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Mineral resource potential of the Himalaya, Karakoram and Hindu Kush

mountains, northern Pakistan

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 tr'
f

lUlan,

Mountain

and

Medicine

2nd Volume 2OO2

Pakistan Heart Foundatiow

. www.phf.sdnpk.org

g{ur{i. $.- PF',5$.''$:

Foreword
It is an honour for me to have been invited to write a
Foreword for the Second Volume of the book: Man,
Mountain and Medicine by Dr. Muhammad Ilyas.

The book _represents the considerable effort of a large

number of international collaborators to cover subjeds
from Human geography and Anthropology to Medical
Pathology and Public Health of the high-altitude
populations and High Altitude Physiology from Pakistan,
China, Kyrgyzstan, Japan, U.K. and India.

This book will contribute to the necessary knowledge of

the fundamental contributions of the Pakistani
investigators to the field of high altitude, and to global
understanding on current aspects of mountain sickness.
In the recent Third World Congress on Mountain
Medicine and High Altitude Physiology in Matsumoto,
Japan (1998), a commission was established to co-
ordinate the medical and physiological studies carried
out in countries with significant high altitude
populations. It was felt that one of the problems to
accomplish this goal was the lack of information coming
from countries less known by the international scientifiL
community because they were not able to publish their
contributions in the current scientific journals. This book
is an example of an admirable effort to make Pakistan
known to the international high altitude medical and
physiological community and will serve as a stimulus to
other countries to embark in a similar effort.
I wish to congratulate Dr. Ilyas for completing the
Second Volumebf Man Mountain and Medicine.

Prof. Carlos C. Monge

Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia
Lima
Peru
Prsface

Pakistan is located on the welding scenario of the Asian

mounlain mass. WRh merging of the Himalaya, Karakoram
and Hindukush, it has some ol the highest peaks in the world
including K2, Masherbrum and Nanga Parbat, and some of
the largest glaciers including Siachin, Baltoro and Bhatura.
The Karakoram wilh 60 peaks over 6000 m" lruly forms the
'Roof of the World'.

The First Volume of the monograph Mar, Mountain and

Medicine was published during 1986. lt contains Chapters on
Human Geography and Anthropology, Cardiovascular
Aspects and Respiratory-Renal-Blood Aspects.

This Second Volume includes information on mountain

medicine by contributors from China, lndia, Japan,
Kyrgyzstan, Pakistan and U.K. lt includes Chapters on
Highlands, Highlanders' Health and Mountain Sickness:
Acute and Chronic.

Geo-strategically the researchers in Pakistan pc5tentially have

an obligatory melting pot for highlanders' health and high
altitude medicine. Man, Mountain and Medicine monograph is
a small beginning towards an international collaboration in
the field of mountain medicine.

Dr. Muhammad Ilyas

D.r. Farakh A. Khan
April2. 2002
 Contents
l. Highlands
A. Ghitrat

1. Chitral Muhammad llyas 1

2 Mastuj Saadia llyas 6
3 The Kafir Kalash of the Hindukush Maureen P. Lines 10
4 The Kalash Valley Muzaffar Khattak 13
5 The Life of Kalash Shagufta Yousaf 15
6 The Kohs of Chitral Tayyab Hussain 20
7 The Khot Camp Abdul Latif Matik 31
8 Khot Muhammad llyas 33
9 Paur Muhammad llyas 36
10 Shandur Kausar llyas 38
11 Unprepared on the Hindukush lqbalShaheen 41

B. Northern Areas
12 Gilgit and Baltistan: lnternational A. H. Dani
Perspective
13 Astor: A Twilight journey Muhammad llyas 47
14 Astor: Population and health service Javed Ahmad 51
15 The Deosai plains Farakh A. Khan 54
16 Ghizer, lshkuman and yasin Valleys Shabnam llyas 56
17 Misgar Revisited Saadia llyas 59
18 Mountain Lakes and passes Kausar llyas '64
19 Tangir-Borne Free Saadia llyas 74

C. Other Regions
20 Gabral and Kalam Hajira llyas 76
21 Tierrah Akbar Afridi 80
22 Mountain research in the Karakoram Muhammad Said 83
23 Minerals resources in the Himalaya, M. Tahir Shah 88
Karakoram,
and Hindu Kush Mountains

ll. Highlanders' Health

24 Research Expedition to Hunza, Ryohei Hori 103
Karakbram 1992
25 Health profile of the highlanders of Muhammad llyas 107
Pakistan
26 PhysicalAnthropology in Kalash and Hajira llyas 112
Khot
27 School Survey in Khot and Kalash Saadia llyas 115
28 Blood pressure observations in Khot and Hajira llyas 119
Kalash
29 Electrocardiographic survey in Khot and Saadia llyas 121
Kalash
30 Responses in hypertensive subjects S. Amjad Hameed 124
31 The story of goiteristan Sardar ul Mulk 128
32 Goiter Explosion in Sadukhail Saadia llyas 131
33 Serum lipids in Chapursan, Khot and Saadia llyas 134
Kalash
34 Antihypertensive activity of high altitude Muhammad Aslam 136
plants
35 lmmunological studies at high altitude Usha Datta
143
36 Hemorrheological studies in Lhasa Shu-Xuan Pei
146
37 Hemopoeisis in aplastic anemia at A.R. Raimanjov 149
3200m.
38 Health Care at Kumtor mine site A.A Ashirbaev 159
39 Mastuj Health Project (MHP) Muhammad llyas 163
40 Lady Paramedic (LPM) -A new cadre Muhammad llyas 170
41 Mountain Medicine Markaz Muhammad llyas 173

lll. Mountain Sickness

A. Acute Mountain Sickness

42 High altitude pulmonary edema in the T.Y. Wu 177
Tibetans
43 Acute Mountain Sickness Muhammad llyas 182
44 Deacclimatization after high-altitude Shigeo Mori 188
expedition:
45 The Kidney at high altitude Farakh A. khan 195
46 Renal responses at high altitude lsakhan 206
47 Clinical responses at high altitude Sardar H. Javed 214
48 Blood pressure response at high altitude Junaid H. Khan 227

; B. Ghronic Mountain Sickness

49 Clinical aspects of chronic mountain Shu-Xuan Pei 234
sickness
50 Social aspects of chronic mountain Elizabeth Harris 238
sickness
51 Cardio-respiratory aspects of mountain lnder singh 240
sickness
52 Subacute lnfantile Mountain Sickness Donald Heath 245
53 The diagnostic question of chronic Tian-YiWu 248
mountain sickness
 Mineral Resource Potential of the Himalaya, Karakoram and Hindu Kush
Mountains, Northern Pakistanr

M. Tahir Shah & M. Qasim Jan

Summary

A spectacular chain of high mountains of Himalayas, Karakoram and Hindu

Kush, within the northern Pakistan, is the manifestation of collision of lndian
and Karakoram (Asian) plates. These mountains, hosting spectacular peaks,
glaciers and gorges, have been playing an important role in the socio-economic
development of Pakistan. The geologic environment of this region has high
potential for the formation of various types of metallic and non-metallic mineral
deposits. Some of these deposits have been explored and are being utilized for
the benefit of mankind. Five mineralogenic / tectonostratigraphic zones have
been established on the basis of tectonic environments of the region. These
zones are characterized by several metallic mineral deposits (i.e., antimony,
chromite, copper, gold, silver, iron, lead, zinc, manganese and radioactive
minerals), non-metallic mineral deposits (i.e., asbestos, barite, kaoline, feldspar,
fluorite, graphite, limestone, magnesite, mica, nepheline syenite, quartz crystals,
rock phosphate, soapstone and talc), decorative stones and gemstones (i.e.,
emerald, ruby, sapphire, peridote, aquamarine, tourmaline and epidote etc.).
Most parts of the region are still geologically unexptored and need to be
investigated for the hidden mineral wealth.

lntroduction

The mountain ranges of northern Pakistan have become a most fascinating

region for geological research during the past two decades. These ranges
comprise of majestic mountains of Himalaya, Karakoram and Hindu Kush
(Fig.1). These spectacular mountains have some of the highest peaks of the
world, such as K2, Nanga Parbat, Broad Peak, and Gasherbrum. some of the
longest glaciers (i.e., siachin, Biofo, Baltoro and Hispar)'and deepest lndus
gorges are the important features of this region which is most glaciated out side
the polar region.

Among the five discrete orographic zones of Pakistan (Kazmi and Jan 1gg7),
two zones, the Karakoram and the Higher Himalayas, and the lesser Himalayas
and subsidiary ranges, are lying in the northern Pakistan. The Karakoram and
the Higher Himalayas have the highest mountain ranges, which provide a
climatic divide between the lndian subcontinent and the centralAsia. These
mountain ranges are further grouped into (a) the Karakoram-Hindu Kush arc,
(b) the Koh-i-Ghizer and Ladakh-Deosai Range, (c) the High Himalayas and (d)
the lndus Kohistan, swat and Dir ranges (Kazmi and Jan 1gg7). The
Karakoram-Hindu Kush arc is an east-west arcuate belt extending from Ladakh
to Chitral and beyond in the northern-most part of Pakistan.

I
Publrtshed: Man, Mountain and Medrcinq Volume II, Pakistan lleart Foundation, 2002
88
 CENTRAL PAMIB

surrri rTrd*rgan
frrrrrr'Prhrn Trrlm Brrh
PAMIN
WHAKAN

Xun.Lun

Pi3r
Olrq'trng
l/llmoplrtr

K?*o.rm
, Prss

1F
c

/rr" ,nc
\?
(-$ s-. t\?, \9

MMT * Main Mantle Thrust MKT = Main Karakorum Th.ust NP * Nangs Parbtt

Fig.61. Tetonic map of Northern Pakistan and surrounding area.

(from Zanchi and Gaetani 1994)

Three enechelon, relatively narrow and less elevated mountain ranges of Koh-i-
Ghizer and Ladakh-Deosai mountain are lying between the Karakoram and the
Higher Himalayas. Relatively wide and high mountains of Higher Himalayas are
extending eastward from the lndus gorge in Pakistan to Brahmaputra gorge in
Asam. Three north-south trending mountain ranges of the lndus Kohistan-
Swat-Dir are separated by lndus, Swat, Panjkora, Darosh and Chitral rivers,
west of Nanga Parbat (Fig.61).

These mountains play an important role in the overall prospecting of Pakistan,

and the resources obtained through this region are extensively used for the
benefit of mankind. These mountains provide water resources, mainly through
lndus, Swat and Kabul rivers, for the agdculture industry and hydroelectric
power generation, the mineral resources for the industrial growth, and wood for
construction and fuel purposes. The nature has endowed many other benefits
for mankind in these mountains, which are yet to be explored fully. There is
tremendous potential for tourism, fisheries, medicinal plants, and mineral water.

This paper present review of the geneial geology with emphasis on the known
mineral resources (both metallic and non-metallic) of this remote and partly
explored part of Pakistan.

89
Plate tectonics and general geology of the region

Recent developments in plate tectonics have revealed many facts regarding the
development of the mountain ranges in the northern part of Pakistan. ln
essence, plate tectonics theory suggests that the earth crust and upper most
mantles consist of thick, rigid continental and thinner oceanic fragments or
plates that are in motion relative to each other, generally at rates of urp to 10 cm
per year. New oceanic crust is created at mid-ocean ridges (the boundaries
between plates which are moving apart) and is consumed in subduction zone
(the zone where one plate subduct underneath the other). The tectonic models
proposed for the development of northwestern Himalayas suggest that these
mountains grew due to crustal shortening (and thickening) because of collision
of the Asian and lndian continental plates. lnitial separation of the lndian plate
from the Gondwana land (southern super continent) took place at about 120
million years ago (Powell, 1979). lts rapid movement relative to Australia /
Antarctica with an average rate of 1Scm I year occurred within 80 to 53 million
years (Powell, 1979) until it collided with Eurasia during the Early Tertiary
(LeFort, 1975; Molnar&Tapponnier, 1977; Powell, 1979; Klootwijketal., 1992).
ln NW Himalaya an island arc, such as the present day Japanese arc, was
sandwiched between the colliding continents. The collision boundary of this arc
with Asia is termed the Main Karakoram Thrust (MKT) or Shyok (or northern)
suture and that with lndia as the Main Mantle Thrust (MMT) or lndus suture.
These sutures have played an important role in the geology of northern
Pakistan. Both these faults have great tectonic significance and brought
together diverse lithologies. The traces of these faults, in many places, are
characterized by a chaotic mixtures of crustal rocks, with or without mantle-
derived ultramafic blocks, produced due to dismemberment, shearing and
mixing in a major fault zone.
The assemblages of rocks to the south of MMT are included in Lesser
Himalayas and are mainly comprised of Precambrian to Cambrian basement
and Paleozoic to Mesozoic and Tertiary cover. The rock assemblages north of
the Northern or Shyok suture are part of the Karakoram and Hindu Kush
mountain ranges. These are mainly comprised of various types of
metasediments such as carbonates, quartizites, shales, slates and schists of
Paleozoic to Mesozoic age. These metasediments are intruded by granitic and
granodioritic plutons of Cretaceous to Tertiary age. The rock assemblages in
between these two major faults constitute the Kohistan-Ladakh island arc which
has been dissected by the Nanga Parbat Haramosh dome (Zeitler, 1985)
(Fig.1). This represents a cross section through an intra-ocianic island arc
sequence which developed due to northward subduction of Neotethyan oceanic
lithosphere during some 130 to 65 million years ago (Honegger et al., 1982',
Tahirkheli et al. 1979; Searle et al. 1987). This arc rTrainly comprises a diverse
suite of volcanic, plutonic, and subordinate sedimentary rocks which are
variably deformed and metamorphosed (for detail geology of the area see
Powell, 1979; Searle, 1983; Tahirkheli, 1983; Petterson and Windley 1985;
Pudsey et al., 1985; Pudsey 1986; Searle et at. 1987; Tremor et al. 1989;
'Klootwijk et al. 1992; Kazmiand Jan 1997).
Mineral deposits, their concentration and plate tectonic

The term mineral deposit can be defined as the natural accumulation of useful
mineral materials in the earth crust. Some processes of mineral accumulation
are complex while others involve only a single step such as the settling of a
magmatic cumulates (crystal fractions within a chamber occupied by silicate
melt). The complex processes, however, involve complicated combinations and
sequences of rock-forming events over a long period of geologic time. Mineral
deposits may or may not be economically viable. Those, which are economically
viable, are known as economic mineral deposits. Mineral deposits can be
classified as ore deposits, or metallic deposits, non-metallic deposits or
industrial deposits, and mineral fuels. Various forms or shapes characterize
mineral deposits. Some occur as beds, some occur along beds as lenses or
irregular bodies, some may fill fractures of various types or follow other
structuralfeatures, some make pipe like bodies, and some are disseminated.

The non-metallic deposits find extensive use in the industry for the manufacture
of glass, brick, tile, cement, ceramics, and many other products. ln addition to
their use in extraction of metals, metallic deposits also have their use in the
industry. For example chromite is used extensively in making refractory bricks
and paints; manganese ores are used for making dry batteries; and bauxite, the
chief ore of aluminum, is used for making aluminous abrasives and aluminous
refractories. Many rocks such as limestone, slate and granite are non-metallic
deposits but these are generally designated as bodies of the particular rock, as
limestone deposits, slate deposits and granite deposits.

It is now understood that the earth interior is very hot due to the radiogenic heat
and other causes. The processes of transfer of this interior heat to the surface
are reflected in the earth complex igneous, metamorphic and tectonic history.
The radiogenic heat, which is the main source of earth's energy, has produced
tremendous thermal disturbances within the solid earth over geologic history
spanning some 4.5 billion years. These disturbances occurred because of the
variable heat distribution from place to place and time to time through migration
of hot silicate melt called magma. The changes in the evolution of tectonic and
igneous activities during the geologic time can be reflected in the ore-depositing
processes. Tlre processes of ore deposition were completed at or near the
surface of the earth (in upper few tens of kilometers) which resulted in the metal
precipitation in the environments of steep thermal and chemical gradients.

The mineral deposits are many and varied in their origin and form and this has
given rise to many debate and fashionable theories on their genesis. The theory
of plate tectonic has played an important role in categorizing the world mineral
deposits in various ore deposit models and in deciphering the past geological
environments or tectonic settings of ore deposition. The distribution of most of
the deposits formed during different geologic time is consistent with their plate
'tectonic setting or environment (Sawkins 1984; Cox and Singer 1986; Mitchel
andGarson 1981;Sillitoe 1987; Roberts and Sheahan 1989).

9l
Many of the mineral deposits are considered to have formed deep within the
earth crust by endogenic processes. These are related more readily to
magmatic and tectonic events instigated by plate activity. These deposits are
onlf accessible near the surface due to erosion of thousands of meters of
prwiously- overlying rocks. No direct observation of ore forming processes is
possible and all genetic theories must be derived from observations of
geological relationships and experimental results. However, mineral deposits
forming at or near the earth surface are generally better understood as a result
of direct observations. Surficial processes such as weathering or shallow
marine sedimentation form these deposits. These will, therefore, have
relationship to their tectonic environments that are more tenuous'

Mineral deposits of Northern Pakistan

pakistan mineral industry has shown very little contribution towards its GNP
(about 2.3%) since independence. But now that most of the country is
geologically known and the Government has also shown its interest by
innouncing the first ever-mineral policy, it is hoped that there will be a
revolutionary change in the development of mineral sector within the country.
Though the-geological environment of northern Pakistan is comparable to those
produiing the world largest economic mineral deposits elsewhere, the
achievements are far below the expectation. There are many reasons not
discussed here, as these are beyond the scope of this paper. However, the
most important ones are lack of water in certain areas, Severe energy shortage,
poor infrastructure, lack of sufficient financial input, and a general lack of
iechnological expertise. A number of ministries, organizations, agencies and
departments have been established for the development of mineral sector
within the country. Among these the principal ones are Hydrocarbon
Development lnstitute of Pakistan (HDIP), Oil and Gas Development
Corporation (OGDC), Geological Survey of Pakistan (GSP), Pakistan Mineral
Development Corporation (PMDC), Pakistan lndustrial Development
corporation (PlDc), Punjab Mineral Development corp. (PUNJMIN), Sgtl?d
Development Authority (SDA), Baluchistan Development Authority (BDA)'
Federally Administered TribalAreas Development Corp. (FATA. DC.) and many
academlc and research institutions in various Universities of Pakistan, Due to
the combined efforts of these organizations, a large number of metallic and
non-metallic mineral deposits and gemstones are being explored and exploited
within the Himalayan, Karakoram and Hindu Kush regions of northern Pakistan.

Kazmi and Jan (1997) classified Pakistan into nine mineralogenic t

tectonostratigraphic zones. Of these, five are lying within the northern part of
Pakistan. From South to north these are. 1) foreland sedimentary fold and
thrust belt, 2) ophiolitic thrust belt and suture zone, 3) Himalayan crystalline
zone, 4) Kohistan magmatic arc, and 5) Karakoram block (Fig. 62).

Mainly sedimentary non-metallic minerals and hydrocarbons characterize the

foreland sedimentary thrust belt. The ophiolitic thrust belt contains chromite,

92
 720 7f
l4.l;irlZS
Itl+trhA
Foretand sedrm€ntry
bett
l; {l Hrmaiayan HH
crystalline belt l:=:-=
Karskorrm btock
fotd liij::-l
I Cities
Ophiolitic thrusl Kohistan
magmatic arc
I tvletallic Minerab
belt
1 llon-Metaltic Minerals

Fig. 62. Metalogenic map of Nofthern pakistan and surrounding area

(from Zanchiand Gaetani 1994)

Metallic Uinalats,ou, ooo,it,",rum. eg: Sttver.;u,;"0*, ru. r.iao, en Zrnc. sn rrri. Fo rron. cr: ouorriurn, Mn:
Manganese, Mo Mdybdeiuh, W: Tungsten, Ni: Nickcl, Co: Coball, Al: Baurils, Mi1 Magn sium. Sb. Aniimony, As'
Arsenic, Bi: Blsdfth. REE: Rafc Earlh.
Non-Metalllc Mineral$: Ab: Asbeslos, Fsp: Feldspar, F: Flouritc: Gls: Glass 3and. Gra: Graphite, Gyp: Gvprw. Ky:
Kynile, Mag Magnesite. Mic: Mict. Mp: Minerab PigDenls. Ou. Quartz, Pyr l.lyrite. fat Tatc Cly' Ctay, Mar: Marblc.
Dol: Oolomit€, GeR: Gcmstones.

nickel manganese, copper-lead-zinc sulfides, talc and soapstone. The

Himalayan crystalline zone has a variety of mineral occurrences which include
both epigenetic and exhalative type base metals (Cu, Pb, Zn) mineralization:
gemstone, scheelite and fluorite are reported in pegmatites and granites, while
rare earth minerals occur in carbonatite and alkaline igneous complexes. Other
non-metallic minerals are also wide' spread. The Kohistan magmatic arc
comprises of hydrothermal copper deposits, minor chromite, volcanogenic base
metal sulfides, and minor platinum group minerals, skarn type Lead-zinc and
many other non-metallic minerals. The Karakoram block contains polymetallic
sulfides (Cu, Pb, Zn, Sb. As) with gold, silver and scheelite deposits. Other non-
metallic minerals and gemstones are also present.

93
A brief description of the mineral resources of these tectonostratigraphic zones
covering the mountainous regions of Himalaya, Karakoram and Hindu Kush is
given below.

Metallic mineral deposits

Antimony: The most important ore of antimony is stibnite (Sb2S3). Antimony

compounds are being increasingly used as flameproofing agent for textiles.
Antimony oxide is used as flame retardant in polymers, such as PVC, and paint.
Antimony chloride is also used in flame proofing textiles. The Krinj antimony
deposits of Karakoram block in Chitral (Sillitoe, 1979) are of some significance
where 50-120 tons of ore has been mined annually.

Chromite: Chromite is the only ore mineral of metallic chromium, chromium

compounds and chemicals. Chromite has a wide range of uses in metallurgical,
chemical, and refractory industries. Chromite deposits occur in ophiolite
sequences within the suture zone along the northwestern and western margin
of the lndo-Pakistan plate. Jijal (Besham) in Swat Kohistan and Harichand-
Eskhakoot (Dargai) in Malakand Agency (Ahmad, 1969; Ahmad and Siddiqui
1992) are the two areas where chromite is mined in the lndus suture zone. The
average annual production has been raised from 14000 to 30000 tons since
independence (Butt & Latif, 1992). Chromitite bands in dunite also occur in the

Mainly sedimentary non-metallic minerals and hydrocarbons characterize the

foreland sedimentary thrust belt. The ophiolitic thrust belt contains chromite,
nickel manganese, copper-lead-zinc sulfides, talc and soapstone. The
Himalayan crystalline zone has a variety of mineral occurrences which include
both epigenetic and exhalative type base metals (Cu, Pb, Zn) mineralization:
gemstone, scheelite and fluorite are reported in pegmatites and granites, while
rare earth minerals occur in carbonatite and alkaline igneous complexes. Other
non-metallic minerals are also wide spread. The Kohistan magmatic arc
comprises of hydrothermal copper deposits, minor chromite, volcanogenic base
metal sulfides, and minor platinum group minerals, skarn type Lead-zinc and
many other non-metallic minerals. The Karakoram block contains polymetallic
sulfides (Cu, Pb, Zn, Sb. As) with gold, silver and scheelite deposits. Other non-
metallic minerals and gemstones are also present.

A brief description of the mineral resources of these tectonostratigraphic zones

covering the mountainous regions of Himalaya, Karakoram and Hindu Kush is
given below.

Chilas complex. (Jan et al., 1984; Jan et al., 1991) of the Kohistan magmatic
arc. Some showings are also reported at Sapat and Palkot areas of the
Himalayan crystalline zone (Jan et al. 1993; Ahmad and Siddiqui 1992).

Copper: Copper is used in electric and electronic products, building and

construction, transportation equipment and many other products. Copper
deposits and showings are reported from the ophiolitic rocks along suture
zones, Kohistan magmatic arc and Karakoram blocks. Extensive copper
deposits are
under study in the Waziristan ophiolites by FATA. DC (Badshah, 1985).
Hydrothermal copper occurs as veins and dissemination in the Dir
metavolcanics (Shah, 1995) and in Darosh-Shishi area of Chitral (Tahirkehli et
al. in press). Small-scale showings of copper ore are present at Babu Sar and
Phalkot in Himalayan Grystalline zone (Ahmad, 1969) and at many places within
Kohistan magmatic arc (Bughio et al. 1970; Kazmi, 1951; Sillitoe, 1979).

Gold and Silver: The oldest use of gold and silver is in the manufacture of
jewelry. These are used in the electric industry because of its electrical
conductivity and resistance to corrosion. Gold and silver in association with
other base metals occur in the Himalayan crystalline zone, Kohistan magmatic
arc and the Karakoram block. Placer type gold and silver occurrences are
present in the upper reaches of Chitral, Gilgft, Hunza, Swat Kohistan and lndus
rivers. Placers are thin pockets of heavy mineral concentrates, deposited in
traps, brought by the reworking of streams and rivers from the catchment areas.
Gold washers have panned and produced gold on a very small scale since
ancient times. Recently, about 28 anomalous zones of gold and silver have
been identified in the Chitral, Gilgit and Swat regions (Clavarino et a|.1994).

lron Ore: lron ore is the source of primary iron, which is the backbone of steel
industry. lt is also used in the manufacture of heavy medium material, iron oxide
pigments, high-density concrete, etc. lron ores of economic importance are
present in the Domal Nisar (Chitral) and in the Kohistan magmatic arc (WPIDC,
1970; Austrominerals, 1978). These are high-grade magnetite deposits with no
deleterious impurities to cause any problem in their industrial use. Other small-
scale iron deposits of the Kohistan magmatic arc are present in Shah Dheri,
Saidu and Dir areas (Asrarullah 1979; WPIDC, 1970). Many small-scale
localized ores are also present at Besham in the Himalayan crystalline zone
within the lndus suture zone (Ashraf et a|.1980).

Lead-zinc ores: Lead is widely used in the storage batteries, antiknock

compounds in gasoline, ammunition, paints, chemicals and pigments, while zinc
is used in chemicals, mechanical and electrical industries. The lead-zinc
deposits in the northern parts are confined to Himalayan crystalline zone and
Karakoram block. The stratiform lead-zinc deposits occur in the Himalayan
crystalline zone at Besham (Fletcher et al., 1986; Butt 1981, Siddiqi et. a|.1988;
Shah, 1991 in press). Small-scale lead-zinc ores are also present at Hal and
Minal areas of the Himalayan crystalline zone (Ahmad, 1969); at Ushu in
Kohistan magmatic arc (Tahirkheli, 1959); at Baig, Madashil and Awireth in
Karakoram block (Ahmad, 1969; Calkins et al., 1981;Ahmad & Siddiqui, 1992).

Manganese: Manganese has greater use in steel, paint, battery cells, glass and
textile industries. Manganese-bearing veins have been reported from the
Shangla (Swat) and Kassai (Mohmand Agency) area of the ophiolitlc thrust belt
'(Hussain et al. 1990).

95
Radioactive minerals: Radioactive minerals (having uranium & thorium) find
their use in the nuclear power plants and nuclear medicines. ln the northern part
of Pakistan, radioactive minerals are confined to the Himalayan crystalline zone
and the Kohistan magmatic arc. Small scale uranium mineralization has been
reported at Karakar, Ahl, Silai Patti, Loe Shilman and Thakot areas (Butt 1989)
of the Himalayan crystalline zone. Small occurrences are also reported at Bunji
area (Shams, 1995; Madin et al., 1989) of the Kohistan magmatic arc. Placer
type radioactive minerals occur extensively in the placers of the lndus and its
tributaries (Ahmad et al., 1976) but their extraction on economic scale is not
feasible as yet.

Non-metallic mineral deposits

Asbesfos: Asbestos is the generic name given to a group of fibrous silicate

minerals found in nature. lt is used in various types of fire proofing and heat
insulation etc. Asbestos deposits are mined at Eskhakoot Qila area (Malakand
Agency) within the ophiolitic thrust belt and suture zone. Annual production from
15 mines is estimated to be about 50,000 tons (Jehan et al. 1997).

Barite: Barites (BaSO+) and witherite (BaCOs) are the chief commercial sources
of barium and its compounds. The highest use of barite is in oil-well drilling
mud. lt is also used in making ceramics, rubber, paper and many other
products. Small vein{ype deposits of barite occur in Precambrian Tanawal
Formation at Kag-Alui and Kachi areas of Haripur. These small deposits are
mined locally. There is another vein{ype barite mineralization at Kohala in the
Precambrian Hazara Formation. The reserves are estimated to be about 30,000
tons (Klinger and Richard. 1968). Barite also occur in Lahor (Besham) and is
mined locally (Fletcher et al., 1986; Shah in press)

Kaolin: Kaolin (2H2O, AlzOg, 2SiO2) is a clay material which has many industrial
applications in paper, paint, rubber, plastic and ceramics, etc. Kaolin deposits
occur at Ahl (Malakand Agency) and Shah Dheri (Swat). The Ahl Kaolin is the
product of the insitu weathering of granite. lt is low grade and the reserves are
estimated to be about 65000 tones (Mumtazuddin 1951). The Shah Dheri kaolin
deposits occur in the form of patches, pods and streaks in altered rocks and are
the product of weathering of plagioclase-rich quartz diorite. The reserves are
estimated to be about 2.8 million tons (Moosvi et al. 1974).lt is mainly supplied
to the ceramics industry.

Feldspar: Feldspar is the general term used for a group of closely related
minerals consisting essentially of aluminum silicates in combination with varying
proportion of potassium, sodium, and calcium. lt is used in manufacture of
glass, pottery, vitrified enamels and special electrical porcelain and many
others. Large deposits of sodic and potassic feldspar are formed in pegmatites
associated with the Swat granite gneiss (Mingora deposits), the Mansehra
granite (deposits near Khaki-Susa gali and Rajdhevari), Nanga Parbat gneisses
(Khaltors Shengus, Bulechi and Stak deposits), Karakoram batholith (Dassu
Niyet Brdk, Hunza deposits), and Trichmir, Hot Spring and Kafiristan plutons.
 Gypsum and Rock Sa/f; No good reserves of gypsum and rock salt are reported
in the northern parts of Pakistan, however, extensive deposits occur in other
parts of the country, especially in the Kohat-Banu region and Salt Range.

Fluorite: Fluorite (CaF2) is the principal source of fluorine. Fluorspar is the

commercial name of fluorite. lt is used in making hydrofluoric acid and its
derivatives, in the steel and ceramic industries, iron foundries, in making
ferroalloys, and in many other applications. Fluorite within quartz veins has
been reported from Chakdara (Dir District) and in the Himalayan crystalline
zone (Sillitoe 1979). lt also occurs at Mirgasht and Yarkhun in Chitral within the
Karakoram block (Mining World, 1959) and in the Hazara formation near
Sherwan within the sedimentary fold and thrust belt (Nagell 1969).

Graphite: Graphite is used in the foundry facings and moulds; graphite

crucibles, laddles, stoppers, and nozzles; lubricants, paints, brushes for
electrical machinery, dry batteries, stove polish, lead pencils, explosives, shoe
polish and electrodes etc. Graphite has been reported at many places within the
Karakoram block such as in Sewakht Formation near Shah Salim, in Lutkoh
Formation near Momi, in Darkot Formation near Chhelish and Bola Das. ln the
Himalayan crystalline zone, it occurs at Sasli in Nanga-Parbat-Haramosh
Massif, near Balakot in the Abbottabad Formation and near Loe Agra in the
Alpurai schist. Graphite also occurs within the forehand sedimentary thrust belt
at Spinkai, Shah Salim and Shahid mena in Khyber Agency and at Sherwan in
Abbottabad. But all these deposits are of low quality and quantity.

Limestone: The principal use of limestone is in the cement industry and as

crushed stones in construction of roads, bridges and buildings. lt is also used as
asphalt filler, in glass making, sugar refining, whiting, carbide manufacture and
papermaking. Pakistan is endowed with extensive deposits of limestone, which
is suitable for construction purposes (Ahmad, 1969; Bender, 1995). These
deposits are widely distributed in many parts of northern Pakistan.

Magnesite: Magnesite is the major source of magnesium and is used in the

formation of many magnesium-bearing chemical compounds. Magnesite
deposits of greater economic importance are present near Shenrvan
(Abbottabad) within the foreland sedimentary thrust belt. This represents 38%
of the magnesite output of the country.

Mica: Mica is mainly used for insulation and roofing purposes, however, it has
many other uses such as in making stove windows, furnace viewing glass, wall
paper, rubber tires, paints, phenolic ntoulding powders and adhesives. Mica in
the form of small sheets occurs at many places within the northern parts of
n
Pakistan. lt occurs in Chitral and Darosh areas of the Karakoram block, in Dir
and Swat districts within Kohistan magmatic arc and in Astor, Bagarian, Howa
Gali and Rajdhawari areas of the Himalayan crystalline zone.

97
 Nephetine syenite: Nepheline syenite is a quartz-free light colored rock that
consists principally of nepheline and alkali feldspar. lt is used as substitute for
feldspar in the production of glass and ceramics. Huge deposits of nepheline
syenite occur near Koga village and form a part of the Ambela granitic complex
within the Himalayan crystalline (Chaudrhy et a|.1981; Ratfia et al. 1984; Mian
1987; Rafiq and Jan 1989). The ore reseryes suitable for glass and ceramics
are estimated to be about 82.78 million tons (Khan and Ahmad undated).

Quaftz crystals: Quartz (SiO2) is pure silicon oxide and it is used in the
piezoelectric, optical and glass industries. Clear quartz crystals in veins occur at
many places in Gilgit Agency and Baltistan.

Rock Phosphafe; Phosphates are used in the manufacturing of fertilizers,

elemental phosphorus, phosphatic acid, and chemical salts and also in the
metallurgical industry. Huge rock phosphate deposits occur within the Cambrian
Abbottabad Formation and the Precambrian Hazara Formation at Kakul
(Abbottabad) along the western flank of Hazara-Kashmir syntaxis in the
forehand sedimentary thrust belt (Hasan and Ghaznavi 1980; Khan and Ahmad
1e91)

Soapsfone and talc; soapstone and talc are the hydrous silicates of magnesium
and are widely used industrial minerals with their application primarily in the
manufacture of paints, paper, ceramics, cosmetics, plastic, roof material, rubber
and textile. Soapstone and talc are associated with the ultramafic rocks in the
ophiolitic thrust belt, the lndus suture zone (including the Dargai Klippe) and the
Shyok suture zone. Soapstone deposits of 200,000 tons (Raza & lqbal, 1977)
occur near Shenruan (Abbottabad) in the foreland sedimentary thrust belt and
also near Derai (Besham) within the Himalayan crystalline zone. Where the
reserves are estimated to be about 100,000 tons (Working Group on Minerals,
1978).

Decorative sfones: Decorative stones are used both for beauty and durability.
The principal use of dimension stones is in building construction and
monuments. Other uses include floggings, curbing, paring, roofing, Iaboratory
furniture, and refractory bricks. Among the decorative stones, marbles of
various varieties occur in the northern part of Pakistan at many places. Large
deposits of white, fine saccharoidal marble occur in Dandai (Swat), Bunner,
Saidu Sharif, Ghundai and Tarako area of the Himalayan crystalline belt
(Ahmad 1969; Kazmi and Jan 1997). There are also large deposits of granite
but these have not been mined yet, except that of Malakand, for building
purpose.

Gemsfones; Gemstones are dominantly used in the manufacture of jewelry.

They also have some industrial uses, such as in watches, chromatometers and
various timing devices, gauges and metering equipment, compasses, balances
and in other scientific instruments. Kazmi and O'Donoghue (1990) have divided
'genlstones of Pakistan into four groups on the basis of their geological
occurrences. These are 1) suture-associated gemstones, 2) pegmatite
 associated gemstones, 3) gemstone in hydrothermal veins, and 4)
miscellaneous gemstones.

The suture-associated gemstones include emerald, peridot, epidote, actinolite,

vesuvianite, ruby, sapphire, and spinel. These are present along or in close
proximity to the suture zones (i.e., lndus suture zone and northern suture).
Emeralds are found in Dando Kandao, Bucha, Nawe Dand, Gandao Kot, Arang
Barang, Mingora, charbagh, Makhad, Gujarkili, shamozaiand Khaltaro. Among
these, the Mingora and Gujarkali deposits have been mined regularly. Mingora
emeralds are out of the best quality in the world. Epidote of gem grade is
reported from Bunji, Kot, Paranghar and Buddha areas of Malakand and
Mohmand Agencies and also in Swat District. Peridote occurrences have been
reported along shear zones within the Kohistan-Kaghan watershed to the NE of
Naran. Ruby and sapphire in marbles are reported within the Hunza and
lshkuman valleys along the northern suture or Karakoram suture zone (Kazmi &
o'Donoghue, 1990). Ruby and sapphire of row quarity are also reported from
the southern amphibolites of the Kohistan arc near Timargara (Dir district).
Spinel occurs mainly in Hunza and is of wide variety of colors ranging from
brown, red, plum red, and violet to blue.

The pegmatite-associated gemstones are reported from Gilgit and Skardu

regions of lndus Kohistan and Chitral where pegmatite is extensively intruded
(Kazmi & o'Donoghue, 1990). Among these gemstones the more significant
are tourmaline, aquamarine, topaz and quartz. Tourmaline of best quality
occurs at the Stak Nala (between Gilgit and Skardu) and also at the Bulechi and
Shingus areas of Gilgit Division and Garam Chishma (Chitral). Tourmaline is of
many attractive colors. The gem quality (light color) aquamarine in the
pegmatites is present in Dassu, Tisgtung, Bulechi, shingus lskere and Khaltaro
areas in Gilgit-Skardu region while the inky blue aquamarine is present in the
Gabor-o-Bakh areas of chitral (Kazmi & o'D Donoghue, 1gg2). Topazes of
various colors are found within pegmatites in Bulechi and Shingus areas of
Gilgit and Niyit Bruk and Gone in skardu. Gem quality quariz occurs in the
pegmatites in skardu, Gilgit and chitral areas (Kazmi & o'Donoghue, 1990).

Among the gemstones in hydrothermal veins, the pink topaz of Katlang area is
of greater significance. The other small showings of zircon, rutile and azurite are
found in Gilgit Agency (Kazmi and o'Donoghue 1992; Kazmi and Jan 1992).

Conclusions

It is now understood that the geological setting of the northern Pakistan (i.e., ophiolite
occurrences along sutures, arc related magmatic rocks, and shelf metasediments) is
promising for the existence of many metallic and non-metallic mineral deposits as many of
the world largest mineral deposits elsewhere occur in similar type of setiings. wlany ofihe
metallic deposits such as chromite, copperJead-zinc sulfides, and antimony; non-metallic
deposits such as rock phosphate, barite, graphite, limestone and marble, and gemstones

.(emerald, ruby, sapphire, topaz and aquamarine) have been reported in

mountains of
Himalayas, Karakoram and Hindukush in the northern Pakistan. The exploration studies for
gold, silver and platinum group minerals have also pointed out numerous anomalous
zones throughout the region. However, to obtain better results in the mineral sector, and to
achieve a meaningful degree of industrialization, a detail geological and exploration work
is needed in this remote part of the country.

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