reaches the end of an axon, the axon terminal releases ACh into the synaptic cleft. ACh diffuses
across the cleft and attaches to ACh receptors on the sarcolemma of the muscle fiber, which triggers electrical events
that ultimately cause action potential generation.


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Destruction of Acetylcholine:

• ACh affects are quickly terminated by the enzyme achetycholinestrerase
• Prevents continued muscle fiber contraction in the absence of additional stimulation
• Clears space for more messages

Generation of an Action Potential Across the Sarcolemma:
• A resting sarcolemma is polarized – there is a potential difference across the membrane and inside is negative
relative to the outer membrane face (resting membrane potential)
• The action potential is the result of a predictable sequence of electrical changes that once initiated occurs along
the entire surface of the sarcolemma
• Three steps are involved:

1. Local depolarization (end plate potential)
• ACh binding to receptors opens chemically (ligand) gated ion channels
+ +
• Simultaneous diffusion of Na (inward) and K (outward)
+ +
• More Na diffuses in than K diffuses out, a change in membrane potential occurs and the interior of the
sarcolemma becomes less negative à an event called depolarization (end plate potential)

2. Generation and propagation of an action potential
• End plate potential spreads to adjacent membrane areas
+
• Voltage-‐gated Na channels open
• Na+ influx decreases the membrane voltage. Once a certain membrane voltage, referred to as threshold, is
reached, an action potential is generated
• Action potential is propagated (moves along the sarcolemma) as the local depolarization wave spreads to adjacent
areas of the sarcolemma and opens voltage-‐gated sodium channels there

3. Repolarization
+ +
• Na channels close and voltage-‐gated K channels open
+
• K efflux rapidly restores the resting polarity
• The cell cannot be stimulated again until repolarization is complete – it is in the refractory period
+ +
• Ionic conditions of the resting state are restored by the Na -‐K pump
+ +
• SO: repolarization restores the electrical conditions of the resting state and Na -‐K pump restores the ionic
conditions of the resting state

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Excitation-‐Contraction (E-‐C) Coupling:

• Sequence of events by which transmission of an action potential along the sarcolemma leads to sliding of the
myofilaments
• Events of E-‐C coupling occur during the latent period, between action potential initiation and the beginning of
mechanical activity
1. AP is generated propagated along sarcomere to T tubules
2+
2. Voltage-‐sensitive proteins stimulate Ca release from sarcoplasmic reticulum
2+
NOTE: Ca is necessary for contraction
3. Calcium binds to troponin and removes the blocking action of tropomyosin (binding sites for myosin are now
exposed)
4. Contraction begins (myosin binds to actin forming cross bridges and contraction begins)


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Role of Calcium in Contraction:

2+
• At low intracellular Ca concentration:
-‐ Tropomyosin blocks active sites on actin
-‐ Myosin heads cannot attach to actin
-‐ Muscle fiber relaxes
2+
• At higher intracellular Ca concentrations:
2+
-‐ Ca binds to troponin
-‐ Troponin changes shape and moves tropomyosin away from active sites
-‐ Events of the cross bridge cycle occur
2+
-‐ When nervous stimulation ceases, Ca is pumped back into the SR and contraction ends

Cross bridge cycle:
• A troponin must bind two calcium ions, change shape, and roll tropomyosin into the groove of the actin helix,
exposing the myosin-‐binding sites
• Once binding sites are exposed, the events of the cross bridge cycle occur in rapid succession
• Continues as along as calcium signal and adequate ATP are present
• Cross bridge formation is the attachment of myosin heads to actin
• Working (power) stroke – myosin head pivots and pulls thin filament toward M line
• ‘cocking’ of the myosin head – energy from hydrolysis of ATP cocks the myosin head into the high-‐energy state
• Cross bridge detachment – ATP attaches to myosin head and the cross bridge detaches


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Energy (ATP) needs to be available to allow cross bridge cycle to repeat.

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CONTRACTION OF A SKELETAL MUSCLE

Principles of Muscle Mechanics:
• Same principles apply to contraction of a single fiber to a whole muscle
• Contraction produces tension, the force exerted on the load or object to be moved
• Contraction does not always shorten a muscle:
-‐ Isometric contraction – no shortening, muscle tension increases but muscle does not change length
-‐ Isotonic contraction (either eccentric or concentric) – muscle shortens because muscle tension
exceeds load
• Force and duration of contraction vary in response to stimuli of different frequencies and intensities

The Motor Unit: The Nerve-‐Muscle Functional Unit:
• Motor unit = a motor neuron and all (four to several hundred) muscle fibers it supplies
• When a motor neuron fires all the muscle fibers it innervates contract
• Muscles exerting fine control have small motor units
• Muscles exerting less precise movements have large motor units
• Muscle fibers from a motor unit aren’t clustered together. They are spread throughout the muscle so that a single
motor unit causes weak contraction of the entire muscle
• Motor units in a muscle usually contract asynchronously – helps prevent fatigue


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Muscle Twitch:
• Response of a muscle to a single action potential of its motor
neuron (muscle fibers contract quickly then relax)
• Simplest contraction observable in the lab (recorded as a
myogram)
• Three distinct phases:
-‐ Latent period: events of excitation-‐contraction
coupling
-‐ Period of contraction: cross bridging formation;
tension increase
2+
-‐ Period of relaxation: Ca re-‐entry in the SR;
tension declines to zero

• Muscle twitch comparisons:
-‐ Different strength and duration of twitches are due
to variations in metabolic properties and enzymes
between muscles
-‐ Example: twitch contractions of muscles
controlling the eye are rapid and brief
Twitch contractions of the calf
muscles are slow and long

Graded Muscle Responses:
• Variations in the degree of muscle contraction
• Required for proper control of skeletal movement
• Healthy muscle contractions are relatively smooth and vary in
strength as different demands are placed upon them
• Muscle contractions can be graded in two ways:
1. By changing the frequency of stimulation
2. By changing the strength of stimulation

è Muscle response to change in stimulus frequency
-‐ A single stimulus results in a single contractile
response – a muscle twitch
-‐ Increase frequency of stimulus (muscle does not
have time to completely relax between stimuli)
-‐ temporal (wave) summation: If two identical stimuli
are delivered in rapid succession, the second twitch
will be stronger than the first
-‐ Temporal summation occurs because the second
contraction occurs before the muscle has
completely relaxed
-‐ More Ca2+ is released to replace that being
reclaimed by the SR so the muscle tension produced
during the second contraction causes more
shortening than the first
-‐ BUT: the refractory period will always occur. If the
second stimulus is delivered before repolarization is
complete, no wave summation occurs)
-‐ unfused (incomplete) tetanus: If the muscle is
stimulated at an increasingly faster rate, the
relaxation time between the twitches becomes
shorter and shorter, the concentration of calcium
becomes high and higher, the degree of wave
summation greater and greater

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-‐ progresses to a sustained but quivering contraction called

-‐ fused (complete) tetanus: If stimulation frequency increases further, muscle tension increases until
maximal tension is reached –there is no muscle relaxation and the contractions fuse into a smooth,
sustained contraction plateau called (this type of contraction happens infrequently, for example
when someone shows superhuman strength)
-‐ Prolonged tetanus leads to muscle fatigue

è Response to changes in stimulus strength
-‐ Threshold stimulus (3 in picture): stimulus strength at
which the first observable muscle contraction occurs
-‐ Muscle contracts more vigorously as stimulus strength
is increased above threshold
-‐ Contraction force is precisely controlled by
recruitment (multiple motor unit summation), which
brings more and more muscle fibres into action
-‐ Maximal stimulus (7 in picture) – the strongest
stimulus that produces increased contractile force.
Represents the point at which all the muscle’s motor
units are recruited (increasing stimulus intensity
beyond the maximal stimulus does not induce a
stronger contraction
-‐ Size principle: motor units with larger and larger
fibers are recruited as stimulus intensity increase.
Motor units with the smallest muscle fibers (which are
controlled by small, highly excitable motor neurons)
are recruited first (the largest motor units have as
much as 50 times the contractile force of the smallest
ones)
-‐ Size principle is important because it allows the
increase in force during weak contractions (for
example, maintain posture) to occur in small steps

All motor units may be recruited simultaneously to produce an exceptionally strong contraction, motor units are more
commonly activated asynchronously (some are in tetanus and some are recovering) à this prolongs a strong contraction by
preventing or delaying fatigue

Muscle tone:
• Constant, slightly contracted state of all muscles
• Due to spinal reflexes that activate groups of motor units alternately in response to input from stretch receptors in
muscles
• Does not produce active movements but keeps the muscles firm, healthy, and ready to respond to stimulation
(also helps stabilize joints and maintain posture

Isotonic contractions:
• Muscle changes in length and moves the load
• Either concentric or eccentric:

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-‐ Concentric contractions: the muscle shortens and does work

-‐ Eccentric contractions: the muscle contracts as it lengthens

Isometric contractions:
• Tension increases to the muscle’s capacity
• The muscle neither shortens nor lengthens
• Occur when a muscle attempts to move a load that is greater than the force (tension) the muscle is able to develop
• Occur when muscles are maintaining posture or holding joints in stationary positions
(See figure 9.18 pg 297)

MUSCLE METABOLISM

Providing energy for contraction:
• ATP is the only source used directly for contractile activities
• Available stores of ATP are depleted in 4-‐6 seconds
• ATP is regenerated by:

Further info:

è ATP-‐PC system (direct phosphorylation of ADP by CP)
-‐ There is two or three times as much CP as ATP in a muscle cell
-‐ Enzyme used: creatine kinase
-‐ Together, stored ATP and CP provide for maximum muscle power for 14-‐16 seconds

è Anaerobic pathway (glycolysis)
-‐ At about 70% of maximum contractile activity, the bulging muscles compress blood vessels
-‐ Oxygen delivery is impaired (therefore anaerobic glycolysis occurs)
-‐ Pyruvic acid is converted into lactic acid (diffuses into the bloodstream and either used by the liver,
kidneys and heart or converted back into pyruvic acid or glucose in the liver)

è Aerobic respiration
-‐ Produces 95% of ATP during rest and light to moderate exercise
-‐ Fuels: stored glycogen, then bloodborne glucose, pyruvic acid from glycolysis, and free fatty acids
-‐ Occurs in the mitochondria
-‐ Requires oxygen

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-‐ Involves a sequence of chemical reactions in which the bonds of fuel molecules are broken and the
energy released is used to make ATO
-‐ Glucose + oxygen à carbon dioxide + water + ATP

FORCE OF MUSCLE CONTRACTION

The force of muscle contraction is affected by:
• The number of muscle fibers stimulated (recruitment)
– the more motor units that are recruited, the greater
the muscle force
• The relative size of the fibers – hypertrophy of cells
increase strength
• The frequency of stimulation – increased frequency
allows time for more effective transfer of tension to
noncontractile components (connective tissue
sheaths)
• The degree of muscle stretch – muscles contract more
strongly when muscle fibers are 80-‐120% of their
normal resting length

VELOCITY AND DURATION OF CONTRACTION

Influenced by:
• Muscle fiber type
• Load
• Recruitment

è Muscle fiber type
§ Classified according to two characteristics:
1. Speed of contraction: slow or fast
> According to speed at which myosin ATPases split ATP
> Pattern of electrical activity of the motor neurons
2. Metabolic pathways for ATP synthesis

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> Oxidative fibers – use aerobic pathways

> Glycolytic fibers – use anaerobic pathways

§ Three types:
-‐ Slow oxidative fibers
-‐ Fast oxidative fibers
-‐ Fast Glycolytic fibers

Influence of load:
↑ Load -‐ ↑ latent period, ↓ contraction, ↓ duration of contraction

Influence of recruitment:
Recruitment – faster contraction and ↑ duration of contraction

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Summary - Muscles and Muscle Tissue (Ch9).pdf

Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology I (University of Wollongong)

StuDocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university

CH 9 MUSCLES AND MUSCLE TISSUE

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SHS111 Anatomy & Physiology I -­‐ 2

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Special Characteristics of Muscle Tissue:

SHS111 Anatomy & Physiology I -­‐ 3

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SHS111 Anatomy & Physiology I -­‐ 4

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SHS111 Anatomy & Physiology I -­‐ 5

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SHS111 Anatomy & Physiology I -­‐ 6

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SHS111 Anatomy & Physiology I -­‐ 9

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Destruction of Acetylcholine:

SHS111 Anatomy & Physiology I -­‐ 10

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SHS111 Anatomy & Physiology I -­‐ 11

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Excitation-­‐Contraction (E-­‐C) Coupling:

SHS111 Anatomy & Physiology I -­‐ 12

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SHS111 Anatomy & Physiology I -­‐ 13

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Role of Calcium in Contraction:

SHS111 Anatomy & Physiology I -­‐ 14

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SHS111 Anatomy & Physiology I -­‐ 15

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CONTRACTION OF A SKELETAL MUSCLE

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SHS111 Anatomy & Physiology I -­‐ 17

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-­‐ progresses to a sustained but quivering contraction called

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-­‐ Concentric contractions: the muscle shortens and does work

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SHS111 Anatomy & Physiology I -­‐ 20

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> Oxidative fibers – use aerobic pathways

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Excitation-‐Contraction (E-‐C) Coupling:

SHS111 Anatomy & Physiology I -‐ 12

SHS111 Anatomy & Physiology I -‐ 13

SHS111 Anatomy & Physiology I -‐ 14

SHS111 Anatomy & Physiology I -‐ 15

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-‐ progresses to a sustained but quivering contraction called

-‐ Concentric contractions: the muscle shortens and does work

SHS111 Anatomy & Physiology I -‐ 20