Journal of Cleaner Production 234 (2019) 1192e1209

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Journal of Cleaner Production

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jclepro

Optimization and transesterification of sterculia oil: Assessment of

engine performance, emission and combustion analysis
M.S. Kavitha*, 1, S. Murugavelh**, 1
CO2 Research and Green Technologies Centre, VIT, Vellore, Tamilnadu, India

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Biodiesel is considered as an alternative for petroleum fuels. Hence, identifying efficient biomass for
Received 3 April 2019 biodiesel production is necessary to meet the demand. This study reports the optimum conditions of
Received in revised form Sterculia foetida oil for biodiesel production and its engine performance, emission and combustion
7 June 2019
analysis. Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry revealed the dominance of fatty acids in the order of
Accepted 22 June 2019
sterculic acid (32%) > palmitic acid (15.88%) > oleic (10%) > linolenic (9.95%) > malvalic acid (9%)
Available online 26 June 2019
respectively. Oil extracted from the seeds of Sterculia foetida were purified by the degumming process to
Handling Editor: Zheming Tong remove the unwanted impurities present in the oil. Box-Benhken design was used for optimizing
transesterification process. A Maximum biodiesel yield of 90.2% was obtained at a temperature of 55
C,
Keywords: catalyst concentration 1.5%, Oil to methanol ratio 1:12, agitation speed 900 rpm. ANN model was also
Sterculia foetida utilized for the prediction of biodiesel yield using feed-forward backpropagation exhibited significant
Transesterification correlation (R2 - 0.9) with experimental results. Biodiesel blends and their properties were also analysed.
Optimization Carbon monoxide and hydrocarbon emission were found to be low with the observation of increased
BBD
nitrogen oxide emission. D90STB10 and D80STB20 was showing better performance and also lesser
ANN
emission ompared to the conventional fuel.Combustion analysis of Sterculia foetida biodiesel (STB) and
Engine performance
Emission analysis biodiesel blends (D90STB10, D80STB20, D70STB30, D60STB40 and STB100) for the various load at constant
Combustion analysis speed were analysed. Cylinder gas pressure, cumulative heat release rate, heat release rate, mass fraction
burnt and mean gas temperature were discussed in the current paper.
© 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
The entire world is facing an energy crisis due to the rapid
depletion of fossil fuel resources. The maximum amount of fuel has
been extracted and utilized which is the primary reason for this
decline (Singh and Singh, 2010; Demirbas, 2007a; Basha and Gopal,
2009; Dwivedi and Sharma, 2015). The crude oil demand for India
would increase to 8.82 bbl/d in 2040, while the internal production
is around 1 million bbl/d as the report of U.S energy information
administration (EIA) (Muthukumaran et al., 2017). The country is
dependent on imported crude oil to meet the petroleum demand
and thus necessitates the search for an alternative fuel resource.
Biodiesel is one of the eco-friendly fuel, which can be used to
reduce the dependency on conventional resources with emphasis
* Corresponding author.
** Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: Kavitha.ms@vit.ac.in (M.S. Kavitha), Murugavelh.s@vit.ac.in
(S. Murugavelh).
1
Both the authors equally contributed.
on low emission targets (Yoosuk et al., 2010; Kafuku et al., 2010).
Biodiesel from non-edible oil sources is a pivotal option, as it does
not affect the food chain (Kalam et al., 2008). Non-edible oil sources
like Karanja, mahua, jatropha, neem and rubber are some potential
sources for biodiesel production (Demirbas, 2009b; Vedharaj et al.,
2013). While this study mainly focussed on exploring Sterculia
foetida that has greater potential for biodiesel production with only
a few reports warrants the importance of the present investigation.
Currently, more new non-edible feedstock was studied for the
possible utilization of biodiesel production. Aglaia korthalsii, Lindera
glauca, sand box tree, fluted pumpkin seed, wild melon seeds,
Phoenix dactylifera, Euonymus maackii, Pistacia Khinjuk, Coffee
grounds and Pithecellobium dulce were investigated for the bio-
diesel production were discussed below. Aglaia korthalsii seed
based biodiesel was produced by using barnacle as a catalyst and
the reaction conditions were 12.2:1 methanol to oil ratio, 4.7 wt%
catalyst, the temperature of 65
C, a reaction time of 3 h, yielded
97.12%. Even though the high yield of biodiesel is produced, the oil
content of A. korthalsii was found to be 16.2% which restricts its
usage in biodiesel production (Manaf et al., 2018). Lindera glauca
fruit oil was explored in the production of biodiesel which has a

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.06.240
0959-6526/© 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 M.S. Kavitha, S. Murugavelh / Journal of Cleaner Production 234 (2019) 1192e1209
Nomenclature
D90STB10 90% of diesel and 10% of sterculia biodiesel
D80STB20 80% of diesel and 20% of sterculia biodiesel
D70STB30 70% of diesel and 30% of sterculia biodiesel
D60STB40 60% of diesel and 40% of sterculia biodiesel
STB100 100% of sterculia biodiesel
BBD Box-Behnken design
ANN Artificial neural network
RSM Response Surface Methodology
CHRR Cumulative Heat Release Rate
HRR Heat Release Rate
MGT Mean Gas Temperature
MFB Mass Fraction Burnt
ɵ Crank angle
high oil content of 43.35% approximately and has a lower acid value
which ensures the potential candidate for the biodiesel production.
Maximum of 95.6% of biodiesel was obtained from L. glauca and
also the product meets the EN 14214e08, ASTM D6751e10 and GB/
T 20828e2014 standards (Xiong et al., 2018). Few African seeds
from sand box tree, fluted pumpkin seed and wild melon seeds
were investigated for the utilization of biodiesel production. These
feedstocks were having a high oil content of 69.32%, 70.24% and
46.88% respectively. Base catalyse KOH and NaOH were used for the
transesterification reaction. Among these feedstocks, flatted
pumpkin yields 97% of biodiesel. Physicochemical properties of oil
from sand box tree, fluted pumpkin seed and wild melon seeds
shows that these feedstocks were a possible source for the biodiesel
production (Eloka- Eboka et al., 2017). Phoenix dactylifera which is
abundantly grown in the regions of southwestern Asia and the
northern part of Africa and their seeds were discarded to the
environment as waste. Mohammed et al. investigated the usage of
these seeds for extracting oil and converting into biodiesel. Bio-
diesel produced from date seed showed higher cetane number, low
iodine value and higher flash point. Despite all these advantages, it
has a higher pour point which limits its usage as a biofuel in the
cold regions of the world (Amani et al., 2013). Ju-Zhao Liu reported
Euonymus maackii a new source for biodiesel production. The oil
content of the feedstock was found to be around 41.06%. High yield
of methyl ester formation of 94.74% was observed at 60
C tem-
perature, 40 min time, 2% of phosphotungstic acid (catalyst) and oil
to methanol ratio of 10:1. Fuel properties of fuel obtained from
Euonymus maackii confirm its usage as a biofuel in upcoming years
(Liu et al., 2019). The oil content of Kolkhung (Pistacia Khinjuk) seed
was found to be 35e40%. Biodiesel conversion from oil requires
esterification followed by transesterification due to its high free
fatty acid content. Helix stirred reactor was utilized for the pro-
duction of biodiesel, where the oil to methanol ratio is 1:10 and 2%
of acid catalyst used in the esterification stage. In the trans-
esterification stage, calcium oxide has been used as a catalyst, 45
C
of temperature, 45 min of reaction time at 750 rpm speed (Saraee
et al., 2017). Coffee grounds were investigated for the biodiesel
production and yields about 15.47% of oil. Esterification was done to
reduce the free fatty acid content and optimized using CCD (central
composite design). Parameters utilized in the esterification reaction
were methanol (MeOH) to FFA molar ratio, catalyst, reaction time
and temperature and the optimized condition favoured the free
fatty acid content conversion to 95% (Mueanmas et al., 2019).
Methyl ester production from Pithecellobium dulce was investi-
gated. It has a lower content of free fatty acid around 2.12%, which
directs for alkali based transesterification process. Four process
1193
variables were chosen for finding the appropriate conditions for the
transesterification process. A maximum yield of 93.24% was ach-
ieved at the optimum operating conditions of reaction temperature
(60
C), 0.8 wt% catalyst, the molar ratio of 1:6 and reaction time of
90 min. Fuel properties of biodiesel from this feedstock was inline
with the ASTM D6751 standards. (Sekhar et al., 2018). Among these
feedstock, Sterculia foetida has found to be more potential source as
a biofuel, due to its high oil content.
Sterculia foetida is a wild plant which comes under the Stercu-
liaceae family. There are around 2000 types of Sterculia species.
These species are abundant in tropical and subtropical areas that
have a lifespan of 100 years. It grows to 40 m in height and 3 m in
circumference (Devan and Mahalakshmi, 2009a) and produces
seed around 200e300 kg annually. The oil yield from the kernel is
around 50e60% of the whole mass (Sivakumar et al., 2012). In this
present study, Sterculia foetida oil were used for biodiesel produc-
tion by transesterification process. For optimizing process param-
eters, the Box-Behnken method in RSM (Response surface
methodology) is employed. Biodiesel Optimization was done by
changing a single factor and keeping other parameters constant
which does not include the interactive effects of the process
parameter. This response will not be depicting the entire effect of
the process parameters (Bezerra et al., 2008; Bas and Boyaci, 2007).
The influence of different factors viz., temperature, catalyst con-
centration, molar ratio, and agitation speed was studied with an
aim to maximize biodiesel yield.
ANN methods also called as nonlinear computer algorithm
which has been utilized in the recent engineering research which is
used for simulating complex neural units. Neural units will be
communicating with each other through axon connections. ANN
method has few benefits over other methods are the capability of
examining the incomplete data, handling of nonlinear problems,
the prediction was done at higher speed, when it is highly trained
(Rajkovic et al., 2013). This method is one of the potential substitute
method for optimizing the process. Impact of process factors on the
conversion of fatty acid methyl esters of Muskmelon oil was
explored using RSM (central composite rotatable design) and ANN.
Both statistical tools were utilized to analyse its validated data. The
R2 value of the analysed data for RSM (0.869) and ANN (0.991),
which proved ANN is a better tool compared to RSM (Maran and
Priya, 2015a). Sweet almond (Prunus amygdalus) seed oil was
explored for the production of biodiesel using RSM and ANN. An
optimal yield of biodiesel using RSM (94.36%) and ANN were
95.45% obtained at optimum operating conditions of reaction time
65 min, oil: methanol ratio of 1:5, at a temperature of 50
C with a
catalyst concentration of 1.5 w/w%. Coefficient of determination
(R2) value of RSM and ANN is 0.9446 and 0.96637 respectively. As
usual, the ANN tool was faster and better than RSM (Esonye et al.,
2019). Ultrasound-assisted transesterification of neem oil were
studied by optimizing four factors through (CCRD) central com-
posite rotatable design. Experimental data obtained through CCRD
was used in ANN for training the data. The prediction ability of ANN
and RSM were tested by comparing the results obtained from the
developed model. ANN model was fast and precise compared to
RSM (Maran and Priya, 2015b).
Biodiesel can be itself employed in a diesel engine as a fuel
source or by blending in different concentrations along with diesel
fuel (Martinez et al., 2018). Biodiesel combustion in an engine is
reducing the particulate matter, carbon monoxide, hydrocarbon,
lower smoke content, but a higher concentration of nitrogen oxide
emission is visualized irrespective of the different feedstock of the
biodiesel (Nabi et al., 2009; Aydin and Ilkılıc, 2010). Most believed
the reason for the reduction of CO, CO2, hydrocarbon, particulate
matter is because of the existence of oxygen content in the sterculia
biodiesel fuel (Kegl, 2008). Engine performance, combustion and
1194 M.S. Kavitha, S. Murugavelh / Journal of Cleaner Production 234 (2019) 1192e1209
Fig. 1. Sterculia foetida a) Seeds b) Various layers of seed.
Table 1
Independent variables range for the optimization process.
S.no Parameters Units 1 0 þ1


1 Temperature C 45 55
2 Molar ratio e 1:3 1:7.5
3 Catalyst concentration Wt % 1 1.5
4 Agitation speed Rpm 300 600
emission characteristics were investigated for biodiesel, biodiesel
blends obtained from rapeseed oil. Biodiesel blends of B25, B50,
B75 and B100 were analysed for the performance and emission
characteristics. B25 revealed better brake thermal efficiency and
lesser emissions than other biodiesel blends. Reduction of CO and
HC were seen with respect to the usage of the biodiesel and its
blend (Raman et al., 2019). Water hyacinth biodiesel was produced
and tested in the engine for evaluating the performance and
emission analysis. Biodiesel from this feedstock recorded reduced
brake thermal efficiency and increased specific fuel consumption.
Lower emission of HC, CO and smoke were visualized due to the
presence of oxygen content of the fuel, whereas the higher emis-
sion of NOx and CO2 is recorded than diesel fuels. Lowest peak
pressure indicates the fuel viscosity and lower calorific value. It has
been concluded from the results B20 can be easily used in a diesel
engine (Alagu et al., 2019). The chief properties of biodiesel were
viscosity, density and heating value which partakes a direct impact
on the engine performance and emission characteristics (Alptekin
and Canakci, 2008). However other factors which also has the ef-
fect on the engine performance which are calorific value, oxygen
content, and auto-oxidation of the biodiesel (Szybist et al., 2007;
Murillo et al., 2007; Ryu, 2010; Devan and Mahalakshmi, 2009b).
65
1.1. Objective of this study
1:12
2
900 From the literature review, it is commonly evident that the
biodiesel from Sterculia Foetida could be a viable, renewable and
feasible energy source for diesel engine applications. This seed has
superior oil content and it can easily grow in tropical regions like
India. It has also been noted that significant research studies were
conducted in biodiesel production from S.foetida using both acid
and alkali transesterification process without any proper optimi-
zation techniques. However, there are very few studies were
available in literature form in use of S.foetida biodiesel in diesel
engine in recent times. Therefore, in this research work, two opti-
mization methods such as Artificial Neural Network (ANN) and
Response Surface Methodology (RSM) have been used for biodiesel
production from S.foetida as feedstock. Prior to the biodiesel pro-
duction, the Degumming of oil has been performed for the signif-
icant reduction of free fatty acid content from the raw extracted oil.
Furthermore, a comparative analysis has been critically investi-
gated from both of these techniques for the improvement of higher
biodiesel yield rate. This kind of optimization tool in biodiesel
production would ultimately provide scope for biodiesel produc-
tion in large scale mode with remarkable economic benefits. In
addition, the S.foetida biodiesel (STB) is blended with diesel at
various concentrations like 10%, 20%, 30%, 40% and 100% by volume
and all the properties have been evidently analysed for the
 M.S. Kavitha, S. Murugavelh / Journal of Cleaner Production 234 (2019) 1192e1209 1195

Table 2
BBD matrix for biodiesel production from Sterculia oil.

Run Temperature (
C) Molar ratio Catalyst concentration (Wt %) Agitation speed (Rpm) Experimental yield (%) Predicted yield (%) RSM Predicted yield (%) (ANN)

1 55 1:7.5 2 900 77.94 77.54 77.67

2 55 1:12 2 600 78.87 79.41 80.22
3 55 1:3 1.5 900 72.29 72.39 72.29
4 55 1:12 1.5 900 90.22 90.34 90.21
5 55 1:7.5 1 300 76.11 75.93 79.03
6 45 1:7.5 2 600 66.83 65.17 66.83
7 65 1:12 1.5 600 76.88 75.65 76.84
8 65 1:3 1.5 600 61.86 61.05 61.86
9 65 1:7.5 1.5 900 73.66 73.87 73.63
10 65 1:7.5 1 600 66.97 68.86 62.12
11 55 1:7.5 1.5 600 84.23 84.92 84.74
12 65 1:7.5 1.5 300 67.78 65.27 67.80
13 45 1:7.5 1.5 300 68.44 68.55 68.44
14 55 1:7.5 1.5 600 86.12 76.27 84.74
15 55 1:3 2 600 65.13 74.40 66.72
16 55 1:7.5 1 900 85.62 84.92 85.56
17 55 1:12 1.5 300 76.14 76.45 64.19
18 45 1:12 1.5 600 74.15 74.94 74.11
19 55 1:7.5 1.5 600 84.03 84.92 84.74
20 45 1:7.5 1.5 900 75.33 76.45 75.19
21 45 1:7.5 1 600 75.44 74.94 75.42
22 55 1:7.5 2 300 70.67 71.29 70.67
23 65 1:7.5 2 600 66.37 67.10 66.38
24 45 1:3 1.5 600 65.78 66.45 72.49
25 55 1:3 1 600 74.12 73.90 74.11
26 55 1:7.5 1.5 600 85.14 84.92 84.74
27 55 1:7.5 1.5 600 85.09 84.92 84.74
28 55 1:12 1 600 82.12 82.31 82.10
29 55 1:3 1.5 300 71.56 71.67 71.52

suitability in diesel engine under various engine loads.
2. Materials and method
2.1. Seed collection
Sterculia seeds harvested in December to January from VIT
(Vellore Institute of Technology), Vellore campus, India. Once the
seed is ripe, follicles open and the seeds were exposed. Each follicle
contains 16e20 seeds as seen in Fig. 1. The reagents used for
transesterification of biodiesel were n-hexane (99%), Methanol
(99.5% purity) and KOH in pellets form (85%) acquired from Merck,
Mumbai, India.
2.1.1. Oil extraction
The seeds processed by soaking in tap water for 4 h to obtain
kernel. Kernel obtained were dried in a hot air oven and stored for
oil extraction. Oil extraction can be done either by mechanical
pressing or solvent extraction. Mechanical extraction unit
employed for extracting oil from Sterculia seeds. Seeds were
crushed and pressed using a screw type crusher in an oil extraction
unit. Oil yield percentage can be calculated using the formula given
below.
Mass of extracted oil
Oil Yield ¼  100
Mass of sample fed
2.1.2. Degumming of oil
Degumming of oil was carried out for the removal of residues
and for the reduction of the free fatty acid content of the oil. Hexane
(5%) is added to the oil and heated at 80
C with stirring for 20 min
and constantly heated (80
C) to obtain two layers. Aqueous layer
contained the oil and the raffinate layer comprised of the unwanted
gums and impurities. The aqueous layer was purified oil sample,
which was used for the transesterification process.
2.1.3. Experimental set-up
Transesterification of biodiesel was performed using a three-
necked round bottom flask of 500 ml attached to a condenser.
The thermometer inserted into the flask through one of the necks in
a hot plate magnetic agitator (LMMS 300, Labman scientific in-
strument) was utilized for biodiesel production.
2.1.4. GC-MS of sterculia oil
Agilent Gas Chromatography (6890) system fitted with a flame
ionization detector (FID). Non-bonded cyano silicone column (DB-
225, 30 m  0.25 mm  0.2 mm) used in this work for the detection
of methyl ester of the sample oil. In the start of the analysis, oven
temperature set aside at 160
C for 2 min and then slowly raised the
temperature to 180
C at a rate of 6
C/min. Finally, the temperature
was raised to 230
C and maintained for 15 min and the injection of
the sample was done at 250
C.
2.1.5. Optimization of biodiesel using RSM and ANN
Intensification of process factors from Sterculia foetida for bio-
diesel was done using RSM. The four variables applied for the
generation of biodiesel production were temperature (
C), catalyst
loading (wt %), feedstock to methanol ratio and agitation speed
(rpm). The lower and higher level variables were coded and utilized
(1) for the intensification of process factors of biodiesel from Sterculia
foetida are displayed in Table 1.
Design expert 10.0.3 software utilized for this process optimi-
zation using BBD (Box- Behnken design). The software generated
29 experimental runs for maximizing the biodiesel yield by finding
out the exact concentration of process variables. Table 2 exhibited
the experimental runs and predicted and observed oil yields. These
experiments will determine the effect of the independent variable
and also their interaction on the yield of biodiesel.
Second order polynomial equation for four variables generated
and experimental data obtained were analyzed using this equation
given below.
1196 M.S. Kavitha, S. Murugavelh / Journal of Cleaner Production 234 (2019) 1192e1209

Fig. 2. a) Outline of ANN architecture, b) Schematic diagram Ic engine.

Table 3
Physicochemical property of oil and biodiesel.

S.no Physicochemical property Sterculia oil Sterculia Biodiesel ASTM standards

1. Density at 15
C (kg/m3) 955 945

2. Kinematic viscosity at 40
C in (mm2/s) 42 5.67 ASTM D445
3. Acid Value (mg KOH/g) 6.171 0.74 ASTM D664
4. Acidity (m eq g1) 0.11 0.03 ASTM D664
5. Free fatty acid (%) 3.10 0.8 ASTM D664
6. Cloud point (
C) 1 3 ASTM D2500
7. Pour point (
C) 3 3 ASTM D2500
8. Calorific Value (MJ/kg) 36.44 38.39 ASTM D-1826
9. Flash point (
C) 296.6 162 ASTM D92-16b
10. Fire point (
C) 313.4 178 ASTM D92-16b

Y is the response, C0 is the intercept, A1, B2, C3 and D4 are the

Y ¼ C0 þ C1A1 þ C2B2 þ C3C3 þ C4D4 þ C11A21 þ C22B22 linear coefficients, C11, C22, C33 and C44 representing the squared
þC33C 23 þ C44D24 þ C12A1 B2 þ C23B2 C3 þ C13A1 C3 coefficients, and C12, C23, C13, C34, C14 and C24 were the inter-
þ C34C3 D4 þ C14A1 D4 þ C24B2 D4 (2) action of these coefficients. A1 represents Temperature (
C), B2 was
 M.S. Kavitha, S. Murugavelh / Journal of Cleaner Production 234 (2019) 1192e1209 1197

Table 4 2.1.7. Engine performance, emission and combustion study

Engine specifications. Kirloskar TV1 model used as a test engine and its specification
Model KiloskarTV1 are reported in Table 4. The test engine used was single cylinder,
Type Single cylinder, Four stroke, Diesel engine.
water cooled, four stroke engine (diesel). At 1500 rpm, it produces
Type of injection Direct injection the power of 5.20 kW. The engine was attached to eddy current
Bore  stroke 87.5  110 mm dynamometer and linked to the control system. Emissions were
Capacity 661 cm3 measured using AVL 444 gas N gas analyser and smoke meter for
Compression ratio 17.5:1
measuring the smoke content from the exhaust. The engine per-
Speed 1500 rpm
Rated power 5.2 kW formance of diesel was measured at all loads. Then different bio-
Dynamometer Eddy current diesel blend ratio was prepared and analyzed for the emission and
Cooling system Water cooling performance of the fuel. The Pressure transducer (Kistler type) and
Displacement 661 cm3
AVL365C Indi advanced crank angle encoder were utilized for
Injection time 23
bTDC
Injection pressure 23 bar
combustion analysis of the fuel tested. AVL INDI-MICRA 602-
T10602A data acquisition system was utilized for attaining the in-
cylinder pressure, the crank angle through which HRR, CHRR and
MFB were obtained. All the fuels were tested thrice and an average
the molar ratio (oil to methanol ratio), C3 means catalyst loading
value was taken. The current experimental error was shown in
(wt %) and D4 was stirring speed (rpm).
Table 5, which is due to the human error, the accuracy of in-
A Maximum number of experiments is required by ANN than
struments, adjusted errors etc, The schematic diagram of Ic engine
RSM for a building of the best model. ANN can also establish a
was shown in Fig. 2a.
better model from available little data, provided the data of input
and output results were significant statistically. Data obtained from
RSM is sufficient to construct the best model (Chakraborty and
Sahu, 2014). The architecture of best ANN model was based on 2.1.8. Uncertainty of the experiment
the three important factors which were an ideal required number Error analysis is done to know the precision of the experiments.
of neurons, backpropagation training algorithm and testing and Experimental precision is based on the observation, test planning,
validation of the generated model (Sarve et al., 2015). In ANN equipment selection, condition, calibration, environment and
modelling, neurons were controlled by transfer and summing of reading. Uncertainty analysis of the experiments was done using a
the function. ANN is a technique, which analyses the bond between technique defined by Holman (2003). Accuracy of the experiments,
the input and output. Based on the input data all given layers were list of the instrument and their uncertainty data was depicted in
processed through a neural network, till the output layer is reached. Table 6. The total percentage of the uncertainty of the experiments
In this current study, the input and output data were in the were calculated as shown below;
range 1 to þ1 which was utilized in the neural network. Feed-
forward backpropagation was utilized with two surface layer for
training the network. Tansig was used as a transfer function used in
this study. Levenberg-Marquardt algorithm and Gradient Descent Table 6
Method were used for training and adaption learning function in Fatty acid composition of sterculia oil and biodiesel.
the ANN model. MATLAB (R2016a) software and neural network
Fatty acid Structure Systematic name Wt %
tool were used for the prediction and validation of optimal condi-
tion for biodiesel yield. ANN architecture utilized for the current Lauric acid C 12:0 Dodecanoic acid 0.97
Myristic acid C 14:0 Tetradecanic acid 0.53
study was shown in Fig. 2.
Palmitic acid C 16:0 Hexadecanoic acid 15.88
Stearic acid C 18:0 Octadecanoic acid 3.30
Oleic acid C 18:1 Cis-9-octadecenoic acid 10
Linoleic acid C 18:2 Cis-9-cis-12 octadecadienoic 9.95
2.1.6. Physicochemical property of oil and biodiesel Sterculic acid C19:3 8-(2-Octylcyclopropen-1-yl) octanic acid 32
Selected physicochemical properties viz., density, viscosity, Malvalic acid C18:3 7-(2-Octylcyclopropen-1-yl) heptonic acid 9
calorific value, flash point, cloud point, fire point, pour point and Arachidic acid C 20:0 Eicosnoic acid 4.07
the acid value of Sterculia foetida oil and biodiesel were shown in Eicosenoic acid C 20:1 Cis-11-eicosenoic acid 4.81
Behenic acid C 22:0 Docosanoic acid 0.51
Table 3.

Table 5
Accuracy of the instruments and uncertainty percentage.

S.no Instruments Range Accuracy Percentage uncertainties

1 Magnetic stirrer Up to 250
C ±1
C ± 0.2

2 Gas analyser NOX 0e5000 ppm ± 20 ppm ± 0.2
HC ± 15 ppm ± 0.2
CO ± 0.02% ± 0.2
CO2 ± 0.03% ± 0.15
3 Smoke level measuring instrument BSN 0-10 ± 0.2 ± 1.0
4 EGT indicator 0e900
C ±1
C ± 0.15
5 Speed measuring unit 0-10,000 ppm ± 10 rpm ± 1.0
6 Load indicator 0e100 kg ± 0.1 kg ± 0.2
7 Burette for fuel measurement e ± 0.2 cm3 ± 1.5
8 Digital stop watch e ± 0.2 s ± 0.2
9 Manometer e ± 1 mm ± 1.0
10 Pressure pick up 0e1100 bar ± 1 bar ± 0.1
11 Crank angle encoder e ± 1
± 0.2
1198 M.S. Kavitha, S. Murugavelh / Journal of Cleaner Production 234 (2019) 1192e1209

Total percentage of uncertanity ¼ Square root of ðuncertanity of TFCÞ2 þ ðuncertanity of BPÞ2

þðuncertanity of COÞ2 þ ðuncertanity of CO2 Þ2 ðuncertanity of UBHCÞ2
(3)
þðuncertanity of NOX Þ2 þ ðuncertanity of Bosch smoke numberÞ2
þðuncertanity of EGTÞ2 þ ðuncertanity of pressure pick upÞ2

rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
n o
¼ ð0:2Þ2 þ ð1:5Þ2 þ ð0:2Þ2 þ ð1:5Þ2 þ ð1Þ2 þ ð0:2Þ2 þ ð0:15Þ2 þ ð0:2Þ2 þ ð0:2Þ2 þ ð1:0Þ2 þ ð0:15Þ2 þ ð1:0Þ2 (4)
¼ ±2:98%

Table 7
ANOVA statistics data for biodiesel production from Sterculia foetida.

Source Sum of squares Degrees of freedom Mean square F value P value Significance

Model 1597.00 14 114.07 94.34 < 0.0001 Yes

A-Temperature 12.92 1 12.92 10.68 0.0056 Yes
B-Molar ratio 381.26 1 381.26 315.31 < 0.0001 Yes
C-Catalyst 99.59 1 99.59 82.36 < 0.0001 Yes
D-stirring speed 163.98 1 163.98 135.62 < 0.0001 Yes
AB 11.06 1 11.06 9.14 0.0091 Yes
AC 16.04 1 16.04 13.27 0.0027 Yes
AD 0.26 1 0.26 0.21 0.6531 No
BC 8.24 1 8.24 6.81 0.0206 Yes
BD 44.56 1 44.56 36.85 < 0.0001 Yes
CD 1.25 1 1.25 1.04 0.3257 No
A2 766.39 1 766.39 633.81 < 0.0001 Yes
B2 141.22 1 141.22 116.79 < 0.0001 Yes
C2 164.26 1 164.26 135.84 < 0.0001 Yes
D2 43.38 1 43.38 35.87 < 0.0001 Yes
Residual 16.93 14 1.21
Lack of Fit 14.14 10 1.41 2.03 0.2581 No
Pure Error 2.79 4 0.70
Cor Total 1613.93 28
R-Squared 0.9895 AdjR- Squ. 0.9790
Mean 75.34 Pre R- Squ. 0.9468
C.V% 1.46 Adeq pre. 37.038

AdjR-Squ - Adjusted R square value; Pre R-Squ e Predicted R square value; Adeq pre.- Adequate precision.

3. Results and discussion

3.1. Oil yield from Sterculia foetida

Sterculia foetida seeds were collected from the campus around

12 kg. Oil yield obtained from the 12 kg of Sterculia seeds were
around 41.66% through a mechanical extraction process.

3.1.1. Fatty acid composition in sterculia oil

The primary fatty acid reported in the Sterculia foetida seed were
sterculic acid (32%), palmitic acid (15.88%), oleic acid (10.00%),
linolenic acid (9.95%) and malvalic acid (9%). The minor fatty acids
seen in the oil sample were lauric acid (0.97%), myristic acid
(0.53%), and behenic acid (0.51%). The composition and structure of
fatty acid are shown in Table 6. Numerous research on biodiesel has
shown that fatty acid composition had a significant effect on fuel
properties. High level of monosaturated fatty acid content in bio-
diesel may lead to better ignition, greater fuel stability and also
increased flow properties at low temperature (Pinzi et al., 2009).
In the current study, BBD is utilized for analyzing and optimizing
the parameters for the transesterification of Sterculia foetida. Based
on this design, the experiments were performed as per the ob-
tained design layout. The process parameters and their interaction
were statistically analyzed and the model was finally validated. The
experimental results which are obtained from the experiments
Fig. 3. Predicted and actual values of the experiments in terms of percentage (%). were used for analyzing the multiple regression analysis and also
 M.S. Kavitha, S. Murugavelh / Journal of Cleaner Production 234 (2019) 1192e1209 1199

Fig. 4. (4a-4f). 3-D surface plots of interactive effects of process variables on the biodiesel yield.

regression coefficients were also evaluated. From the obtained

þ1:66  AB þ 2:00  AC  0:2600  AD þ 1:44  BC
regression coefficient, the second order polynomial equation for
2
coded factors was acquired. þ 3:34  BD  0:5600  CD  10:88  A  4:67  B2  5:03
 C2  2:59  D2
(5)
ANOVA exhibits the fitness and the significance of the suggested
Yield ¼ 84:92  1:04  A þ 5:64  B  2:88  C þ 3:69  D quadratic model and the results were shown in Table 7. It has been
utilized for studying the significance of the individual terms and
1200 M.S. Kavitha, S. Murugavelh / Journal of Cleaner Production 234 (2019) 1192e1209
Fig. 5. Optimized process parameters for model validation.
Table 8
Model validation results at optimum values.
S.no Temp. Oil: methanol ratio Catalyst Conc. (Wt%)
1 55 1:11.6 1.4
also the interaction between these specific process parameters,
which are chosen on the design table for the optimization process.
High F value indicates the model is significant for the trans-
esterification process. Adequate Precision is an essential term for
analyzing the model. When the percentage of adequate precision is
more significant than 4%, then the model is desirable. Thus 37.03 of
adequate precision justifies there is an adequate signal for the
transesterification process of Sterculia oil (Eevera and
Pazhanichamy, 2013). P values which are lesser than 0.05 indicate
the individual terms of the process variable is significant (Yuan
et al., 2008).
In this study, individual parameters such as A (trans-
esterification reaction temperature), B (Feedstock to methanol ra-
tio), C (catalyst loading), D (stirring speed). Associative impact of AB
(temperature with molar ratio), AC (temperature with catalyst), BC
(molar ratio with catalyst), BD (molar ratio with stirring speed).
Squared or quadratic effects viz., A2 (temperature), B2 (molar ratio),
C2 (catalyst), D2 (stirring speed) are significant terms and found to
affect the biodiesel yield. Associative impact of the AD (tempera-
ture with stirring speed) and the Associative impact of CD (catalyst
with stirring speed) are not significant based on the obtained
results.
R-Squared (R2) value is a basic terminology, which determines
Agitation speed (Rpm) Pred. yield (%) Exp. yield (%) Error (%)
888 90.22 90.12 0.10
the proper fit of the model and experimental data. In this study R2
value is 98.95% and the pred R2 value is 94.68%. R2 may increase
concerning the number of independent variables used in the
model. The adjR2 value is 97.90%, which gives detail on the unde-
sirable effect. It not only ensures the model fit with the obtained
experimental data obtained and also represents the number of
independent parameters. The pred R2 value is 94.68%, and the adj
R2 value of 97.90% shows there is a concurrence between these
values. Fig. 3 represents the plot of actual versus predicted values of
biodiesel yield and thereby showing a higher degree of correlation.
3.1.2. Combined role of temperature and molar ratio
Temperature is considered as a significant parameter because of
its significance on yield. The rise of temperature increases the re-
action rate and also reduce the reaction time. Temperature in-
creases the reaction rate by elevating the collision of reacting
molecules thereby accelerating the chemical reaction
(Muthukumaran et al., 2017). The solubility of methanol is
increased, when the temperature increases. Thus enhances the
contact between the reactive molecules. In this analysis, the
transesterification reaction temperature was diverse from 45 to
65
C to analyse its impact on the biodiesel yield. The effect of oil to
methanol ratio varied from 1:3 to 1:12. Biodiesel production was
 M.S. Kavitha, S. Murugavelh / Journal of Cleaner Production 234 (2019) 1192e1209 1201

Fig. 6. Optimized process parameters for model validation (a) Mean Squared Error value vs Epoch (b) Predicted and Experimented biodiesel yield using ANN.

Fig. 7. (7a-7f) Engine performance and emission analysis of D90 STB10, D80 STB20, D70 STB30, D60 STB40, STB100 and diesel. Fig. 7a. Brake thermal efficiency of engine for different
blends at various load; Fig. 7b. Specific fuel consumption of engine for different blends at various load; Fig. 7c. CO2 emission of engine for different blends at various load; Fig. 7d.
Hydrocarbon emission of engine for different blends at various load; Fig. 7e. CO emission of engine for different blends at various load; Fig. 7f. NOx emission of engine for different
blends at various load.
1202 M.S. Kavitha, S. Murugavelh / Journal of Cleaner Production 234 (2019) 1192e1209

Fig. 7. (continued).

found to be maximum in 1:12 ratio. Maximum biodiesel yield
90.22% (Fig. 4a.) was achieved at a reaction temperature of 55
C
and a molar ratio of 1:12. Around 60
C and 65
C, the yield of
biodiesel declines to 67.37% which is due to the evaporation of
methanol. Thus the availability of the methanol required for the
transesterification reaction reduces, which leads to the decline in
the output yield.
3.1.3. Combined role of temperature and catalyst loading
The catalyst concentration varied from 1 to 2% (W/W) with a
higher amount of biodiesel obtained at 1.5% of KOH. Fig. 4b repre-
sents the increase in catalyst concentration is leading to decreasing
of biodiesel yield. This might be due to the increase in the viscosity
of the reaction mixture (Mendonca et al., 2019; Kumar et al., 2018).
Increase in the viscosity of the oil will be affecting the reactant
mixing and thus a reduction of biodiesel is visualized. Catalyst
concentration above 1.5% may lead to a backward reaction by
 M.S. Kavitha, S. Murugavelh / Journal of Cleaner Production 234 (2019) 1192e1209
increasing the amount of glycerol formation (Avinash and
Murugesan, 2018). The increase of catalyst used in the production
process formed the soap salts. This increase contributes to the
precipitation of the reaction mixture and thus makes the separation
of biodiesel from glycerol is unfavourable. Thus the optimum
catalyst concentration was found out as 1.5%.
3.1.4. Combined role of temperature and stirring speed
The impact of transesterification reaction temperature and
stirring speed on biodiesel yield (Fig. 4c.). The interactive effect of
temperature and the stirring speed was found to be insignificant as
the viscosity of fluid varied concerning the increase in temperature.
The stirring speed did not have a significant effect on the yield as
the temperature dominated the process. At temperature 55
C, the
feedstock to methanol ratio of 1:3, a catalyst loading of 1.5 wt%, and
stirring speed of 300 rpm yield was around 71.56%, whereas the
change in rpm to 900 and keeping other process parameters con-
stant yield was 72.29%. Hence, an increase in rpm from 300 to 900
lead to 0.73% increase. Thus the stirring speed is not playing a
significant role in this process.
3.1.5. Combined role of molar ratio and catalyst on biodiesel yield
Amount of methanol required for transesterification process is
also a vital parameter, it impacts the economy production cost. The
effect of catalyst loading percentage was ranged from 1 to 2% and
oil to methanol ratio was from 1:3 to 1:12 is studied and reported in
Fig. 4d. Biodiesel production was found to be maximum at 1:12 of
sterculia oil to methanol ratio. The increase of yield was studied
concerning the different ratio of sterculia oil to methanol ratio. The
sterculia biodiesel yield for 1:3 ratio was around 65e71%, 1:7.5 ratio
the yield was 71%e86% and 1:12 ratio gave yield around 82e90%.
The increasing amount of feedstock to methanol ratio also increases
the biodiesel yield. Catalyst solubility rises based on the concerning
amount of the methanol in the reaction mixture. Thus the optimum
amount of methanol will enhance the production process.
3.1.6. Combined role of molar ratio and agitation
The surface plot of molar ratio and agitation speed on biodiesel
yield (Fig. 4e.) attained an optimum agitation speed as 900 rpm.
Agitation also shows a major part in the yield of sterculia biodiesel.
In this study, speed was varied from 300 to 900 rpm. Agitation and
mixing accomplish the homogeneity of oil mixture. At higher rpm,
the contact reaction between oil, catalyst, and methanol is estab-
lished thereby increasing the rate of the reaction. In the absence of
agitation, then the reaction is accomplished between only oil and
methanol leaving out the catalyst. Thus, it has an impact on the
production process and also gives low biodiesel yield.
3.1.7. Combined role of catalyst and stirring
The interaction between the catalyst and stirring speed is
insignificant which was reported from experimental results
(Fig. 4f.). The current study was performed under homogenous
condition was the interaction between the catalyst and free fatty
acid is a bulk phenomenon. This interaction between the catalyst
and free fatty acid was safe rate deciding step, even at lower rpm.
3.1.8. Validation of the model using RSM
Based on the mathematical equation developed the optimiza-
tion of the process parameters maximized the yield of Sterculia
foetida biodiesel. Temperature 55
C, feedstock to methanol ratio
1:11.6, catalyst loading 4% and agitation speed 888 rpm were found
to be optimal and shown in Fig. 5. To verify and validate the model
the experiments were done thrice for the above optimal condition.
The biodiesel yield 90.12% was reported. The obtained experi-
mental value had the best bond when comparing the predicted
1203
value of biodiesel yield. The optimized range of selected parame-
ters, their experimental and predicted yield was shown in Table 8.
3.2. Prediction using ANN
Levenberg- Marquardt algorithm (LMA) can achieve better R2
value with least standard deviation and less MSE value when
compared to other algorithms (Avinash and Murugesan, 2018).
Thus in the current study Levenberg- Marquardt feed-forward
backpropagation algorithm with 15 neurons were used for
modelling the sterculia biodiesel yield. The optimum network ar-
chitecture of ANN was 4:15:1 shown in Fig. 6a which represents the
four input variable, fifteen hidden neurons and a single output.
In this current study data of experiments were divided
randomly into three subsections which includes 70% of data were
taken for training, 15% of data for validation and 15% data for
testing. Fig. 6a shows the MSE value variation of validation,
training, and test of the developed model of 4:15:1. High MSE value
seen initially is declined to the lesser value, where the value of MSE
is nearly equal to 100. After validation, the ANN developed proto-
type was successfully employed in predicting the FAME yield. All
the runs were tested to check the prediction ability of the devel-
oped ANN model. Inference of R-squared value of experiment and
expected response was a display for testing the model validation in
the ANN model. Fig. 6b shows the investigational and expected
yield of biodiesel, developed by ANN model. The R2 values of
training, validation, test and all were 0.9996, 0.9992, 0.8034 and
0.9329 respectively. There is a better concurrence between the
experimental values and ANN expected values.
3.2.1. BTE - Brake thermal efficiency
Variation in brake thermal efficiency (BTE) for biodiesel blends
of Sterculia concerning engine load is shown in Fig. 7a. The thermal
brake efficiency of the engine depends on the load for sterculia
biodiesel blends and reference fuel (diesel). 100% load of reference
fuel was found to have high BTE of 32.5% which might be due to the
maximum power output and also reduced heat rejection rate
(Ashok et al., 2017). The BTE for the biodiesel blends studies were
25.33%, 25.48%, 25.61%, 25.84% at 50% load. The sterculia biodiesel
blends resulted in lesser brake thermal efficiency than reference
fuel, which might be due to the lower viscosity, spray characteris-
tics and calorific value of sterculia biodiesel (Raman et al., 2019).
The higher viscosity of the biodiesel leads to reduced atomization.
Viscosity also affects fuel vaporization and combustion.
3.2.2. Fuel consumption
The specific fuel consumption refers to the successful conver-
sion of used fuel in the engine to useful power output. Lesser SFC
means superior engine performance. SFC for the biodiesel blends
was higher than diesel. The values for D80STB20, D70SFB30, and
D60STB40 were identical Fig. 7b. The fuel consumption for D80STB20
and D90STB10 was 0.34 kg/kWh for 50% load. Specific fuel con-
sumption of diesel fuel was 0.31 kg/kWh. A high amount of fuel
consumption of STB biodiesel blends was seen because of the low
calorific value of the blends (Nanthagopal et al., 2018). More
quantity of sterculia biodiesel was necessary to maintain the almost
same power output. At higher load, STB blends were decreased,
which is due to the minimal losses seen at higher loads. The lesser
SFC at higher loads may also be due to the fact that the percentage
increase in fuel needed to operate the engine was less than the
percentage increase in brake power.
3.2.3. Hydrocarbon emission
Hydrocarbon emissions from the exhaust gas obtained from the
experiments conducted for different bio-diesel blend reveal the
1204 M.S. Kavitha, S. Murugavelh / Journal of Cleaner Production 234 (2019) 1192e1209

Table 9
Properties of different fuel blends.

S.no Fuel blends Gross calorific value MJ/kg Kinematic viscosity @40
C in cSt Density g/cm3

1 100% Diesel [23] 45.32 2.7 0.84

2 100% Sterculia oil 36.44 42 0.955
3 B10 Sterculia biodiesel 10% þ diesel 90% 42.31 3.7 0.865
4 B20 Sterculia biodiesel 20% þ diesel 80% 41.43 4.1 0.870
5 B30 Sterculia biodiesel 30% þ diesel 70% 40.42 4.9 0.884
6 B40 Sterculia biodiesel 40% þ diesel 60% 38.68 5.1 0.910
7 B100 Sterculia biodiesel 100% 38.39 5.67 0.945

Fig. 8. a-8d. Variation of cylinder pressure for different biodiesel blends, biodiesel and diesel at 25% load, 50% load, 75% load and 100% load.

combustion performance. It was observed that air-fuel ratio, fuel
spray characteristics and operating conditions prevailing inside the
engine did influence the emission characteristics of HC. Also, HC
emissions vary for biodiesel blends and diesel fuel at an engine
speed of 1500 rpm is shown in Fig. 7c. HC emissions reduced with
STB biodiesel blends as fuel compared to the diesel (reference fuel).
It can be observed that the HC emissions of diesel was 0.145 g/kWh
at 75% engine load, whereas STB100 blend resulted emissions of
0.122 g/kWh. When the blend ratio was increased from 0 to 40 vol%,
the HC emission decreased from 0.142 g/kWh to 0.115 g/kWh at full
load condition. At 100 percent engine load, the emissions for
D80STB20 and D70STB30 blends were 0.095 and 0.106 g/kWh
respectively. Reduced HC emission with biodiesel was due to
increased oxygen availability for combustion (Raman et al., 2019;
Nanthagopal et al., 2018)).
3.2.4. Carbon monoxide emission
CO emissions of biodiesel blends concerning engine load are
shown in Fig. 7d. CO emission is related to the partial combustion
and also based on the available oxygen content in the fuel. The
formation of CO is influenced by the partial combustion and
availability of oxygen. At increased load, diesel fuel reported high
CO emission due to lack of oxygen. Biodiesel being an oxidized fuel
had the advantage as more oxygen participated in the combustion
reactions (Raman et al., 2019). A maximum of 0.007% and 0.013% in
the CO emission reduction was reported for D60STB40 medium and
STB100 at 75% load compared to diesel emission. CO emissions
declined during maximum load with a surge in STB and also better
combustion is achieved. The decrease in CO is related to the in-
crease in the CO2 emission which can be seen from Fig. 7e. The
presence of an excess amount of oxygen in the STB blends was the
 M.S. Kavitha, S. Murugavelh / Journal of Cleaner Production 234 (2019) 1192e1209
Fig. 9. a-9d Heat release rate for different biodiesel blends, biodiesel and diesel at 25%, 50%, 75% and 100% load.
main reason behind the increase of CO2 emission in the exhaust
(Nanthagopal et al., 2018). STB reported 0.74% in CO2 and a constant
increase was seen with respect to the high percentage of biodiesel
blends. Diesel emission was lesser compared to biodiesel blends. At
100% load diesel emitted 9.96%, whereas B30 produces 10.7% of CO2
emission. All the biodiesel blends emitted more of CO2, which is
less toxic than CO. This was due to the complete combustion of the
biodiesel blends.
3.2.5. NOx emissions
Monoatomic nitrogen molecules were formed at an extraordi-
nary higher temperature and couples with oxygen molecule pre-
sent in the fuel to form NOx. Fig. 7f shows the emission of nitrogen
oxide for STB and its blend at different loads. The emission of NOx
was found to be almost in a similar range at 0% load for STB and for
the reference fuel. Emission of NOx is seen for all biodiesel blends at
higher loads, whereas a decrease in emission for diesel is found.
STB100 shows lesser emission compared to all biodiesel blends till
50% load. The higher amount of oxygen content might be the reason
for the NOx emission of biodiesel blends. The rise of combustion
temperature may also consider as one of the factors for the increase
of NOx emission, which is due to enhanced combustion (Yuan et al.,
2008).
3.2.6. Combustion analysis
The biodiesel obtained from Sterculia foetida and their blends
were analyzed for the combustion characteristics of the biofuel. The
variables analyzed for the combustion characteristics were cylinder
gas pressure, cumulative heat release rate (CHRR), heat release rate
1205
(HRR), mean gas temperature (MGT), and mass fraction burnt
(MFB). All the variables were evaluated based on the engine cyl-
inder pressure variation. All these variables depict the reaction
happening in the combustion chamber when the chemical energy
of the fuel is converted into heat energy. Biodiesel blends prepared
on volume basis were D90STB10, D80STB20, D70STB30, and D60STB40.
STB100 is also used for testing the performance and emission.
Properties of different biodiesel blends and standard diesel were
tested and the biodiesel blend D90STB10 shows the density and
calorific value were found to be similar of diesel and shown in
Table 9.
3.2.7. Cylinder gas pressure
Cylinder gas pressure is the main variable for analyzing the
combustion characteristic of the engine. It shows the burning ca-
pacity of the fuel and also fuel and air mixture capacity during the
combustion process. Cylinder pressure and crank angle for various
sterculia biodiesel blends of sterculia biodiesel D90STB10, D80STB20,
D70STB30, D60STB40, STB100 and diesel were analyzed and shown in
Fig. 8aed for various loads. The maximum cylinder pressure is
observed in diesel engine was 58.64 bar and the D90STB10 has 58.25
for 25% load. Diesel showed the maximum cylinder pressure due to
its self-ignition characteristics and its high calorific value compared
to other fuel tested (Nanthagopal et al., 2019). D90STB10 has the
maximum cylinder pressure compared to other biodiesel blends.
D80STB20, D70STB30, D60STB40 and STB100 blends were representing
the maximum cylinder pressure at 57.71 bar, 57.01 bar, 56.76 bar
and 56.65 bar for 25% load. Cylinder pressure of higher biodiesel
blends was decreasing which might due to the ignition delay of the
1206 M.S. Kavitha, S. Murugavelh / Journal of Cleaner Production 234 (2019) 1192e1209
Fig. 10. a-10d. Cumulative heat release rate for different biodiesel blends, biodiesel and diesel at 25% load, 50% load, 75% load and 100% load.
fuel and also less calorific value compared to the diesel (Ashok et al.,
2019). Fig. 8b depicts the cylinder pressure variation with respect to
50% load, where maximum cylinder pressure was obtained for
D90STB10 as 64.6% at 50% load, followed by the diesel 64.2 bar.
Combustion of D90STB10 starts early than the petroleum diesel
because of the high cetane number of biodiesel, the oxygen content
of the biodiesel. Higher STB blends showed a decrease in the cyl-
inder pressure due to the lowering of the calorific value. Cylinder
pressure of D80STB20, D70STB30, D60STB40 and STB100 were found to
be 64.48 bar, 64.16 bar, 63.56 bar and 62.83 bar.
Fig. 8c displays the variation in the cylinder pressure with
respect to six different fuels (D90STB10, D80STB20, D70STB30,
D60STB40 and STB100 and diesel) tested at 75% load. D90 STB10 has
high cylinder pressure compared to diesel and other biodiesel
blends for 75% load. Maximum cylinder pressure was obtained for
D90STB10 as 68.71%, whereas diesel highest cylinder pressure
attained as 68.4 bar. The high cylinder pressure acquired for
D80STB20, D70STB30, D60STB40 and STB100 as 68.57 bar, 68.22 bar,
68.13 bar and 66.99 bar. Fig. 8d represents the cylinder pressure at
100% load for different biodiesel blends, diesel and biodiesel. Diesel
has attained maximum cylinder pressure for 100% load as 71.77 bar,
then other biodiesel blends. All the tested fuels were showing the
almost identical trend, which is a common pattern in the com-
bustion of a diesel engine. Cylinder pressure of D90STB10, D80STB20,
D70STB30, D60STB40 and STB100 were 73.37 bar, 72.29 bar, 72.21 bar,
72.20 bar and 72.16 bar respectively. The pressure decreases with
respect to the higher concentration of biodiesel which implies the
less calorific value of the biodiesel blends compared to the diesel
fuel.
3.2.8. Heat release rate
The rate at which the conversion of chemical energy into heat
energy is taking place is called a heat release rate. It also describes
the phase of combustion as follows: premixed combustion, fast
combustion, controlled combustion and last combustion phase.
Variation of heat release rate for different biodiesel blends, bio-
diesel and diesel fuel were analyzed at different loadings (25%, 50%,
75% and 100% load) were shown in Fig. 9aed. The heat release rate
for different fuel tested in the engine was representing an identical
trend for all loads. Heat release rate obtained values were changed
from a negative to a positive value indicating the fast combustion of
the biodiesel and biodiesel blends rather diesel fuel for all loading
conditions. Ignition of the fuel is progressive for the higher content
biodiesel blends compared to petroleum diesel.
HRR of sterculia biodiesel and its blends were found to be low
while comparing to the petroleum diesel. A decrease in heat release
rate was found in pure biodiesel and also increase in biodiesel
blends showed the decline in the HRR. Diesel showed the higher
heat release rate of 34.36 (J/CA), followed by D90STB10, D80STB20,
D70STB30, D60STB40 and STB100 as 33.29, 32.26, 31.87, 30.58, 26.89
respectively for 25% load. The ignition delay time was reduced for
all biodiesel and biodiesel blends compared to the diesel for all
loads which might be due to the high cetane number of biodiesel
(Mazumdar and Agarwal, 2008).
In all sterculia biodiesel, biodiesel blends and diesel the late
combustion phase was showing a similar trend for all loads. Bio-
diesel blends were showing an acceleration of combustion than
diesel in the late combustion phase which is due to the existence of
high oxygen content seen in the biodiesel (Agarwal and
 M.S. Kavitha, S. Murugavelh / Journal of Cleaner Production 234 (2019) 1192e1209
Fig. 11. a-11d represents the mass fraction burnt (%) with respect to the crank angle for different loadings 25%, 50%, 75% and 100% respectively.
Rajamanoharan, 2009).
3.2.9. Cumulative heat release rate (CHRR)
Fig. 10aed represents the cumulative heat release rate of bio-
diesel, biodiesel blends and diesel at 25%, 50%, 75% and 100% load.
Combustion was initially started for all sterculia biodiesel blends of
(D90STB10, D80STB20, D70STB30 and D60STB40) and biodiesel (STB100)
whereas for diesel the CHRR was low in the initial stage of com-
bustion for all loading conditions. Diesel has high CHRR value than
all biodiesel blends due to the higher heating value, better effi-
ciency, high calorific value, and better atomization properties of
petroleum diesel. On the other perspective, biodiesel blends were
having low CHRR due to its low calorific value than diesel. In the
premixed combustion phase, the CHRR values were decreasing
with respect to the high concentration of biodiesel blends.
3.3. Mass fraction burned
Mass fraction burnt is the ratio between the cumulative heat
ratio to the total heat ratio. Mass fraction burned represents the
combustion process taking place inside the cylinder with respect to
ɵ. Mass fraction burned and heat release rate was representing the
fuel burnt and the rate of a combustion process in the IC engine.
Wiebe function has been used to estimate the mass fraction burnt.
Combustion has two modes where an initial mode is enhanced
due to the existence of excess oxygen which leads to the fast
combustion, followed by slow and linear mode of combustion
which is seen in all biodiesel blends and biodiesel fuel. Ignition
delay was visualized in diesel at the start of the combustion process
1207
in all the loads. Combustion was initialized in all biodiesel blends
and biodiesel at different loads than petrol.
In all Sterculia biodiesel and biodiesel blends of sterculia had a
similar trend of a graph for different loadings in Fig. 11aed. The
combustion process of biodiesel and biodiesel blends were initially
ignited where diesel had an ignition delay due to the oxygen con-
tent of biodiesel blends, then slowly diesel was leading the com-
bustion process because of its high calorific value.
3.3.1. Mean gas temperature
Mean gas temperature in-cylinder is also known as cylinder
bulk temperature that has been calculated using the trace of cyl-
inder pressure (Christensen et al., 1999). It unveils the character-
istics of a premixed combustion process. The mean gas temperature
also estimated from the in-cylinder pressure, heat release rate and
fuel injection, all these variables were interconnected and repre-
sents the connection of these parameters for satisfiying combus-
tion. Mean gas temperature for diesel was higher than biodiesel
and biodiesel blends irrespective of the load, because of its higher
calorific value in a premixed stage. In the initial stages, the mean
gas temperature was found to be low for diesel due to the ignition
delay, but other biodiesel blends combustion was initialized which
can be visualized from Fig. 12aed. Even though the ignition delay
variation is seen in all fuels used for testing, the maximum tem-
perature surges with respect to ɵ, was the same for all loads. Late
combustion phase of biodiesel blends was also seen along with the
biodiesel blends.
1208 M.S. Kavitha, S. Murugavelh / Journal of Cleaner Production 234 (2019) 1192e1209
Fig. 12. a-12d. Mean gas temperature verses Crank angle for different biodiesel blends, biodiesel and diesel at 25% load, 50% load, 75% load and 100% load.
4. Conclusions
Intensification of Sterculia biodiesel production from Sterculia
foetida and engine performance was reported. The STB was ana-
lysed and the presence of sterculic acid to 32% was detected. The
presence of malvalic acid, palmitic acid, oleic and linolenic acid was
found as major fatty acids in the oil. Degumming of oil helped in
removing maximum content of impurities, reduce free fatty acid
and also reduce the reaction time involved in the transesterification
process. The emission characteristics of biodiesel blends were also
analyzed in this current study. Optimum process parameters were
analysed using four-factor BBD utilizing RSM with 29 experimental
runs. This study suggests that the R2 value is 98.95% which indicate
the best fitness of the model. ANOVA table shows the temperature,
molar ratio, catalyst and stirring speed were having a important
effect on the yield of biodiesel. The interaction effect of tempera-
ture and stirring speed (AD) and catalyst and stirring speed (CD)
were insignificant on the biodiesel yield. The optimum tempera-
ture, feedstock to methanol ratio, catalyst concentration, and rev-
olution speed was found to be 55
C, 1:12, 1.5% (W/W) and 900 rpm.
A maximum yield of 90.22% biodiesel was reported and the model
validation also is done for the confirmation of results. ANN was
utilized successfully for the prediction of biodiesel yield. Predicted
Values of ANN showed better agreement with the experimental
values. A maximum brake power of 32.5% was reported for diesel at
100% load. Brake thermal efficiency for biodiesel blends at 50% load
was around 25.33%, 25.48%, 25.61% and 25.84%. The specific fuel
consumption was found to be 0.34 kg/kWh for D80STB20 and
D90STB10 blends for 50% load. The CO, NOX, HC were reported to be
0.01%, 0.286 g/kWh and 17.260 g/kWh ppm for STB100 of Sterculia
foetida for 25% load. Thus Sterculia foetida has a higher potential for
biodiesel production.
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