Summer Training Report Construction of Residential Building

INTRODUCTION

About Gorakhpur Development Authority

Gorakhpur Development Authority was formed by Uttar Pradesh State Government under the act of UP
government Municipal corporation and urban development 1973 for the Construction and Development
of Infrastructure in the City. The city attracts thousands of tourists every year from all over the world
because of the buddhist circuit, grand forest and famous temples, thus Gorakhpur Development
Authority came into being. The beautiful temples and amazing Buddhist circuit are very popular not
only in India but across the globe and Gorakhpur Development Authority has taken up the responsibility
of undertaking construction of residential and commercial spaces as well as implementing their projects
in accordance with guidelines of UNESCO so as to preserve the Heritage of the City.

From flats, duplexes, plot auction, GDA has a provision for all your demands in accordance with your
needs, comfort, convenience and most importantly, your budget. The Master plan (1991-2011) of the
Gorakhpur has been designed by the Gorakhpur Development Authority keeping in mind the ever
growing population, latest trends, financial development and the rise in the tourism sector but the
perseverance of old architecture and conservation of cultural heritage of the city has been given the
almost importance. Incorporated under the Uttar Pradesh Urban Planning and Development 1973, the
Gorakhpur Development Authority employs best of experts from various fields of architecture,
engineering and planning.

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PROJECT OVERVIEW

NAME OF WORK: Construction of LOHIYA ENCLAVE , Near taramandal road ,Gorakhpur

(multi-storey residential building project).

Agreement No 03/EE/CD-III/2018-19

Name of Contractor Maa Vaishno Real States PVT.LTD

Plot Size 50984 Sqm.Area

Estimated Civil Work Cost Rs 8,01,47,287/-

Estimated Electrical Work Cost Rs 24,75,332/-

Date of Start of Project 08/12/2018

Stipulated Date of Completion

of Project 06/11/2020

Current Status of Project 65% of work is completed.

Time Allowed for Project Two Years.

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SITE LOCATION
Near taramandal area with a superb lake view of Ramgarhtal .

Fig: A view of Site.

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FORMWORK
Formwork is a mould or die used to support and shape the concrete until it attains sufficient to carry its
own weight. The formwork holds the concrete until it hardens to required shape and size.

SIGNIFICANCE OF FORMWORK
1) Formwork constitutes 30% of the cost and 60% of the time in concrete construction.

2) Quality of concrete finish and soundness of concrete depends very much on the formwork
system

3) Desired shape of concrete is not possible if formwork not done properly.

4) Formwork should be properly designed, fabricated and erected to receive concrete.

5) Accidents happen because of the faulty formwork and scaffolding or staging.

SAFETY IN USING FORMWORK

1) Components are light in weight for manual handling.

2) Loose or hanging components are minimal.

3) Appropriate use of tools.

4) Minimum operations are involved in each reuse.

TYPES OF FORMWORK
1) Flex system

2) Quick deck system

3) Aluform system

4) Flex table formwork

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Fig: A view of Formwork

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PLANNING

Fig: Plan for a Floor.

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Planning of a GDA Project mainly includes

1. Pre-requisites for execution of work.
2. Deposit works
3. Preparation of estimates.
4. Execution of original work.
5. Expenditure on survey, exhibition.
6. Register of buildings.
7. Green building norms.
8. Preparation and accounting of Standard Measurement book.
9. Preparation and passing bills for payment.
10. Documentation of accounts.
11. General departmental charges.
12. Contracts and forms.
13. Preparation of tender documents.
14. Publicity of tenders
15. Sale of documents
16. Earnest money.
17. Issue of material to contractors.
18. Issue of tool and plant.
19. Payment to contractors
20. Insurance
21. Losses or damages.
22. Budgeting
23. Quality assurance and technical audit wing.
24. Inspection and Audit by Chief Controller.
25. Public accounts committee.

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SEQUENCE OF STRUCTURE WORK

1. Site clearance
2. Demarcation of site
3. Positioning of central coordinate i.e. (0,0,0) as per grid plan
4. Surveying and layout
5. Excavation
6. Bar binding and placement of foundation steel
7. Shuttering and scaffolding
8. Concreting
9. Electrical and plumbing

CONSTRUCTION PROCESS AND MATERIAL USED

SITE CLEARANCE
A number of conditions determine the kind of building that may be erected on a plot of ground. These
conditions may determine where on the lot it may be located. There are also covenants that are legally
binding regulations. These may, for example, set the minimum size of a house, prohibit utility buildings,
or ban rooftop television antennas. Zoning laws regulate the setback and other factors that play into the
equation of house location on a lot. Septic tanks also require special consideration. A Certificate of
Occupancy is an important piece of paper. It is the final piece of paper, the sign-off, that says the
construction of the building is complete and it is ready to be occupied. Any town that has adopted the
BOCA or UBC building codes requires a CO. In most instances, the bank making the mortgage loan
requires a certificate of occupation as well.

CONCRETE
There are eight types of Portland cement. They are designated by Roman numerals and with an A suffix
on three of them Normal concrete is made of fine aggregates (sand) and regular aggregates (crushed
stone or gravel), plus water. Concrete will set up hard enough in normal weather in about 3 hours.
However, it takes 28 days for it to reach its fullest strength. Concrete may have admixtures. The Romans
added lard, blood, milk, and other materials to make the concrete more workable.
Normal concrete contains a small amount of air by adding an air-entrainment admixture, the amount of
air in the concrete can be increased by 10 percent or more by volume. By using an accelerator, it is
possible to have concrete reach its 28-day full strength in only 7 days. Calcium chloride is the most
common accelerator. Pozzolonas are natural volcanic ash or artificial materials that react with lime in
the wet concrete to form cementing compounds. Fly ash is a by-product of coal-burning power

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generating stations. Romans obtained fly ash from Mount Vesuvius eruptions. Fully loaded concrete
mixer trucks may weigh as much as 80,000 lbs, or 40 tons. If the mixer can’t get close enough to unload
the concrete where needed, it is necessary to use chutes, mixer-mounted conveyors, motorized buggies,
or wheelbarrows. Another term for rebar is deformed steel bar. This is the steel reinforcement used in
concrete to increase its tensile strength. Three types of bar support material are available: wire, precast
concrete, and moulded plastic. Rebar is supported by chairs made of plastic or welded wire. Welded-
wire fabric (WWF) looks like fencing and is manufactured with plain or deformed cold-drawn wire.
Slump is a measure of how consistent, fluid, and workable a batch of freshly mixed concrete is. Any
change in the slump may mean that the amount of water, the temperature, hydration, or setting has
changed. Slump is a measure of the amount of water in the mix.

Foundations
Though the foundation supports a building, the earth is the ultimate support. The foundation is a system
comprising foundation wall, footing, and soil. The prime purpose of an efficient structural foundation
system is to transmit the building loads directly to the soil without exceeding the bearing capacity of the
soil. A properly designed and constructed foundation system transfers the loads uniformly, minimizes
settlement, and anchors the structure against racking forces and uplift. Because soil type and bearing
capacity are the crucial factors in the foundation system, the foundation must be designed and built as a
system. Too many residential foundations are designed and built without any concern for the soil.

Types of Foundations
The many types of foundations can be separated into two broad groups: shallow foundations and deep
foundations. Shallow foundations consist of four types: deep basements (8-foot walls), crawl spaces,
slabs-ongrade, and frost-protected shallow foundations. They include spread footings, mat or raft
footings, long footings, and strap footings. Deep foundations extend considerably deeper into the earth.
They include drilled caissons or piers, groups of piles driven and cast-inplace concrete piles, and
floating foundations.

A number of different construction systems can be used. Casting- place concrete is the most widely used
material for residential foundations, followed by concrete block. Other methods include precast
foundation walls, cast-in-place concrete sandwich panels, and masonry or concrete piers, all weather
wood foundations (AWWF), which are now called permanent wood foundations (PWF), or preserved.
Wood foundations in Canada. Expanded polystyrene (EPS) Blocks, polyurethane blocks, and other
similar systems using EPS blocks filled with concrete are also used.

FOOTINGS
Footings (which may be square, rectangular, or circular) are strips of concrete or filled concrete blocks
placed under the foundation wall. Gravel or crushed stone footings are used with PWFs. The purpose of

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the footings is to transfer the loads from walls, piers, or columns to the soil. The spread footing is the
most common type used to support walls, piers, or columns. The National Concrete Masonry
Association (NCMA) has developed a system of solid.

Pile foundation systems

Foundations relying on driven piles often have groups of piles connected by a Pile cap (a large concrete
block into which the heads of the piles are embedded) to distribute loads which are larger than one pile
can bear. Pile caps and isolated piles are typically connected with grade beams to tie the foundation
elements together; lighter structural elements bear on the grade beams while heavier elements bear
directly on the pile cap.

Monopile foundation: A monopile foundation utilizes a single, generally large-diameter, foundation

structural element to support all the loads (weight, wind, etc.) of a large above-surface structure.

Dried Piles: Also called caissons, drilled shafts, drilled piers, Cast-in-drilled-hole piles (CIDH piles) or
Cast-in-Situ piles.

Rotary boring techniques offer larger diameter piles than any other piling method and permit pile
construction through particularly dense or hard strata. Construction methods depend on the geology of
the site. In particular, whether boring is to be undertaken in 'dry' ground conditions or through water-
logged but stable strata - i.e. 'wet boring'. 'Wet' boring also employs a temporary casing through unstable
ground and is used when the pile bore cannot be sealed against water ingress. Boring is then undertaken
using a digging bucket to drill through the underlying soils to design depth. The reinforcing cage is
lowered into the bore and concrete is placed by tremie pipe, following which, extraction of the
temporary casing takes place.

Under reamed piles Under-reamed piles have mechanically formed enlarged bases that have been as
much as 6 m in diameter. The form is that of an inverted cone and can only be formed in stable soils.
The larger base diameter allows greater bearing capacity than a straight-shaft pile.

Augercast pile: An augercast pile, often known as a CFA pile, is formed by drilling into the ground
with a hollow stemmed continuous flight auger to the required depth or degree of resistance. No casing
is required. Augercast piles cause minimal disturbance, and are often used for noise and
environmentally sensitive sites. Augercast piles are not generally suited for use in contaminated soils,
due to expensive waste disposal costs. In cases such as these however a displacement pile may provide
the cost efficiency of an augercast pile and minimal environmental impact. In ground containing
obstructions or cobbles and boulders, augercast piles are less suitable as refusal above the design pile tip
elevation may be encountered. In certain cases drill motors that produce more torque and horsepower
may be able to mitigate these events.

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Specialty Piles: Specialty Piles are of following types:

1. Micro piles

2. Tripod piles

3. Sheet piles

4. Soldier piles

5. Suction Piles

6. Ad freeze Piles

Finishing and Curing of Concrete:

When working with concrete, certain methods and techniques must be employed to ensure the best
finished product. These are given below:

1) Screening

2) Tamping and jitterbugging

3) Finishing (including Floating, Troweling, Brooming, Grooving, and Edging)

4) Curing (including curing time and curing methods)

1) Screening
To screed is to strike-off or level slab concrete after pouring. Generally, all the dry materials used in
making quality concrete are heavier than water. Thus, shortly after placement, these materials will have
a tendency to settle to the bottom and force any excess water to the surface. This reaction is commonly
called bleeding. This bleeding usually occurs with non–air-entrained concrete. It is of utmost importance
that the first operations of placing, screening, and drying be performed before any bleeding takes place.
The concrete should not be allowed to remain in wheelbarrows, buggies, or buckets any longer than is
necessary. It should be dumped and spread as soon as possible and struck-off to the proper grade, then
immediately struck-off, followed at once by drying. These last two operations should be performed
before any free water is bled to the surface. The concrete should not be spread over a large area before
screening—nor should a large area be screened and allowed to remain before drying. If any operation is
performed on the surface while the bleed water is present, serious scaling, dusting, or crazing can result.
This point cannot be overemphasized and is the basic rule for successful finishing of concrete surfaces.
The surface is struck off by moving a straightedge back and forth with a saw like motion across the top
of the forms or screeds. A small amount of concrete should always be kept ahead of the straightedge to

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fill in all the low spots and maintain a plane surface. For most slab work, screening is usually a two-
person job because of the size of the slab.

2) Tamping or Jitterbugging
The hand tamper or jitterbug is used to force the large particles of coarse aggregate slightly below the
surface to enable the cement mason to pass a darby over the surface without dislodging any large
aggregate. After the concrete has been struck-off (and, in some cases, tamped), it is smoothed with a
darby to level any raised spots and fill depressions. Long-handled floats of either wood or metal (called
bull floats) are sometimes used instead of darbies to smooth and level the surface. The hand tamper
should be used sparingly and, in most cases, not at all. If used, it should be used only on concrete having
a low slump (1 inch or less) to compact the concrete into a dense mass. Jitterbugs are sometimes used on
industrial floor construction because the concrete for this type of work usually has a very low slump,
with the mix being quite stiff and perhaps difficult to work.

3) Finishing
When the bleed water and water sheen have left the surface of the concrete, finishing may begin.
Finishing may take one or more of several forms, depending on the type of surface desired. Finishing
operations must not be overdone, or water under the surface will be brought to the top. When this
happens, a thin layer of cement is also brought up and later, after curing, the thin layer becomes a scale
that will powder off with usage. Finishing can be done by hand or by rotating power-driven trowels or
floats. The size of the job determines the choice, based on economy. The type of tool used for finishing
affects the smoothness of the concrete. A wood float puts a slightly rough surface on the concrete. A
steel (or other metal) trowel or float produces a smooth finish. Extra rough surfaces are given to the
concrete by running a stiffbristled broom across the top.

4) Floating
Most sidewalks and driveways are given a slightly roughened surface by finishing with a float. Floats
may be small, hand-held tools , with the work done while kneeling on a board, or they may be on long
handles for working from the edge shows a worker using a long-handled float, and shows the
construction details for making a float. When working from a kneeling board, the concrete must be stiff
enough to support the board and the worker’s weight without deforming. This will be within two to five
hours from the time the surface water has left the concrete, depending on the type of roof. A roof
includes the roof cover (the upper layer, which protects against rain, snow, and wind) or roofing, the
sheathing to which it is fastened, and the framing (rafters) that support the other components. Because of
its exposure, roofing usually has a limited life. It is made to be readily replaceable. Roofing may be
made of many widely diversified materials, among which are the following:

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a) Wood:

These are usually in the form of shingles (uniform machine-cut) or shakes that are hand-cut. They are
seen in many areas of the country.

b) Metal or aluminium:

Simulates other kinds of roofing.

c) Slate:

This may be the natural product or rigid manufactured slabs, often cement asbestos, though these are on
the decline since the controversy over asbestos.

d) Built-up covers of asphalt or tar-impregnated felts, with a mopping of hot tar or asphalt:

These are placed between the plies and a mopping of tar or asphalt overall. Tar-felt roofs usually have
the top covered with embedded gravel or crushed slag.

e) Roll roofing:

As the name implies, is marketed in rolls containing approximately 108 ft. Each roll is usually 36 inches
wide and may be plain or have a coating of colored Mineral granules. The base is a heavy asphalt-
impregnated felt.

f) Asphalt shingles:

These are usually in the form of strips with two, three, or four tabs per unit. These shingles Is asphalt
with the surface exposed to the weather heavily Coated with mineral granules. Because of their fire
resistance, Cost, and durability, asphalt shingles are the most popular roofing material for homes.
Asphalt shingles are available in a wide range of colours, including black and white.

Glass fibre shingles—These are made partly of a glass fibre mat (which is waterproof) and partly of
asphalt. Like asphalt shingles, glass fibre shingles come with self-sealing tabs and carry a Class-A fire
resistance warranty. For the do-it-yourself, they may be of special interest because they are lightweight,
about 220 pounds per square (100 ft of roofing).

Roofs:
The slope of the roof is frequently a factor in the choice of roofing materials and method used to put
them in place. The lower the pitch of the roof, the greater the chance of wind getting under the shingles
and tearing them out. Interlocking cedar shingles resist this wind prying better than standard asphalt
shingles. For roofs with less than a 4-inch slope per foot, do not use standard asphalt. Down to 2 inches,
use self sealing asphalt. Roll roofing can be used with pitches down to 2 inches when lapped 2 inches.

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For very low-pitched Slopes, the manufacturers of asphalt shingles recommend that the roof be planned
for some other type of covering. Aluminium strip roofing virtually eliminates the problem of wind
prying, but these strips are noisy. Most homeowners object to the noise during a rainstorm. Even on
porches, the noise is often annoying to those inside the house. Spaced roofing boards are sometimes
used with cedar shingles. This is usually done as an economy measure and because the cedar shingles
add considerably to the strength of the roof. The spaced roofing boards reduce the insulating qualities.

Roll Roofing:
Roll roofing is an economical cover especially suited for roofs with low pitches. It is also sometimes
used for valley flashing instead of metal. It has a base of heavy asphalt-impregnated felt with additional
coatings of asphalt that are dusted to prevent adhesion in the roll. The weather surface may be plain or
covered with fine mineral granules. Many different colours are available. One edge of the sheet is left
plain (no granules) where the lap cement is applied. For best results, the sheathing must be tight,
preferably 1 × 6 tongue-and-groove, or plywood. If the sheathing is smooth. These asphalt shingles have
a three-dimensional look. Asphalt shingles are the most popular.

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PROJECT MONITORING :-

PROJECT MONITORING SYSTEM:

This is done to continuously track the performance of the project progress, cost sand condition
contribution. Corrective actions can be taken when required and provides data. The following three
reports are made for the tracking-

 Monthly progress report

 Job cost report
 Project performance report.

QUALITY:-

The technical audit of works done by GDA used to be done in house right from its inception. The
implementation of Quality Assurance in the field will require close co-operation among the three
agencies, namely

(a) field engineers

(b) the construction agency

(c) the Quality Assurance team at Circle level for strict compliance of Quality Assurance Procedure
forming part of agreement.

Quality Control System of the Department

Multi-level Quality checks have been created in GDA as detailed below:

Field level

The direct responsibility for ensuring proper quality of work as per approved specifications for
achieving the intended performance and structural, functional and aesthetical parameters, and the desired
life of the building/installation/structure rests with the construction team of Executive Engineer,
Assistant Engineer and Junior Engineer.

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Quality Control team at Circle Level

To keep a watch on the effectiveness/adequacy of Quality Assurance measures at site, a Quality

Assurance team with SE of the circle as its head and comprising of one AE.

The functions of the Quality Assurance team at Circle level are to check the compliance of Quality
Assurance system by the field units, to locate the lapse/deficiency in the implementation of the Quality
Assurance Plan, and to guide the field engineers in quality related aspects of the work.

Core Wing at Directorate Level

This Core Wing carries out the following main functions to ensure systematic and comprehensive
Assurance of quality in the works: -

· Quality Assurance of works under the Special DG(S&P), (TD), ADG (Border) and Engineer- in- Chief
(GDA), Gorakhpur.

· Carry out comprehensive examination & technical audit of works.

· To carry out investigations and enquiries with regard to quality related aspects.

Quality Assurance units in the Regions

Quality Assurance works in various Regions are being looked after by the Regional QA units headed by
the Superintending Engineer or Director Works of the Region.

CONTRACT SPECIFICATIONS AND QUALITY ASSURANCE (CSQ)

The CSQ unit of GDA is responsible for Contract related matters and quality assurance functions.

The unit headed by a Chief Engineer is located in GDA office and has 5 separate cells headed by
superintending engineers to look after specific areas. The specific areas are

a. Contract & Manual

b. Standards and Specifications

c. Quality Assurance

d. Techno-Legal matters

e. Technology Application & Standards Unit.

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The unit is also responsible for enlistment of class-1 contractors in GDA besides formulating rules and
regulations for enlistment of contractors by different authorities.

All contract related issues, techno legal issues referred to DGW by field units or by other organisations
are dealt by this unit. The responsibility of bringing out schedules and specifications also rests with the
CSQ unit.

Beam and Columns

In Framed structure fixed type beams are constructed. In such type of beams proper reinforcement
should be done for positive as well as negative bending moment. In such type of structures short
columns are constructed with minimum eccentricity. At lake view site rectangular shaped columns are
used with min. 4 no’s of 12 mm dia bars are used and spacing is not more than as per the code IS
456:2000.

Fig: Shows the beam and column of Residential building at lake view site.

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Beam is a structural element that primarily resists loads applied laterally to the beam's axis. Its mode of
deflection is primarily by bending. The loads applied to the beam result in reaction forces at the beam's
support points. The total effect of all the forces acting on the beam is to produce shear forces
and bending moments within the beam, that in turn induce internal stresses, strains and deflections of the
beam. Beams are characterized by their manner of support, profile (shape of cross-section), length, and
their material.
Beams are traditionally descriptions of building or civil engineering structural elements, but any
structures such as automotive automobile frames, aircraft components, machine frames, and other
mechanical or structural systems contain beam structures that are designed to carry lateral loads are
analyzed in a similar fashion.
In the beam equation ‘I’ is used to represent the second moment of area. It is commonly known as the
moment of inertia, and is the sum, about the neutral axis, of dA*r^2, where r is the distance from the
neutral axis, and dA is a small patch of area. Therefore, it encompasses not just how much area the beam
section has overall, but how far each bit of area is from the axis, squared. The greater I is, the stiffer the
beam in bending, for a given material.
Internally, beams subjected to loads that do not induce torsion or axial loading
experience compressive, tensile and shear stresses as a result of the loads applied to them. Typically,
under gravity loads, the original length of the beam is slightly reduced to enclose a smaller radius arc at
the top of the beam, resulting in compression, while the same original beam length at the bottom of the
beam is slightly stretched to enclose a larger radius arc, and so is under tension. Modes of deformation
where the top face of the beam is in compression, as under a vertical load, are known as sagging modes
and where the top is in tension, for example over a support, is known as hogging. The same original
length of the middle of the beam, generally halfway between the top and bottom, is the same as the
radial arc of bending, and so it is under neither compression nor tension, and defines the neutral axis
(dotted line in the beam figure). Above the supports, the beam is exposed to shear stress. There are
some reinforced concrete beams in which the concrete is entirely in compression with tensile forces
taken by steel tendons. These beams are known as prestressed concrete beams, and are fabricated to
produce a compression more than the expected tension under loading conditions. High strength steel
tendons are stretched while the beam is cast over them. Then, when the concrete has cured, the tendons
are slowly released and the beam is immediately under eccentric axial loads. This eccentric loading
creates an internal moment, and, in turn, increases the moment carrying capacity of the beam. They are
commonly used on highway bridges.
The primary tool for structural analysis of beams is the Euler–Bernoulli beam equation. This equation
accurately describes the elastic behaviour of slender beams where the cross sectional dimensions are
small compared to the length of the beam. For beams that are not slender a different theory needs to be
adopted to account for the deformation due to shear forces and, in dynamic cases, the rotary inertia. The
beam formulation adopted here is that of Timoshenko and comparative examples can be found in
NAFEMS Benchmark Challenge Number 7. Other mathematical methods for determining
the deflection of beams include "method of virtual work" and the "slope deflection method". Engineers
are interested in determining deflections because the beam may be in direct contact with
a brittle material such as glass. Beam deflections are also minimized for aesthetic reasons. A visibly
sagging beam, even if structurally safe, is unsightly and to be avoided. A stiffer beam (high modulus of
elasticity and/or one of higher second moment of area) creates less deflection.

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Column or pillar in architecture and structural engineering is a structural element that transmits,
through compression, the weight of the structure above to other structural elements below. In other
words, a column is a compression member. The term column applies especially to a large round support
(the shaft of the column) with a capital and a base or pedestal which is made of stone, or appearing to be
so. A small wooden or metal support is typically called a post, and supports with a rectangular or other
non-round section are usually called piers. For the purpose of wind or earthquake engineering, columns
may be designed to resist lateral forces. Other compression members are often termed "columns"
because of the similar stress conditions. Columns are frequently used to support beams or arches on
which the upper parts of walls or ceilings rest. In architecture, "column" refers to such a structural
element that also has certain proportional and decorative features. A column might also be a decorative
element not needed for structural purposes; many columns are "engaged", that is to say form part of a
wall.

As the axial load on a perfectly straight slender column with elastic material properties is increased in
magnitude, this ideal column passes through three states: stable equilibrium, neutral equilibrium, and
instability. The straight column under load is in stable equilibrium if a lateral force, applied between the
two ends of the column, produces a small lateral deflection which disappears and the column returns to
its straight form when the lateral force is removed. If the column load is gradually increased, a condition
is reached in which the straight form of equilibrium becomes so-called neutral equilibrium, and a small
lateral force will produce a deflection that does not disappear and the column remains in this slightly
bent form when the lateral force is removed. The load at which neutral equilibrium of a column is
reached is called the critical or buckling load. The state of instability is reached when a slight increase of
the column load causes uncontrollably growing lateral deflections leading to complete collapse.

A column with a cross section that lacks symmetry may suffer torsional buckling (sudden twisting)
before, or in combination with, lateral buckling. The presence of the twisting deformations renders both
theoretical analyses and practical designs rather complex.
Eccentricity of the load, or imperfections such as initial crookedness, decreases column strength. If the
axial load on the column is not concentric, that is, its line of action is not precisely coincident with the
centroidal axis of the column, the column is characterized as eccentrically loaded. The eccentricity of
the load, or an initial curvature, subjects the column to immediate bending. The increased stresses due to
the combined axial-plus-flexural stresses result in a reduced load-carrying ability.
Column elements are considered to be massive if their smallest side dimension is equal to or more than
400 mm. Massive columns have the ability to increase in carrying strength over long time periods (even
during periods of heavy load). Taking into account the fact, that possible structural loads may increase
over time as well (and also the threat of progressive failure), massive columns have an advantage
compared to non-massive ones.

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Reinforcement

Reinforced concrete (RC) (also called reinforced cement concrete or RCC) is a composite
material in which concrete's relatively low tensile strength and ductility are counteracted by the
inclusion of reinforcement having higher tensile strength or ductility. The reinforcement is usually,
though not necessarily, steel reinforcing bars (rebar) and is usually embedded passively in the concrete
before the concrete sets. Reinforcing schemes are generally designed to resist tensile stresses in
particular regions of the concrete that might cause unacceptable cracking and/or structural failure.
Modern reinforced concrete can contain varied reinforcing materials made of steel, polymers or alternate
composite material in conjunction with rebar or not. Reinforced concrete may also be permanently
stressed (concrete in compression, reinforcement in tension), so as to improve the behaviour of the final
structure under working loads. In the United States, the most common methods of doing this are known
as pre-tensioning and post-tensioning.
For a strong, ductile and durable construction the reinforcement needs to have the following properties
at least:

 High relative strength

 High toleration of tensile strain
 Good bond to the concrete, irrespective of pH, moisture, and similar factors
 Thermal compatibility, not causing unacceptable stresses (such as expansion or contraction) in
response to changing temperatures.
 Durability in the concrete environment, irrespective of corrosion or sustained stress.
Many different types of structures and components of structures can be built using reinforced concrete
including slabs, walls, beams, columns, foundations, frames and more.
Reinforced concrete can be classified as precast or cast-in-place concrete. Designing and implementing
the most efficient floor system is key to creating optimal building structures. Small changes in the
design of a floor system can have significant impact on material costs, construction schedule, ultimate
strength, operating costs, occupancy levels and end use of a building. Without reinforcement,
constructing modern structures with concrete material would not be possible.
Concrete is a mixture of coarse (stone or brick chips) and fine (generally sand or crushed stone)
aggregates with a paste of binder material (usually Portland cement) and water. When cement is mixed
with a small amount of water, it hydrates to form microscopic opaque crystal lattices encapsulating and
locking the aggregate into a rigid structure. The aggregates used for making concrete should be free
from harmful substances like organic impurities, silt, clay, lignite etc.
Typical concrete mixes have high resistance to compressive stresses (about4,000 psi(28 MPa));
however, any appreciable tension (e.g., due to bending) will break the microscopic rigid lattice, resulting
in cracking and separation of the concrete. For this reason, typical non-reinforced concrete must be well
supported to prevent the development of tension.
If a material with high strength in tension, such as steel, is placed in concrete, then the composite
material, reinforced concrete, resists not only compression but also bending and other direct tensile

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actions. A composite section where the concrete resists compression and reinforcement "rebar" resists
tension can be made into almost any shape and size for the construction industry.
Key characteristics
Three physical characteristics give reinforced concrete its special properties:

1. The coefficient of thermal expansion of concrete is similar to that of steel, eliminating large
internal stresses due to differences in thermal expansion or contraction.
2. When the cement paste within the concrete hardens, this conforms to the surface details of the
steel, permitting any stress to be transmitted efficiently between the different materials. Usually
steel bars are roughened or corrugated to further improve the bond or cohesion between the
concrete and steel.
3. The alkaline chemical environment provided by the alkali reserve (KOH, NaOH) and
the portlandite (calcium hydroxide) contained in the hardened cement paste causes
a passivating film to form on the surface of the steel, making it much more resistant
to corrosion than it would be in neutral or acidic conditions. When the cement paste is exposed
to the air and meteoric water reacts with the atmospheric CO2, portlandite and the calcium
silicate hydrate (CSH) of the hardened cement paste become progressively carbonated and the
high pH gradually decreases from 13.5 – 12.5 to 8.5, the pH of water in equilibrium
with calcite (calcium carbonate) and the steel is no longer passivated.
As a rule of thumb, only to give an idea on orders of magnitude, steel is protected at pH above ~11 but
starts to corrode below ~10 depending on steel characteristics and local physico-chemical conditions
when concrete becomes carbonated. Carbonation of concrete along with chloride ingress are amongst
the chief reasons for the failure of reinforcement bars in concrete.
The relative cross-sectional area of steel required for typical reinforced concrete is usually quite small
and varies from 1% for most beams and slabs to 6% for some columns. Reinforcing bars are normally
round in cross-section and vary in diameter. Reinforced concrete structures sometimes have provisions
such as ventilated hollow cores to control their moisture & humidity.
Distribution of concrete (in spite of reinforcement) strength characteristics along the cross-section of
vertical reinforced concrete elements is inhomogeneous.
The reinforcement in a RC structure, such as a steel bar, has to undergo the same strain or deformation
as the surrounding concrete in order to prevent discontinuity, slip or separation of the two materials
under load. Maintaining composite action requires transfer of load between the concrete and steel. The
direct stress is transferred from the concrete to the bar interface so as to change the tensile stress in the
reinforcing bar along its length. This load transfer is achieved by means of bond (anchorage) and is
idealized as a continuous stress field that develops in the vicinity of the steel-concrete interface.
Anchorage (bond) in concrete: Codes of specifications
Because the actual bond stress varies along the length of a bar anchored in a zone of tension, current
international codes of specifications use the concept of development length rather than bond stress. The
main requirement for safety against bond failure is to provide a sufficient extension of the length of the
bar beyond the point where the steel is required to develop its yield stress and this length must be at least
equal to its development length. However, if the actual available length is inadequate for full
development, special anchorages must be provided, such as cogs or hooks or mechanical end plates. The

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same concept applies to lap splice length mentioned in the codes where splices (overlapping) provided
between two adjacent bars in order to maintain the required continuity of stress in the splice zone.
Anti-corrosion measures
In wet and cold climates, reinforced concrete for roads, bridges, parking structures and other structures
that may be exposed to deicing salt may benefit from use of corrosion-resistant reinforcement such as
uncoated, low carbon/chromium (micro composite), epoxy-coated, hot dip galvanised or stainless
steel rebar. Good design and a well-chosen concrete mix will provide additional protection for many
applications. Uncoated, low carbon/chromium rebar looks similar to standard carbon steel rebar due to
its lack of a coating; its highly corrosion-resistant features are inherent in the steel microstructure. It can
be identified by the unique ASTM specified mill marking on its smooth, dark charcoal finish. Epoxy
coated rebar can easily be identified by the light green colour of its epoxy coating. Hot dip galvanized
rebar may be bright or dull grey depending on length of exposure, and stainless rebar exhibits a typical
white metallic sheen that is readily distinguishable from carbon steel reinforcing bar. Reference ASTM
standard specifications A1035/A1035M Standard Specification for Deformed and Plain Low-carbon,
Chromium, Steel Bars for Concrete Reinforcement, A767 Standard Specification for Hot Dip
Galvanised Reinforcing Bars, A775 Standard Specification for Epoxy Coated Steel Reinforcing Bars
and A955 Standard Specification for Deformed and Plain Stainless Bars for Concrete Reinforcement.
Another, cheaper way of protecting rebars is coating them with zinc phosphate. Zinc phosphate slowly
reacts with calcium cations and the hydroxyl anions present in the cement pore water and forms a
stable hydroxyapatite layer.
Penetrating sealants typically must be applied some time after curing. Sealants include paint, plastic
foams, films and aluminum foil, felts or fabric mats sealed with tar, and layers of bentonite clay,
sometimes used to seal roadbeds.
Corrosion inhibitors, such as calcium nitrite [Ca(NO2)2], can also be added to the water mix before
pouring concrete. Generally, 1–2 wt. % of [Ca(NO2)2] with respect to cement weight is needed to
prevent corrosion of the rebars. The nitrite anion is a mild oxidizer that oxidizes the soluble and
mobile ferrous ions (Fe2+) present at the surface of the corroding steel and causes them to precipitate as
an insoluble ferric hydroxide (Fe(OH)3). This causes the passivation of steel at the anodic oxidation
sites. Nitrite is a much more active corrosion inhibitor than nitrate, which is a less powerful oxidizer of
the divalent iron.
Reinforcement and terminology of beams:
A beam bends under bending moment, resulting in a small curvature. At the outer face (tensile face) of
the curvature the concrete experiences tensile stress, while at the inner face (compressive face) it
experiences compressive stress.
A singly reinforced beam is one in which the concrete element is only reinforced near the tensile face
and the reinforcement, called tension steel, is designed to resist the tension.
A doubly reinforced beam is one in which besides the tensile reinforcement the concrete element is
also reinforced near the compressive face to help the concrete resist compression. The latter
reinforcement is called compression steel. When the compression zone of a concrete is inadequate to
resist the compressive moment (positive moment), extra reinforcement has to be provided if the architect
limits the dimensions of the section.

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An under-reinforced beam is one in which the tension capacity of the tensile reinforcement is smaller
than the combined compression capacity of the concrete and the compression steel (under-reinforced at
tensile face). When the reinforced concrete element is subject to increasing bending moment, the tension
steel yields while the concrete does not reach its ultimate failure condition. As the tension steel yields
and stretches, an "under-reinforced" concrete also yields in a ductile manner, exhibiting a large
deformation and warning before its ultimate failure. In this case the yield stress of the steel governs the
design.
An over-reinforced beam is one in which the tension capacity of the tension steel is greater than the
combined compression capacity of the concrete and the compression steel (over-reinforced at tensile
face). So the "over-reinforced concrete" beam fails by crushing of the compressive-zone concrete and
before the tension zone steel yields, which does not provide any warning before failure as the failure is
instantaneous.
A balanced-reinforced beam is one in which both the compressive and tensile zones reach yielding at
the same imposed load on the beam, and the concrete will crush and the tensile steel will yield at the
same time. This design criterion is however as risky as over-reinforced concrete, because failure is
sudden as the concrete crushes at the same time of the tensile steel yields, which gives a very little
warning of distress in tension failure.[23]
Steel-reinforced concrete moment-carrying elements should normally be designed to be under-
reinforced so that users of the structure will receive warning of impending collapse.
The characteristic strength is the strength of a material where less than 5% of the specimen shows
lower strength.
The design strength or nominal strength is the strength of a material, including a material-safety
factor. The value of the safety factor generally ranges from 0.75 to 0.85 in Permissible stress design.
The ultimate limit state is the theoretical failure point with a certain probability. It is stated under
factored loads and factored resistances.
Reinforced concrete structures are normally designed according to rules and regulations or
recommendation of a code such as ACI-318, CEB, Eurocode 2 or the like. WSD, USD or LRFD
methods are used in design of RC structural members. Analysis and design of RC members can be
carried out by using linear or non-linear approaches. When applying safety factors, building codes
normally propose linear approaches, but for some cases non-linear approaches.
Common failure modes of steel reinforced concrete:
Mechanical failure
Cracking of the concrete section is nearly impossible to prevent; however, the size and location of
cracks can be limited and controlled by appropriate reinforcement, control joints, curing methodology
and concrete mix design. Cracking can allow moisture to penetrate and corrode the reinforcement. This
is a serviceability failure in limit state design. Cracking is normally the result of an inadequate quantity
of rebar, or rebar spaced at too great a distance. The concrete then cracks either under excess loading, or
due to internal effects such as early thermal shrinkage while it cures.

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Ultimate failure leading to collapse can be caused by crushing the concrete, which occurs when
compressive stresses exceed its strength, by yielding or failure of the rebar when bending or shear
stresses exceed the strength of the reinforcement, or by bond failure between the concrete and the rebar.
Carbonation:
It is a chemical reaction between carbon dioxide in the air and calcium hydroxide and hydrated calcium
silicate in the concrete.
When a concrete structure is designed, it is usual to specify the concrete cover for the rebar (the depth of
the rebar within the object). The minimum concrete cover is normally regulated by design or building
codes. If the reinforcement is too close to the surface, early failure due to corrosion may occur. The
concrete cover depth can be measured with a cover meter. However, carbonated concrete incurs a
durability problem only when there is also sufficient moisture and oxygen to cause electropotential
corrosion of the reinforcing steel.
One method of testing a structure for carbonatation is to drill a fresh hole in the surface and then treat
the cut surface with phenolphthalein indicator solution. This solution turns pink when in contact with
alkaline concrete, making it possible to see the depth of carbonation. Using an existing hole does not
suffice because the exposed surface will already be carbonated.
Chlorides
Chlorides, including sodium chloride, can promote the corrosion of embedded steel rebar if present in
sufficiently high concentration. Chloride anions induce both localized corrosion (pitting corrosion) and
generalized corrosion of steel reinforcements. For this reason, one should only use fresh raw water or
potable water for mixing concrete, ensure that the coarse and fine aggregates do not contain chlorides,
rather than admixtures which might contain chlorides.
It was once common for calcium chloride to be used as an admixture to promote rapid set-up of the
concrete. It was also mistakenly believed that it would prevent freezing. However, this practice fell into
disfavor once the deleterious effects of chlorides became known. It should be avoided whenever
possible.

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Tremix Flooring
Tremix flooring is a special type of flooring mostly being done in the industrial sector. It provide better
wearing and tearing properties.
Since the building was also designed for underground parking facility so tremix flooring was done for
this purpose. In this process any type of reinforcement was not provided, only concreting was done by
M35 concrete with required slope.
Vacuum de-watering pump, floater machine, tremix skin and double beam screed vibrator are some of
the special tools which are used in tremix flooring.

Fig: Final view of basement slab after Tremix flooring for parking purpose.

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Safety measures at construction site

Safety measures at construction sites helps to prevent unforeseen accidents. Accidents at construction
sites may lead to loss of life and involve huge cost.

Accident can be defined as an unforeseen circumstance or event which happens abruptly to cause
damages to property and injury to the person(s) involved. Any of such occurrences that may interrupt or
interfere with the orderly progress of activities in a construction site can therefore be termed as an
accident.

Safety and precautions should therefore be an integral part of the operations of each construction site.
The entire managerial staff of the company is to initiate and contribute to the support necessary to keep
the site operational at all times.

This will enhance the success of the program as well as ensure project activities are completed as
scheduled without delay. Each operation has its own peculiar hazards and a safety program should be
developed to suit the particular hazards.

The following safety measures will therefore serve to reduce the accident rate in mixing and
placing of concrete used in the casting of footings, foundation walls, floor slabs, beams,
columns, retaining walls, sidewalks, driveways, and patios in a building project.

o Wear sturdy work gloves, long sleeves, and full length trousers to protect your hands, arms, and legs.
Indirect contact through clothing can be as serious as direct contact, so promptly rinse out wet concrete
or mortar from clothing.

o Wear rubber boots when placing and handling concrete for slabs and flatwork, because you may
sometimes have to stand in the wet mix to spread and screed the concrete.

o Make sure the boots are high enough to prevent concrete from getting inside them.

o To protect your eyes from cement dust and from splattered mortar or concrete, wear safety glasses or
goggles.

o Since masonry involves heavy lifting, be careful to avoid back strain and injury—always bend your
knees, keep your back straight, and lift with your legs.

o Small, shallow concrete footings can sometimes be formed by earth trenches if the soil is stable, but
most concrete work requires building forms to shape and hold the mix until it hardens. Forms for
concrete must be strong, tightly fitted, and rigidly constructed.

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o The deeper the concrete, the greater the pressure it will exert on the formwork, so don’t be afraid to use
an extra stake or two to help ensure that forms will not bulge or bow out of shape during the pour. Drive
supporting stakes slightly below the height of the string so they won’t interfere with leveling or finishing
the concrete surface.

o On residential projects, it is more common to use wheelbarrows or buggies to move the concrete from
the mixer to the forms. You can build ramps and runways over the forms to keep them from bumping
the boards or displacing the reinforcing steel out of place.

Fig: Nets are used to avoid accidents.

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Images of Site

Fig: Shows the Reinforcement in column. Fig: Shows the reinforcement in beams.

Fig: Shows a view of Residential building at Lake view site.

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Fig: Shows a view of slab after casting Fig: Shows a view of beams and columns.

Fig: Shows the reinforcement in staircase.

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Conclusion
It was a wonderful learning experience at GDA office, Gorakhpur (for 4 Weeks). I gained a lot of insight
regarding almost every aspect of site. I was given exposure in almost all the departments at the site, but I
had liked to highlight the areas of safety, quality management, material management and execution.

I hope this experience will surely help me in my future and also in shaping my career.

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