Vision 1

Dr J.
Mohan
Physiology of Vision
November, 2019
J. Mohan, PhD.
Lecturer,
Physiology Unit,
Faculty of Medical Sciences,
U.W.I., St Augustine.
Room 105, Physiology Unit.

Junette.Mohan@sta.uwi.edu
November 13, 2019 Dr J. Mohan
References:
Hall, J.E. (2011). Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology.

12th Edition, Elsevier, Saunders.
Koeppen B.E. & Stanton B.A. (2010). Berne & Levy Physiology.
6th Edition. Mosby, Elsevier.
Marieb, E. & Hoehn, K. (2010). Human Anatomy & Physiology. 8th

Edition, Pearson, Benjamin Cummings.
Stanfield, C.L. & Germann W.J. (2008). Principles of Human

Physiology. 3rd Edition, Pearson, Benjamin Cummings.
Moses R.A. & Hart, W.M. (2003). Adler’s Physiology of the eye.
Clinical application. 10th Edition, Mosby, Elsevier.
November 13, 2019 1

Dr J. Mohan
Text :
Hall, J.E. (2011). Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical

Physiology. 12th Edition, Elsevier, Saunders.
• Chapters 49-53:
– The Eye: I Optics of Vision
– The Eye : II Colour Vision and Neural Function of the
Retina
– The Eye : III Central Neurophysiology of Vision
– The Sense of Hearing
– The Chemical Senses: Taste and Smell.
• Chapter 55: Vestibular Sensations and Maintenance of
Equilibrium
Physiology Objectives
1. Describe the functions of the tear film, cornea and lens.
2. Describe the principles of optics, errors of refraction and their

correction.
3. Explain spherical and chromatic aberrations and mechanisms of

accommodation.
November 13, 2019 Dr J. Mohan 4
November 13, 2019 2

Dr J. Mohan
Physiology Objectives
cont’d. . .
5. Explain the processing of the form, movement and colour of

objects and relate to sequential and parallel sensory
processing.
6. Describe the principles of assessment of defects in visual field

and colour vision. (see LAB)
7. Describe Visual Evoked Potentials (VEPs) and their clinical

applications.
Vision
Vision is a special sensory function that involves :
(a) the focusing of light rays by the optical system of the eye to
form an image on the retina
(b) the conversion (transduction) of light to nervous signals
(c) the transmission of nervous signals from the eye to the visual
cortex of the CNS
(d) CNS processing of nervous signals
November 13, 2019 3

Dr J. Mohan
Today’s Topics
• Basic Principles of Optics.
• The Optics of the Eye.
• The Mechanism of Accommodation.
• Errors of refraction and their correction.
• Spherical and chromatic aberrations.
Dr J. Mohan 7
Refractive Index
• Speed of light in air 300,000 km/sec
• Light speed decreases when it passes through a

transparent solid/liquid
• The refractive index is the ratio of the speed of light in air

to the speed of light in the substance
• e.g., speed of light in substance = 200,000 km/sec, R.I. =

300,000/200,000 = 1.5
November 13, 2019 4

Dr J. Mohan
Refraction of Light
• Light rays striking an interface that is perpendicular to the

beam, the rays enter the second medium without bending,
but slower velocity of transmission & shorter wavelength
Figure 49-1; Hall, 2011
Dr J. Mohan 9
Refraction of Light
• When light rays pass through angulated interface with

different refractive index, the light rays bend
Dr J. Mohan 10
November 13, 2019 5

Dr J. Mohan
Refraction of Light
• The bending of the light rays at an angulated surface is

known as refraction
• The degree of refraction increases as the difference in R.I.

increases and the degree of angulation increases
Dr J. Mohan 11
Application of Refractive Principles to

Lenses
• Convex lens focuses light rays
November 13, 2019 6

Dr J. Mohan
Application of Refractive Principles to

Lenses
• Concave lens diverges light rays.

Application of Refractive
Principles to Lenses
• Convex spherical lens bends light rays in both planes
Light rays that pass through the

spherical lens are refracted at all
edges of the lens (in both
planes) toward the central ray;
all the rays come to a focal point
November 13, 2019 7

Dr J. Mohan
• Convex cylindrical lens bends light rays in only one plane -
comparison with spherical lenses
• Cylindrical lens bends light rays

from the two sides of the lens but
not from the top or the bottom
• Bending occurs in one plane but

not the other
• Parallel light rays are bent to a

focal line
• Combination of two cylindrical lenses at right angles equals a
spherical lens
Figure 49-5B; Hall, 2011

November 13, 2019 8

Dr J. Mohan
• Focal length of a lens
Parallel :
> 20 ft or 6 m

• Formation of an Image by a Convex Lens
Figure 49-7b; Hall, 2011

November 13, 2019 9

Dr J. Mohan
• Measurement of the Refractive Power of a Lens -"Diopter"
–a diopter is a measure of the power of a lens
–1 diopter is the ability to focus parallel light rays at a

distance of 1 meter
– RP = 1 meter / focal length
Dr J. Mohan 19
• Measurement of the Refractive Power of a Lens-"Diopter"
? Focal length
? Focal length
Dr J. Mohan 20
November 13, 2019 10

Dr J. Mohan
Today’s Topics
• Structure & Function of the Tear Film, Cornea & Lens.
Dr J. Mohan 21
Optics of the Eye
• The eye as a camera


Dr J. Mohan
Optics of the Eye
• The lens system of the eye : 4 refractive interfaces :
1. air & anterior surface of the cornea
2. posterior surface of the cornea & aqueous humor
3. aqueous humor & anterior surface of the lens of the eye
4. posterior surface of the lens & vitreous humor
Optics of the Eye

• Consideration of all refractive surfaces of the eye as a single
lens - the “reduced” eye
– all the refractive surfaces of the eye are added together

and considered to be one single lens, the optics of the
normal eye may be simplified and represented as a
"reduced eye."
– in the “reduced” eye, the retina is considered to be 17 mm

behind the refractive center of the eye
– therefore, the eye has a total refractive power of 59

diopters (1000/17) (see equation for RP)

Dr J. Mohan
Focusing Power of the Eye
• Most of the refractive power of the eye results from the

surface of the cornea (2/3)
– refractive index of the cornea is markedly different from

that of air, whereas the refractive index of the eye lens
is not greatly different from the indices of the aqueous
humor and vitreous humor
• Refractive power of the lens ~ 20 diopters (1/3)
– but in response to nervous signals from the brain, its

curvature can be increased markedly to increase
refractive power
Today’s Topics
• Structure & Function of the Tear Film, Cornea & Lens.

Dr J. Mohan
Accommodation
• Refractive power of the lens is 20 diopters
• Refractive power can be increased to 34 diopters by

changing shape of the lens - making it more convex
“accommodation”
– age 10 : available accommodation = 14 diopters

– age 20 = 11 diopters
– age 60 = 1 diopter
– age 75 = 0 diopters
• Accommodation is necessary to focus the image on the

retina
Accommodation
Increasing the curvature of the lens to focus light from near objects on
the retina
Figure 11.24a, b S&G, 2008


Dr J. Mohan
Mechanism of Accommodation
– For near vision:
– Parasympathetic
stimulation
– Ciliary muscle
contracts
– Zonular fibers loose
– Lens becomes
rounder
Figure 11.25a, b, S&G, 2008
Mechanism of Accommodation
• Lens is held in place by suspensory ligament which under

normal resting conditions causes the lens to be almost flat
• Contraction of an eye muscle attached to the ligament (ciliary

muscle) pulls the ligament forward and causes the lens to
become fatter which increases the refractive power of the
lens
• Under control of the parasympathetic nervous system

Dr J. Mohan
“Near” Response
When the gaze is directed at a near object :
• Accommodation
• Visual Axes Converge
• Pupils Constrict
Mechanism ? - PBL
Dr J. Mohan 31
Near Point of Vision

• Accommodation = active contraction of ciliary muscle
• But , there are limits to accommodation- even with the

greatest of muscular effort, there is a point where light rays
from an object very near to the individual cannot be brought
into clear focus by accommodation
• Near point of vision recedes with aging, 7 cm at age 10 yrs

to 100 cm at age 60 yrs
Dr J. Mohan 32

Dr J. Mohan
Presbyopia –
the inability to accommodate
• Caused by progressive denaturation of the proteins of the
lens
• Makes the lens less elastic

• Also, ciliary muscle becomes weaker with aging
• Lens totally lost ability to accommodate – presbyopia- can

be corrected by wearing glasses with convex lenses
• can be corrected simply and safely by wearing reading glasses
(magnifying lenses) or bifocals (greater refractive power in lower
part of lens - convex)

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Dr J.

Room 105, Physiology Unit.

Hall, J.E. (2011). Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology.

Marieb, E. & Hoehn, K. (2010). Human Anatomy & Physiology. 8th

Stanfield, C.L. & Germann W.J. (2008). Principles of Human

November 13, 2019 Dr J. Mohan

November 13, 2019 1

Hall, J.E. (2011). Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical

November 13, 2019 Dr J. Mohan

1. Describe the functions of the tear film, cornea and lens.

2. Describe the principles of optics, errors of refraction and their

3. Explain spherical and chromatic aberrations and mechanisms of

November 13, 2019 Dr J. Mohan 4

November 13, 2019 2

5. Explain the processing of the form, movement and colour of

6. Describe the principles of assessment of defects in visual field

7. Describe Visual Evoked Potentials (VEPs) and their clinical

November 13, 2019 Dr J. Mohan 5

(b) the conversion (transduction) of light to nervous signals

(d) CNS processing of nervous signals

November 13, 2019 Dr J. Mohan 6

November 13, 2019 3

• The Optics of the Eye.

• The Mechanism of Accommodation.

• Errors of refraction and their correction.

• Spherical and chromatic aberrations.

• Light speed decreases when it passes through a

• The refractive index is the ratio of the speed of light in air

• e.g., speed of light in substance = 200,000 km/sec, R.I. =

November 13, 2019 4

• Light rays striking an interface that is perpendicular to the

Figure 49-1; Hall, 2011

• When light rays pass through angulated interface with

Figure 49-1; Hall, 2011

November 13, 2019 5

• The bending of the light rays at an angulated surface is

• The degree of refraction increases as the difference in R.I.

Application of Refractive Principles to

Figure 49-2; Hall, 2011

November 13, 2019 Dr J. Mohan 12

November 13, 2019 6

Application of Refractive Principles to

Figure 49-3; Hall, 2011

Light rays that pass through the

Figure 49-4; Hall, 2011

November 13, 2019 Dr J. Mohan 14

November 13, 2019 7

• Cylindrical lens bends light rays

• Bending occurs in one plane but

• Parallel light rays are bent to a

Figure 49-5B; Hall, 2011

November 13, 2019 8

Figure 49-6; Hall, 2011

Figure 49-7b; Hall, 2011

November 13, 2019 9

• Measurement of the Refractive Power of a Lens -"Diopter"

–a diopter is a measure of the power of a lens

–1 diopter is the ability to focus parallel light rays at a