Appendix A

Concept of sinusoidal distributed windings

Electrical machines are designed in such a manner that the flux density distribution in the
airgap due to a single phase winding is approximately sinusoidal. This appendix aims to make
plausible the reason for this and the way in which this is realized. In this context the so-called
sinusoidally distributed winding concept will be discussed.
Figure A.1 represents an ITF based transformer or IRTF based electrical machine with a
finite airgap g. A two-phase representation is shown with two n1 turn stator phase windings.
The windings which carry the currents i1α , i1β respectively, are shown symbolically. This
implies that the winding symbol shown on the airgap circumference represents the locations of
the majority windings in each case, not the actual distribution, as will be discussed shortly. If
we consider the α winding initially, i.e. we only excite this winding with a current i1α , then the
aim is to arrange the winding distribution of this phase in such a manner that the flux density in
the airgap can be represented as B1α = B̂α cos ξ. Similarly, if we only excite the β winding
with a current i1β , a sinusoidal variation of the flux density should appear which is of the form
B1β = B̂β sin ξ. The relationship between phase currents and peak flux density values is of the
form B1α = Ci1α , B1β = Ci1β where C is a constant to be defined shortly. In space vector
terms the following relationships hold
i1 = i1α + ji1β (A.1a)
1
B = B̂1α + j B̂1β (A.1b)
Given that the current and flux density components are linked by a constant C, it is important to
ensure that the following relationship holds, namely
 1 = C i1
B (A.2)
If for example the current is of the form i1 = î1 e then the flux density should be of the
jρ

form B 1 = C î1 ejρ for any value of ρ and values of î1 which fall within the linear operating
range of the machine. The space vector components are in this case of the form i1α = î1 cos ρ,
i1β = î1 sin ρ. If we assume that the flux density distributions are indeed sinusoidal then the
resultant flux density Bres in the airgap will be the sum of the contributions of both phases
namely
Bres (ξ) = C î1 cos ρ cos ξ + C î1 sin ρ sin ξ (A.3)
     
B̂1α B̂1β
328 FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRICAL DRIVES

Figure A.1. Simplified ITF model, with finite airgap, no secondary winding shown

Expression (A.3) can also be written as Bres = C î1 cos (ξ − ρ) which means that the resultant
airgap flux density is again a sinusoidal waveform with its peak amplitude (for this example)
at ξ = ρ, which is precisely the value which should appear in the event that expression (A.2)
is used directly. It is instructive to consider the case where ρ = ωs t, which implies that the
currents iα , iβ are sinusoidal waveforms with a frequency of ωs . Under these circumstances the
location within the airgap where the resultant flux density is at its maximum is equal to ξ = ωs t.
A traveling wave exists in the airgap in this case, which has a rotational speed of ωs rad/s.
Having established the importance of realizing a sinusoidal flux distribution in the airgap for
each phase we will now examine how the distribution of the windings affects this goal.
For this purpose it is instructive to consider the relationship between the flux density in the
airgap at locations ξ, ξ + ∆ξ with the aid of figure A.2. If we consider a loop formed by the
two ‘contour’ sections and the flux density values at locations ξ, ξ + ∆ξ, then it is instructive
to examine the sum of the magnetic potentials along the loop and the corresponding MMF
enclosed by this loop. The MMF enclosed by the loop is taken to be of the form Nξ i, where Nξ
represents all or part of the α phase winding and i the phase current. The magnetic potentials
in the ‘red’ contour part of the loop are zero because the magnetic material is assumed to be
magnetically ideal (zero magnetic potential). The remaining magnetic potential contributions
when we traverse the loop in the anti-clockwise direction must be equal to the enclosed MMF
which leads to
g g
B (ξ) − B (ξ + ∆ξ) = Nξ i (A.4)
µo µo
Expression (A.4) can also be rewritten in a more convenient form by introducing the variable
N
n(ξ) = ∆ξξ which represents the phase winding distribution per radian. Use of this variable
Appendix A: Concept of sinusoidal distributed windings 329

Figure A.2. Sectional view of phase winding and enlarged airgap

with equation (A.4) gives

B (ξ + ∆ξ) − B (ξ) g
=− n(ξ)i (A.5)
∆ξ µo
which can be further developed by imposing the condition ∆ξ → 0 which allows equation (A.5)
to be written as
dB (ξ) g
=− n (ξ) i (A.6)
dξ µo
The left hand side of equation (A.6) represents the gradient of the flux density with respect to
ξ. An important observation of equation (A.6) is that a change in flux density in the airgap is
linked to the presence of a non-zero n(ξ)i term, hence we are able to construct the flux density
in the airgap if we know (or choose) the winding distribution n(ξ) and phase current. Vice versa
we can determine the required winding distribution needed to arrive at for example a sinusoidal
flux density distribution.
A second condition must also be considered when constructing the flux density plot around
the entire airgap namely

π
B (ξ) dξ = 0 (A.7)
−π

Equation (A.7) basically states that the flux density versus angle ξ distribution along the en-
tire airgap of the machine cannot contain an non-zero average component. Two examples are
considered below which demonstrate the use of equations (A.6) and (A.7). The first example
as shown in figure A.3 shows the winding distribution n(ξ) which corresponds to a so-called
‘concentrated’ winding. This means that the entire number of N turns of the phase winding
are concentrated in a single slot (per winding half) with width ∆ξ, hence Nξ = N . The cor-
responding flux density distribution is in this case trapezoidal and not sinusoidal as required.

The second example given by figure A.4 shows a distributed phase winding as often used in
practical three-phase machines. In this case the phase winding is split into three parts (and three
slots (per winding half), spaced λ rad apart) hence, Nξ = N3 . The total number of windings
of the phase is again equal to N . The flux density plot which corresponds with the distributed
330 FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRICAL DRIVES

Figure A.3. Example: concentrated winding, Nξ = N

N
Figure A.4. Example: distributed winding,Nξ = 3

winding is a step forward in terms of representing a sinusoidal function. The ideal case would
according to equation (A.6) require a n(ξ)i representation of the form
g
n (ξ) i = B̂ sin (ξ) (A.8)
µo

in which B̂ represents the peak value of the desired flux density function B (ξ) = B̂ cos (ξ).
Equation (A.8) shows that the winding distribution needs to be sinusoidal. The practical imple-
mentation of equation (A.8) would require a large number of slots with varying number of turns
placed in each slot. This is not realistic given the need to typically house three phase windings,
hence in practice the three slot distribution shown in figure A.4 is normally used and provides a
flux density versus angle distribution which is sufficiently sinusoidal.
Appendix A: Concept of sinusoidal distributed windings 331

In conclusion it is important to consider the relationship between phase flux-linkage and

circuit flux values. The phase circuit flux (for the α phase) is of the form

π
2
φmα = B (ξ) dξ (A.9)
−π
2

which for a concentrated winding corresponds to a flux-linkage value ψ1α = N φmα . If a

distributed winding is used then not all the circuit flux is linked with all the distributed winding
components in which case the flux-linkage is given as ψ1α = Neff φmα , where Neff represents
the ‘effective’ number of turns.
Appendix B
Generic module library

The generic modules used in this book are presented in this section. In addition to the generic
representation an example of a corresponding transfer function (for the module in question) is
provided. Transfer functions given, are in space vector and/or scalar format. Some modules,
such as for example the ITF module, can be used in scalar or space vector format. However,
some functions, such as for example the IRTF module, can only be used with space vectors.
334 FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRICAL DRIVES
Appendix B: Generic module library 335
336 FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRICAL DRIVES
Appendix B: Generic module library 337
338 FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRICAL DRIVES
Appendix B: Generic module library 339
340 FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRICAL DRIVES
References

Bödefeld, Th. and Sequenz, H. (1962). Elektrische Machinen. Springer-Verlag, 6th edition.
Holmes, D.G. (1997). A generalised approach to modulation and control of hard switched con-
verters. PhD thesis, Department of Electrical and Computer engineering, Monash University,
Australia.
Hughes, A. (1994). Electric Motors and Drives. Newnes.
Leonhard, W. (1990). Control of Electrical Drives. Springer-Verlag, Berlin Heidelberg New York
Tokyo, 2 edition.
Mathworks, The (2000). Matlab, simulink. WWW.MATHWORKS.COM.
Miller, T. J. E. (1989). Brushless Permanent-Magnet and Reluctance Motor Drives. Number 21
in Monographs in Electrical and Electronic Engineering. Oxford Science Publications.
Mohan, N. (2001). Advanced Electrical Drives, Analysis, Control and Modeling using Simulink.
MNPERE, Minneapolis, USA.
Svensson, T. (1988). On modulation and control of electronic power converters. Technical Report
186, Chalmers University of Technology, School of Electrical and Computer engineering.
van Duijsen, P.J. (2005). Simulation research, caspoc 2005. WWW.CASPOC.COM.
Veltman, A. (1994). The Fish Method: interaction between AC-machines and Switching Power
Converters. PhD thesis, Department of Electrical Engineering, Delft University of Technol-
ogy, the Netherlands.
Index

actuators, 2, 33 damper winding, 197

airgap, 18, 19, 22, 25, 50, 170, 175, 183, 239 Davenport, T, 265
algebraic loop, 57, 254 DC machine, 272
alternative differentiator module, 155 delta connected, 80, 84, 93, 95–97, 102, 103,
Ampère, A. H., 265 145, 146
amplitude invariant, 87, 88 discrete, 297, 308–310
armature, 269, 273 double edged, 306
armature reaction, 271 drives, 2–4, 6, 12, 30, 193, 243, 266
asymmetrically sampled, 305 DSP, 6, 7, 296
asynchronous, 169, 233, 237, 246, 266
efficiency, 2, 6
bar magnet, 13, 14 electro-magnetic interaction, 29
bipolar, 296, 305, 314, 316, 318 energy, 3, 5, 75, 122, 124, 125, 172, 173
Blondel diagram, 201, 205, 207
braking, 3 falling edge, 300
brushes, 194, 267 Faraday, M., 265
brushless machines, 195 feed-forward, 309, 321
building block, 9, 10, 169, 297, 302 field current, 195, 203, 218
finite-element, 7
Carter, 25 flux density, 13–16, 18, 20, 23
cartesian, 153 flux lines, 13–16, 25
flux-linkage, 19–22, 32, 47, 50, 61, 152, 153,
Caspoc, 7
156, 171
classical, 5, 169, 179
four parameter model, 185
commutator, 265, 267–270, 279
four-quadrant, 2
commutator segments, 271, 272, 284
fringing, 14, 17, 18, 25
comparator, 302, 311
compensation winding, 269
complex plane, 34, 36 generator, 5, 169, 203, 204, 209, 222, 244
control algorithm, 6, 7 generic model, 9, 295, 319
convention, 8, 172, 201 grid, 6, 75
conversion module, 186
converter, 6, 7, 75, 76, 104, 169, 193, 195, 296– half bridge converter, 306, 314
302, 304–306, 310, 314–316, 318, Heyland diagram, 242, 244–247
323 Holmes, G., 305
converter switch, 299, 301, 302 Hopkinson, 16, 20, 50
Cumming, J. S., 265 Hughes, A., 12, 193, 194
current control, 295, 318
current density, 22, 23 idle mode, 296
current sensor, 296 imaginary power, 124
344 FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRICAL DRIVES

incremental flux, 30, 298, 300, 304, 316 quasi-stationary, 268

inductance, 20, 21, 31, 32, 273 quasi-steady-state, 179
induction machine, 231
inertia, 174, 211 reactive power, 124, 125, 127, 132–134, 137,
iron losses, 67 218
IRTF, 169, 173, 197, 271 real power, 124, 131, 132
ITF, 45, 48, 49, 149 reference incremental flux, 298, 306, 320
regenerative, 3
Kirchhoff, 76, 81 reluctance, 16, 17, 20, 50, 51, 175
rising edge, 299, 306
leakage inductance, 55, 56, 58 robots, 1
Leonhard, W., 10 rotating flux vector, 178, 195
linear-motors, 23 rotating reference frame, 180
load, 3, 5, 211, 234, 276, 286, 287, 296 rotor, 170, 171, 195, 231
load angle, 195, 201 rotor angle, 173
load torque, 211 rotor speed, 178, 195, 233
logic signal, 297
Lorentz, 12, 173
sampling interval, 298–300, 306, 307
saturation, 19, 21, 23, 32, 33, 38
m-file, 36, 41, 65
saw tooth, 301, 311
machine sizing, 22, 23
Schweigger, J. C. S., 265
magnetic circuit, 14, 16, 20, 45, 46, 50
secondary, 45–48, 152
magnetic field, 12, 13, 17, 22, 182, 195, 231, 265
self inductance, 19, 29, 61
magnetic poles, 181
magnetizing inductance, 50, 51, 58, 183 sensors, 5–7
MATLAB, 7 separately excited DC, 277
maximum output power point, 208 series wound DC, 278
micro-processor, 6, 296, 298 set-point, 307
Miller, T. J. E., 23 shear-stress, 23
modulator, 6, 7, 296, 298, 301, 303, 304, 306, shoot-through mode, 296
307, 310, 311, 313, 314, 316, 318 shunt DC machine, 277
motoring, 204, 208, 233, 240 simplified model, 196, 235, 240, 268
multi-pole, 182, 183 Simpson, 308
mutual inductance, 60, 61 Simulink, 36
sinusoidal, 33, 34, 53, 178, 200
neutral, 76 sinusoidal distributed, 185, 327
no-load, 2, 67, 233, 276 slip, 233, 238–241
non-linear, 21, 29, 33, 39, 42 slipring machine, 232
non-salient, 197, 201 slipring/brush, 194, 195, 267
space vector, 84
Oersted, H. C., 265 speed condition, 179
squirrel cage, 231
stable operation, 208
permanent magnet, 195, 222, 267
star connected, 76, 91, 102, 103, 109
permeability, 16, 17, 29, 45, 46, 50
star point, 76
phasor, 33–35
stationary reference frame, 180
polar, 153
stator, 170, 171, 175, 193, 266
pole-pair, 181
steady-state, 276
power factor, 124, 203, 204, 208, 244
Sturgeon, S, 265
power invariant, 87–89
power supply, 4, 6, 14, 194 supply voltage, 84, 100, 296, 302–304, 310, 316
predictive dead-beat, 307, 321 switching point, 299, 301
primary, 45–50 symbolic model, 32
primary referred, 51, 52, 61 synchronous, 169, 193–197, 201, 231, 267
proportional, 309, 319 synchronous speed, 211, 239
proportional-integral, 309
pull-out slip, 241, 243 Tesla, N, 231
PWM, 300, 301 three inductance model, 57
Index 345
three-phase, 75, 76, 84, 103, 121, 136, 149, 193, universal machine, 267
195
toroidal, 29, 45 V/f drive, 243
torque, 172, 173, 175 Vector to RMS module, 136
traction drives, 277 Veltman, A., 169
transformer, 45, 46, 49, 50, 149, 157, 169
triangular function, 304 Westinghouse, 231
two inductance model, 57, 59, 60, 157, 183 winding ratio, 47, 63, 174
two-phase, 84, 183 wye connected, 76

uni-polar, 295, 296, 300, 301, 307 zero sequence, 81, 89, 91, 93, 96, 97, 99, 104
universal DC machine, 278 zero-order hold, 310