04 Water Soure Heat Pumps

COMMERCIAL HVAC
SYSTEMS
Water Source
Heat Pump
Systems
Technical Development Program

Technical Development Programs (TDP) are modules of technical training on HVAC theory,
system design, equipment selection and application topics. They are targeted at engineers and
designers who wish to develop their knowledge in this field to effectively design, specify, sell or
apply HVAC equipment in commercial applications.
Although TDP topics have been developed as stand-alone modules, there are logical
groupings of topics. The modules within each group begin at an introductory level and progress to
advanced levels. The breadth of this offering allows for customization into a complete HVAC
curriculum – from a complete HVAC design course at an introductory-level or to an advanced-
level design course. Advanced-level modules assume prerequisite knowledge and do not review
basic concepts.
This TDP module will provide an understanding of the components in water source heat
pump systems, configuration options, system benefits, and many applications associated with the
overall system. WSHP systems have become a very popular choice for use in commercial
buildings where individual zones of control are required to maintain comfort conditions. Building
types that exhibit a simultaneous cooling and heating load are ideal candidates. WSHP systems
have other desirable characteristics like zoning capability, ease of design, and reliability so that
buildings where little or no reclaim will take place are often still considered for using a WSHP
system.
© 2006 Carrier Corporation. All rights reserved.

The information in this manual is offered as a general guide for the use of industry and consulting engineers in designing systems.
Judgment is required for application of this information to specific installations and design applications. Carrier is not responsible
for any uses made of this information and assumes no responsibility for the performance or desirability of any resulting system
design.
The information in this publication is subject to change without notice. No part of this publication may be reproduced or
transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, for any purpose, without the express written permission of
Carrier Corporation.
Printed in Syracuse, NY
CARRIER CORPORATION
Carrier Parkway
Syracuse, NY 13221, U.S.A.
Table of Contents
Introduction...................................................................................................................................... 1
Water Source Heat Pump Unit Operation........................................................................................ 2
Cooling Mode .............................................................................................................................. 3
Heating Mode .............................................................................................................................. 3
Mode Changeover........................................................................................................................ 4
WSHP System Operation................................................................................................................. 4
Cooling Mode (Summer Operation) ............................................................................................ 5
Heating Mode (Winter Operation)............................................................................................... 6
Intermediate Season (Spring and Fall Operation)........................................................................ 7
System Advantages and Disadvantages........................................................................................... 7
System Advantages...................................................................................................................... 8
System Disadvantages ............................................................................................................... 12
Product Overview .......................................................................................................................... 14
WSHP Components ................................................................................................................... 14
Compressor ............................................................................................................................ 14
Reversing Valve..................................................................................................................... 15
Refrigerant-to-Water Heat Exchanger ................................................................................... 15
Expansion Metering Device................................................................................................... 16
Refrigerant-to-Air Heat Exchanger........................................................................................ 17
Fan Assembly ........................................................................................................................ 17
Condensate Drain................................................................................................................... 18
Filters ..................................................................................................................................... 18
Unit Controls.......................................................................................................................... 18
Hydronic Accessories ............................................................................................................ 20
WSHP Unit Types ..................................................................................................................... 22
Horizontal Units..................................................................................................................... 23
Vertical Units......................................................................................................................... 24
Console Units......................................................................................................................... 24
Stack Units............................................................................................................................. 25
Rooftop Units......................................................................................................................... 26
Water-to-Water Heat Pump Units.......................................................................................... 27
System Overview........................................................................................................................... 28
Components ............................................................................................................................... 28
Cooling Tower ....................................................................................................................... 28
Boiler (Heat Adder) ............................................................................................................... 30
Air Distribution System ......................................................................................................... 32
Ventilation Air Distribution Units ......................................................................................... 32
Water Pumps.......................................................................................................................... 33
Air Separator and Expansion Tank ........................................................................................ 33
Controls.................................................................................................................................. 34
Example System Configurations................................................................................................ 34
Single-Story Buildings........................................................................................................... 35
Two to Four-Story Buildings ................................................................................................. 35
High-Rise Buildings .............................................................................................................. 36
System Variations ......................................................................................................................36
Variable Volume and Temperature (VVT®) System .............................................................36
VAV in the Interior Zone.......................................................................................................37
Variable Flow Systems .......................................................................................................... 37
Hot Water Pre-Heating...........................................................................................................38
Sprinkler Piping Integrated with the WSHP Loop.................................................................38
System Without a Boiler ........................................................................................................39
System With a Storage Tank..................................................................................................39
System Application Topics ............................................................................................................41
WSHP Units With Reheat.......................................................................................................... 41
Freeze Protection ....................................................................................................................... 41
Antifreeze Solutions...................................................................................................................43
Water Conditioning.................................................................................................................... 44
Ventilation System Energy Recovery ........................................................................................45
System IAQ Topics....................................................................................................................48
Acoustics Considerations...........................................................................................................52
Refrigerants................................................................................................................................53
Airside Economizer.................................................................................................................... 53
Water-Regulating Valves...........................................................................................................54
Maintenance ...............................................................................................................................54
Geothermal Systems ...................................................................................................................... 55
Closed-Loop Systems ................................................................................................................56
Open-Loop Ground Water Systems ...........................................................................................59
Geothermal System Advantages ................................................................................................60
Codes and Standards ......................................................................................................................61
Performance Related Codes and Standards................................................................................61
Safety Related Codes and Standards..........................................................................................64
UL/CSA and ETL .................................................................................................................. 64
System Sizing and Layout Tips .....................................................................................................64
WSHP Units............................................................................................................................... 65
Cooling Tower Selection ........................................................................................................... 66
Boiler (Heat Adder) ................................................................................................................... 67
Ventilation System.....................................................................................................................68
Piping Systems...........................................................................................................................71
Pumps.........................................................................................................................................73
Air Separator and Expansion Tank ............................................................................................74
Controls..........................................................................................................................................74
WSHP Thermostats and Controllers ..........................................................................................75
Water Sensors and Switches ......................................................................................................77
Pump Control .............................................................................................................................77
Cooling Tower and Boiler.......................................................................................................... 77
Ventilation System.....................................................................................................................78
System Safety and Alarms .........................................................................................................78
Reducing Operating Cost ........................................................................................................... 79
Overall System Control..............................................................................................................79
Summary ........................................................................................................................................ 81
Work Session .................................................................................................................................82
Work Session Answers .................................................................................................................. 86
References......................................................................................................................................89
Appendix A –
Water Quality ..........................................................................................................................90
WATER SOURCE HEAT PUMP SYSTEMS
Introduction
Water source heat pump (WSHP) systems have become a popular choice for commercial
buildings where multiple zones of control are desired. They can also be applied successfully in
smaller installations like residences. This TDP module will discuss both applications, but will
concentrate on the commercial applications. The usage of WSHP systems breaks down to roughly
60 percent new construction and
40 percent retrofit and replacement.
In this TDP module, we will learn
about the various types of water
source heat pump units that can be
used to comprise a HVAC system.
The internal components in a typical
WSHP unit and the function of each
will be explained. This will allow the
reader to understand how the WSHP
units operate when connected to a
system water loop. System
components will be then discussed.
Figure 1
These include boilers, towers, pumps,
piping, and controls. See Figure 1. Typical WSHP System
There are many overall variations for WSHP systems. They may be categorized into two
main groups. The first system type is a standard closed-loop system where the loop piping runs
inside the building. This system typically includes a boiler (also called a heat adder), a cooling
tower (also called a heat rejecter), pumps, and controls as shown in Figure 1.
The second type of WSHP system uses the Earth’s resources as a heat sink. These systems
are called geothermal systems. A lake, river, well, or the ground itself is used to add or remove
heat to maintain an operable water temperature. Some of these systems are closed-loop and some
are open loop. Open-loop means the water is used in a once-thru configuration. A separate section
on geothermal systems is included in this TDP.
Commercial WSHP systems are popular because they can supply simultaneous heating and
cooling. This leads to comfortable conditions in zones that have different requirements. A WSHP
system typically requires a dedicated outdoor air unit to maintain required ventilation levels as
specified by ASHRAE (American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air Conditioning
Engineers) Standard 62.1. This TDP module will examine the various ways to deliver ventilation
air.
Control of the individual units, the water loop temperature, and other components in the
system are also covered in this TDP. Recommendations on proper application of units to
minimize radiated sound along with the required maintenance considerations are included.
Commercial HVAC Systems

1
This TDP module is meant to complement the Carrier System Design Guide on Water Source
Heat Pumps. In this TDP we will reference the Design Guide in several areas, the most notable
being the design process and layout of an example building. The Design Guide can be used for a
step-by-step approach to selecting and designing an entire WSHP system including an operating
cost analysis comparison to other systems.
After reading this TDP, the reader will understand how WSHP units and systems work, and
why they are a popular, reliable, and versatile alternative to other air-conditioning systems.
Water Source Heat Pump Unit Operation

A water source heat pump is a mechanical reverse cycle device that is used to transfer heat
from one medium to another. A water source heat pump extracts heat from the water when in the
heating mode and rejects heat to the water when in the cooling mode. The water supply may be a
recirculating closed loop or a once-thru system using water from a well, a pond, or a stream.
Water for closed-loop heat pumps is usually circulated at 2.25 to 3.00 gpm per ton of unit cooling
capacity. A once-thru groundwater heat pump can operate with a lower water flow, but the same
range is still recommended.
The WSHP refrigeration circuit consists of a refrigerant-to-water heat exchanger, compressor,
refrigerant metering device, refrigerant-to-air heat exchanger (or refrigerant-to-air coil), fan,
reversing valve, and controls. Heat is transferred from one medium to the other by a hermetic
refrigerant circuit.
The most common design configurations for packaged WSHPs are horizontal units, which are
positioned above a dropped ceiling; vertical units, which are usually located in basements, utility
closets, or equipment rooms; and console units, which are designed for under window mounting
in the conditioned space. We will discuss all the types of units in detail later in the TDP.
The feature that most distinguishes a heat pump from
Reversing Functions the typical refrigeration system is that it is reversible.
This allows the unit to provide cooling in summer and
Unlike a traditional air- heating in winter at a relatively efficient level. In a
conditioning unit, in a heat
WSHP unit a reversing valve switches the compressor
pump, the function of the heat
exchangers can be reversed. discharge from the refrigerant-to-water heat exchanger
for cooling to the refrigerant-to-air exchanger for heating.
Many of the other components required for a heat pump are the same as for a traditional air-
conditioning unit. However, in the heat pump, the function of the heat exchangers can be
reversed, so that they each must function as an evaporator and condenser.

2
Cooling Mode
In the cooling mode, the WSHP unit’s refrigerant-to-water heat exchanger acts as a condenser
and its refrigerant-to-air heat exchanger acts as an evaporator. The reversing valve is energized
for cooling.
During the cooling mode, heat is extracted from the air by evaporating the refrigerant in the
refrigerant-to-air heat exchanger. This extracted heat plus the compressor heat is rejected into the
water loop. This is called the heat of rejection. Hot gas from the compressor discharge is directed
by the reversing valve to the refrigerant-to-water heat exchanger. Here the hot gas is condensed
into liquid as the gas gives up heat to
the colder water passed through the
exchanger. Liquid refrigerant then
passes through a metering device
that causes a drop in its pressure and
temperature. The cold liquid-vapor
mixture then enters the refrigerant-
to-air heat exchanger where it
evaporates. The indoor air is cooled
to condition the space. Cool
refrigerant vapor then is drawn into
the compressor where its
temperature and pressure are
increased so the cycle can be Figure 2
repeated. See Figure 2. Cooling Mode
Heating Mode
In the heating mode, the WSHP unit’s refrigerant-to-water heat exchanger acts as an
evaporator and its refrigerant-to-air coil acts as a condenser. The reversing valve is deenergized
for heating.
The hot compressor discharge gas is directed by the reversing valve to the refrigerant-to-air
heat exchanger, which will act as a condenser. Air is then heated as it passes over the refrigerant-
to-air heat exchanger as it condenses
the refrigerant and heats the space.
Liquid refrigerant flows through the
metering device to the refrigerant-to-
water heat exchanger that acts as the
evaporator. Heat is extracted from the
water loop as it passes through the
refrigerant-to-water heat exchanger
and the cold liquid refrigerant
evaporates. The cold vapor then is
drawn into the compressor and the
cycle repeats. See Figure 3. The heat
that is extracted is known as the heat
of absorption. Figure 3
Heating Mode

3
Mode Changeover
The reversing valve in the unit’s refrigeration circuit is located on the compressor discharge.
The reversing valve causes the changeover from cooling to heating mode and from heating to
cooling mode. In a reversible system, some of the traditional components must have special
features to allow for reverse flow. For example, the metering device must be capable of metering
flow in both directions. This type of metering device is usually called bi-directional.
In addition to the reversing valve and metering device, there are other design considerations
that make the heat pump different from the conventional air-conditioning unit. The compressor is
specially designed to operate over the wide range of compression ratios encountered in the
heating mode. Both the air and water heat exchangers are specially designed for WSHP use
because they must both evaporate and condense refrigerant. For example, the refrigerant-to-air
heat exchanger, when acting as a condenser in the heating cycle, must have adequate surface area
to keep the condensing temperature and pressure at reasonable levels.
WSHP System Operation

A typical closed loop system as shown in Figure 4 consists of a number of WSHP units, a
closed circuit cooling tower, a boiler, a common piping loop comprised of a supply and return
line, and a water-circulating
pump with a standby. Standard
hydronic accessories are also
required such as an expansion
tank, air separator, and piping
vents.
Notice the arrangement of
the components with the loop
flow passing through the heat
rejecter (tower), then through the
heat adder (boiler), expansion
tank, pump, and then out to the
heat pump system. The piping is
almost always a reverse return Figure 4
system as shown in Figure 4. In a Typical Closed-Loop WSHP System
reverse return system, the
combined supply and return length of water piping through each unit is essentially the same. This
results in a system that is more self-balanced than a direct return system. For a complete
discussion on reverse return piping, see TDP-502, Water Piping and Pumps.
There are several variations of this standard closed loop configuration, which we will discuss
later. Closed loop systems use recirculated water. Open loop ground source systems use a once-
thru (non-recirculating) design.
Water circulating in the loop acts as a heat source for WSHP units operating in the heating
mode and as a heat rejection sink for those units operating in the cooling mode. Thus, heat may
be transferred from building zones that need cooling to zones that need heat. This reclamation of
heat is one of the major advantages of the WSHP system. The circulating loop temperature is
maintained between 60° F and 90° F. When more zones require heating than cooling, the loop
temperature drops (approaching 60° F) and the boiler is activated to make up the heat deficit.

4
When more zones need cooling than heating, the loop temperature rises (approaching 90° F), and
the cooling tower is activated to reject unneeded heat. A separate ventilation system provides
outdoor air to the zones. The ventilation system provides fresh air either directly to each WSHP
unit or by ducting the fresh air to within a few feet or less of each unit if a ceiling plenum return
air system is used. Additional discussion of the ventilation system can be found later in this
manual.
The loop flow is often variable. A VFD (variable Loop Flow
frequency drive) controlled loop pump varies the total loop
flow based on supplying water only to those WSHP units A VFD-controlled loop pump
whose compressors are running. In this way, pump energy is varies the total loop flow by
saved. See the Variable Speed Pumping section of this TDP. supplying water only to
those WSHP units whose
Let’s take a look at the system operating modes for compressors are running.
various times of the year to learn the heat recovery
capability of a WSHP system.
Cooling Mode (Summer Operation)

In the summer season, the conditioned spaces will need cooling. Usually a WSHP system
consists of multiple WSHP units, each with a dedicated thermostat. All units supply cool, filtered
air to their zones. Each refrigerant-to-
water heat exchanger transfers the
heat from the cooling load plus the
heat of compression into the common
water loop. This process raises the
temperature of the loop. When the
loop temperature approaches the
upper limit of about 90° F, the heat
rejecter (cooling tower) is staged to
remove heat from the loop. The
cooling tower maintains a maximum
loop water temperature of 90° F.
Individual units will cycle on and off
Figure 5
to satisfy their zone thermostat. The
WSHP fan runs continuously during Typical WSHP System in Cooling Mode
the occupied cycle. See Figure 5.
The upper loop temperature on WSHP systems is maintained between 90 and 95° F. For
discussion throughout this TDP, we will use a temperature of 90° F.
Block Load and Diversity

The WSHP system is made up of many zones. These Loop Temperature
zones will each have a peak load. The peak load may occur
at different times for different zones. Each WSHP unit in The upper loop temperature
each zone must be sized to meet the zone peak load. The on WSHP systems is
total capacity (tons) of all the WSHP units in the building is maintained between 90° F
calculated from the zone peak loads. and 95° F. For discussion
throughout this TDP, we will
use a temperature of 90° F.

5
Because zones on different sides of a building will have their peak load occur at different
times, the total installed capacity of the WSHP units will usually be greater than the block load of
the building. The block load is the single largest combination of actual zone loads at a particular
time. The block-cooling load is seldom the sum of the zone peak loads and it is normally smaller
than the sum of these peak loads. In northern latitudes the block load occurs typically in late
afternoon in July or August.
Diversity can be found by dividing the block load by the sum of the peak loads for all zones.
Most large commercial buildings will exhibit some diversity ranging from 80 to 85 percent.
Unlike WSHP systems, central chilled-water systems can usually take advantage of diversity
in the sizing of the chiller. The chiller total installed tons need be only the size of the block load.
The installed WSHP unit’s capacity, however, will have a sum greater than the block load.
Heating Mode (Winter Operation)

In very cold weather, all the conditioned spaces may need heating. If the building is
configured so that even on the coldest winter day, some spaces still do not have a heat loss, then
those spaces have a year round cooling load and will not require heating. This condition will be
discussed next.
In heating mode, each unit will
supply heated, filtered air to their
zones. Each refrigerant-to-water heat
exchanger acts as an evaporator and
absorbs heat from the water loop. This
lowers the temperature of the loop.
When the loop temperature
approaches the lower limit of about
60° F, the heat adder is staged to add
heat to the loop. The heat adder
maintains a minimum loop water
temperature (leaving the heat adder)
of 60° F. Individual units cycle on and
Figure 6
off to satisfy their thermostat. The fan
runs continuously during the occupied Typical WSHP System in Heating Mode
cycle. See Figure 6.
All WSHP units may be required to run together continuously on full heat during a period of
warm-up after a night set-back mode. Consequently, the heat adder must be sized for the heat of
absorption of all units on the loop as a worse case. The heat adder size may be reduced if some of
the heat pumps will never start in the heating mode, such as units in computer room areas or units
in internal zones that have a year round cooling load. If an optional storage tank is provided, the
tank can be used to reduce the size of the heat adder.

6
Intermediate Season (Spring and Fall Operation)

In intermediate seasons, some units may be in the cooling mode (adding heat to the common
water loop) while others are in the heating mode (absorbing heat from the loop). During this
condition, the loop may be in equilibrium and not require heat to be added or rejected. The loop
water temperature is allowed to vary
within the approximate 60 to 90° F
range. See Figure 7.
This operation is a true heat
recovery scenario. Perimeter units in
heating mode are being supported by
interior units in the cooling mode.
Some WSHP system configurations
use large 10 to 15-ton sized vertical
units in core areas that will operate in
cooling mode year round. These units
will reject a greater amount of heat to
the loop and will support a greater Figure 7
number of smaller units operating in Typical WSHP System in Intermediate Mode
the heating mode.
Some WSHP designs use a variable flow in the water loop. A piping run is fitted with a
bypass to allow a minimum water flow for the system loop pumps. We will discuss variable flow
later in the TDP.
System Advantages and Disadvantages

The WSHP system is a good choice for office buildings, hotels, condominiums, libraries, and
schools. Almost any type of commercial building that has several temperature control zones,
some of which need to be heated while others need to be cooled, are prime candidates for a
WSHP system. The WSHP system is an especially good choice where potential energy savings
from heat reclaim are substantial, and where the owner is committed to energy conversation.
However, many water source heat pump systems are applied to building types that do not have
simultaneous heating and cooling requirements. The WSHP system has other attributes besides
heat recovery that make it a desirable choice. Compared to many other building cooling and
heating systems, the WSHP system offers distinct advantages for those involved in the
construction and ownership of commercial buildings.

7
System Advantages
Low Installed Costs
A traditional strength of the

WSHP system is its low installed cost
compared to conventional central
plant or floor-by-floor systems.
Features are shown in Figure 8.
Since WSHP units are small, the
duct sizes are also relatively small.
The same system provides heating
and cooling. Water piping does not
need to be insulated. Additionally, a
large portion of the installation costs
can be deferred to the time of tenant
occupancy in a new construction
Figure 8
project. Since the WSHP units
themselves represent 50 percent of the Low Installed Cost Features
cost of a typical WSHP project, the
individual units do not have to be purchased until a tenant has been secured for each apartment in
the building. This improves project cash flow and capital costs. Also, a central mechanical room
is not required to house large equipment.
Compared to four-pipe fan coil or unit ventilator systems, the WSHP system only requires a
single circulating piping system composed of a supply and return pipe. This results in substantial
lower first cost.
Low Operating Costs
Operating costs of WSHP systems compare favorably and often are lower than packaged,
unitary, and air-cooled central systems. Units serving individual zones can operate close to full-
load efficiency while the rest of the units in the system remain off. For example, a central system
that utilizes an air-cooled water chiller under the same building loads could be operating at a less
efficient part-load condition. Many WSHP systems offer the maximum diversity possible with
only those units operating that are required based on individual space control.
Standard WSHP units applied in closed-loop applications using a boiler and a cooling tower
provide competitive full load efficiencies with cooling EERs (energy efficiency ratio) of about
11.0 and heating COPs (coefficient of performance) around 3.7. High-efficiency models are also
available with cooling EERs above 15.5 and COPs of 4.5. At the higher efficiency levels the
WSHP system can compare favorably to central water-cooled chiller plant systems that use
centrifugal or screw chillers.
The value for EER is found by dividing the net unit cooling capacity (in Btuh) by the total
unit input Watts. The value for COP is found by dividing the total heat of output (in Watts) by the
total input Watts.

8
Water source heat pump systems have a distinct

advantage over other systems because they utilize heat Design Guide
recovery inherently. The circulating loop is common to all Refer to the Carrier Water
WSHP units in the building. Heat removed from zones Source Heat Pump Design
requiring cooling is redistributed to zones needing heat in a Guide for an operating cost
most efficient manner that results in low operating costs. comparison to other
Therefore, WSHP systems also allow for a level electrical commercial systems.
demand throughout the year. Utility companies endorse and
often promote WSHP systems.
Operating Flexibility
During building occupancy,

WSHP units heat or cool based on the
needs of each individual zone and the
central boiler or cooling tower is
activated only as needed. A zone can
be as small as a single room. Adjacent
zones can be either heated or cooled.
See Figure 9. After normal building
occupancy hours, individual tenant
zones can be conditioned without
operating an entire central plant. The
circulating loop may contain
sufficient water volume to meet after
hour tenant needs by simply
activating the circulating loop pump.
If there is not sufficient water volume, Figure 9
the boiler or tower can be activated to Operating Flexibility of Adjacent Zones
maintain loop temperature.
Reliability
Since the early 1960s, WSHP systems have been in operation in the United States. According
to the Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI), WSHP systems have an average reliability of
98.5 percent – at least as well, if not
better, than all similarly priced
systems. According to EPRI studies,
the compressors used in WSHP units
have a long service life and very low
replacement rates.
Also, part of the reliability
advantage of a WSHP system is the
redundancy. If one heat pump unit
fails, the rest of the system stays
operational. See Figure 10.
Figure 10
Redundancy Advantage

9
Design Flexibility
Units are available in many sizes

and configurations to meet space
needs. Units can be installed under
windows, in mechanical closets on
each floor, in ceiling cavities, or
stacked in vertical floor-to-floor
arrangements as shown in Figure 11.
Energy used by WSHP units can be
individually metered and billing
provided to tenants when required.
Common system components like the
boiler, cooling tower, and pumps must
be subdivided among tenants.
Figure 11
Future adjustments to the WSHP
system layout can easily be made if Design Flexibility Advantage
the original circulating loop is
designed with capped stub-outs located at intervals along the main piping loop. Even without
extra stub-outs, new branch takeoffs can be added with hot-taps during the unoccupied hours, on
weekends or in the evening. When applications allow, such as in high-rise buildings, WSHP units
can be arranged in a vertically stacked floor-to-floor arrangement. The stack unit manufacturer
can provide units with built-in risers.
It is a simple matter to add or relocate a zone. Each WSHP unit requires minimal discharge
ductwork and requires only a two-pipe flexible connection to the circulating loop, power and
control wiring, and condensate piping.
Finally, the WSHP system easily integrates with energy management systems.
Easy to Design
The WSHP system utilizes

packaged equipment with minimal
ductwork. Piping and controls are
simple and units are pre-engineered.
Major WSHP manufacturers offer
design guides that engineers can use
to design whole systems. See
Figure 12.
Figure 12
System Design Guide

10
Minimal Building Space Usage
Since WSHP units are small, they

can be located in ceiling cavities or in
closets and require less space when
compared to alternative systems. And
since water is used to transfer heat
energy through the building instead of
air, less building space is required for
vertical shafts. Finally, a smaller
mechanical room can be used since
there is no need for a central chiller
plant. See Figure 13.
Figure 13
Units Require Less Building Space
Ease of Maintenance and Repair
The vast majority of installed

WSHP units are from 1/2 to 5 tons in
capacity and weigh from 100 to
300 lb each. Therefore, WSHP units
are easily installed and removed.
Should a WSHP unit malfunction,
it can be removed from the system
while the rest of the system continues
to function properly. The malfunc-
tioning unit can be serviced on-site, as
shown in Figure 14, or be removed
and replaced with a spare unit. In this
way, repairs can be carried out in a
remote shop or central maintenance Figure 14
area. Ease of Maintenance and Repair
In-house maintenance technicians with a reasonable knowledge of small packaged air
conditioning systems can perform normal maintenance routines. Should units need replacement,
manufacturers maintain warehouse stock of popular models with as little as one-day delivery.
Also, unlike some central systems employing large pieces of equipment, WSHP systems do
not typically require a licensed engineer or operator to run the system.

11
System Disadvantages
As with any system, there are
some potential disadvantages with
WSHP systems as shown in Figure
15. Here is a brief discussion of them.
Acoustics
For installation, WSHP units are
located close to or in the conditioned
space. Each heat pump contains a
compressor and a fan that can
generate radiated sound. However,
there are various installation practices
based on the unit type that, when
followed, result in an acceptable Figure 15
WSHP operating sound level. Disadvantages of a WSHP
Condensate Piping
Each WSHP unit requires an individual condensate
piping line to be run from the unit. The drain pan under the Secondary Drain Pan
refrigerant-to-air heat exchanger may require chemical A secondary drain pan is used
cleaning to keep it free of algae that may clog the as a precaution on many
condensate drains. projects. This is subject to local
requirements.
A condensate pump may also be required on some
WSHP units in order to remove condensate that cannot drain by gravity. Also, there is potential
leakage of condensate from WSHP units into the finished ceiling if the drain pan were to
overflow.
Separate Ventilation System
Many central system and rooftop packaged designs incorporate the introduction of outdoor
air into the unit. All WSHP systems require a dedicated outdoor air unit. The exception may be
console type WSHP units where the wall box accessory can be used to introduce outdoor air.
However, this requires a wall penetration at each unit and is not popular with many architects.
Also, ASHRAE 62.1 requirements for ventilation air may be difficult to achieve without a
separate ventilation system.
Multiple Electrical Power and Control Wiring Connection Points
Each heat pump unit requires a power supply and disconnect. Control wiring also is required
between each space thermostat and the WSHP unit.

12
Multiple Access Points

Many WSHP systems utilize horizontal above-the-ceiling type units. That means the impact
on occupants must be considered if servicing is performed during the occupied time period.
Limited Use Economizer Cycle
If during colder weather conditions, the cooling load is being met with outdoor air instead of
heat pump compressors, then there will be no heat rejected to the loop for those units requiring
heating. Consequently, the use of an economizer can actually result in greater energy
consumption for a WSHP system.
Humidity at Part-Load Operation
Most heat pump units are small single-compressor designs that cycle the compressor on and
off to meet space dry bulb set point. During periods of light load, there may be a build-up of
humidity in the space. Additional heat pump technology can be used to improve resulting relative
humidity. Reheat, unloading compressors, and variable speed evaporator fans are described later
in this TDP.
Limited Filtration Capability
Most WSHP units, other than large rooftop or vertical units, are limited to a 1 or 2-in. filter.
The efficiency of this type filter may be at best MERV 7-8. Most WSHP units have low static
fans incapable of accommodating the pressure drop of a higher efficiency filter.
Poor Filter Maintenance
Filter maintenance can be easy to neglect. However, an accessory dirty filter light can be
integrated into the wall thermostat to tell the occupant when changing is required.

13
Product Overview
This chapter describes the components that comprise a WSHP unit along with various
equipment types and accessories that are available for use in WSHP systems. Its contents are
intended to be an aid in the early stages of system design when it is necessary to decide which
units are likely to be the best choice for a particular WSHP project.
WSHP Components
A WSHP unit is composed of the following internal components. The exact configuration
may vary slightly from manufacturer to manufacturer.
Compressor
Most WSHP units contain a single

hermetic compressor. Hermetic
compressors are sealed in an
enclosure and cooled by refrigerant
gas. The three types of compressors
used in the WSHP industry are scroll,
reciprocating, and rotary. See
Figure 16. The type of compressor
used depends on the capacity of the
WSHP and the brand. Premium
efficiency WSHP models often offer
multiple compressors for part-load Figure 16
staging. Larger sized units (above
10 tons) also feature multiple Compressor Types
compressors.
The following are characteristics of WSHP compressors:
• Fully hermetic design
• Non-field serviceable
• Highly efficient
• Extremely reliable
Hermetic reciprocating compressors and rotary

Multiple Compressors compressors can be used, but scroll compressors are most
popular. They contain less moving parts and are very
Premium efficiency WSHP efficient. They are quieter and very reliable.
models often offer multiple
compressors for part-load Multiple compressor designs have better part-load
staging. Larger sized units efficiency and are better suited for larger units with more
(above 10 tons) also feature variable loads. Typically single and dual-compressor units
multiple compressors. are designed with separate electrical and mechanical
refrigeration circuits. This avoids problems associated with
multiple compressors on one circuit.

14
New Modulating Scroll Technology

Some new WSHP units incorporate a scroll compressor with unloading capability. The basic
scroll is modified by the addition of an internal unloading mechanism that opens a bypass port
and allows an unloading step of 67 percent of full capacity. A single-speed, high-efficiency motor
runs continuously while the scroll modulates between the two capacity steps. The result of this
technology is better overall unit efficiency and control of humidity at part-load conditions.
Reversing Valve
The reversing valve reverses the

flow of refrigerant through the cycle
as shown in Figure 17. When the
mode of operation changes, the
reversing valve is repositioned. The
reversing valve is located on the
compressor discharge and directs the
flow of refrigerant for the changeover
from cooling to heating and heating to
cooling.
Figure 17
Reversing Valve
Refrigerant-to-Water Heat Exchanger
The refrigerant-to-water heat

exchanger is usually a tube-in-tube
design. See Figure 18. This design is
also called a coaxial heat exchanger
because it is wrapped in a circular
fashion. The heat exchanger consists
of a series of copper water tubes
inside steel refrigerant tubes. The
passages that the water flows through
are small. The coaxial tube-in-tube
design tends to be used on the smaller
water source heat pumps, which are
the majority of units produced.
Figure 18

15
Brazed-plate heat exchangers are also used on WSHP units (depending on the manufacturer
and unit size). They consist of a series of stainless steel plates brazed together with every second
plate turned 180 degrees as shown in
Figure 19. This design creates two
highly turbulent fluid channels that
flow in opposite directions over a
surface area with a high heat transfer
coefficient and good performance
characteristics. Counterflow of the
water and refrigerant maximizes heat
transfer. Each layer or circuit is linked
to an inlet and outlet via a manifold at
either end.
Closed Circuit
On tube-in-tube and brazed- Figure 19
plate heat exchangers, the Brazed-Plate Heat Exchanger
better choice is to use a closed
circuit for the loop water. On tube-in-tube and brazed-plate heat exchangers, the
better choice is to use a closed circuit for the loop water.
That is because the internal water passages on these types of condensers are not mechanically
cleanable. A closed-circuit cooling tower (or open tower with an intermediate heat exchanger) is
used with WSHP systems using these heat exchangers.
Expansion Metering Device
When liquid refrigerant flows

from the higher pressure of the
condenser to the lower pressure of the
evaporator, a metering device must
control its rate of flow. In the
expansion device, the refrigerant
expands as it enters the area of lower
pressure in the evaporator.
There are typically two kinds of
expansion devices used in WSHP
units. One device used is a TXV
(thermostatic expansion valve). The
TXV meters the correct amount of Figure 20
refrigerant based on actual load Expansion Device (Bi-Flow TXV)
conditions. It tends to be used on the
higher efficiency heat pump models. The thermostatic expansion valve on a heat pump is a
unique bi-flow design that operates in both heating and cooling. See Figure 20.
In the heating mode, refrigerant hot gas is condensed to a liquid in the refrigerant-to-air heat
exchanger and then enters the TXV, which meters the refrigerant to the refrigerant-to-water heat
exchanger.

16
In the cooling mode, the refrigerant hot gas is condensed to a liquid in the refrigerant-to-
water heat exchanger and then metered, by the TXV, to the refrigerant-to-air heat exchanger.
The second type of expansion device, the capillary tube, is the simplest of all the expansion
device designs. It is a small diameter tube selected to produce the desired pressure drop that
allows for expansion of the refrigerant into a gas. This is accomplished by selecting the tube with
the correct diameter and length to produce a certain flow at a given pressure. On a capillary tube
there are no moving parts.
Standard efficiency WSHP units often use capillary tubes as their expansion device. Premium
efficiency models and larger units are equipped with TXVs.
Refrigerant-to-Air Heat Exchanger
The refrigerant-to-air heat

exchanger is a copper tube, aluminum
fin coil mounted in the draw-thru
position. See Figure 21. The coil
delivers air at approximately 55 to
60° F in the cooling mode, and 95 to
105° F in the heating mode. The coil
is mounted in the draw-thru position,
meaning the fan assembly draws the
air through it and discharges air to the
ductwork.
Figure 21
Refrigerant-to-Air Heat Exchanger
Fan Assembly
Most WSHP units use centrifugal

fans with a forward-curved impeller
as shown in Figure 22. These fans are
capable of relatively low external
static pressure applications. Typically,
units 5 tons and under use a direct-
drive fan with a multi-speed tap.
Larger models will use a belt-driven
fan that allows for higher static
pressure applications.
Figure 22
Fan Assembly

17
Condensate Drain
Condensate drains are required on

all units. Some heat pumps contain a
built-in trap. Normally, horizontal
models require an external trap. See
Figure 23. For a discussion of the
condensate system refer to the system
application section. The height of the
trap should be at least 1.5 times the
expected negative static pressure (in.
wg) in the drain pan of the WSHP.
The outlet of the trap should be at
least 1 in. below the trap inlet.
Whether an internal or external trap is
Figure 23
provided, a vent should be included in
the condensate piping. Condensate Drain
Filters
Most WSHP units come with a

1-in. filter as standard. See Figure 24.
An option to upgrade the filter from a
1-in. to a 2-in. type is common except
on some console models. Rooftop
WSHP units often have a 4-in. pleated
optional filter offering.
Figure 24
Typical Filters
Unit Controls
Each WSHP unit typically comes

equipped with the following built in
functions. See Figure 25 for an
example of a unit control board.
Figure 25
Unit Control Board

18
Anti-Short Cycle Timer

This timer device prevents the compressor from turning on too quickly after turning off
which can cause damage to the compressor. The timer delay is usually set at approximately
5 minutes.
Random Start Feature
The feature provides a random or staggered start up of individual heat pumps. It occurs at
initial power up (or loss of power) but not at every compressor call. Otherwise, at the beginning
of the occupied cycle, all units could start simultaneously, which would create a potentially large
electrical demand.
Over/Under Voltage Protection

This device is contained in the unit control board. A voltage variation of plus or minus
10 percent of nameplate voltage is acceptable. If voltage is outside this range, the unit will be shut
down by this protective safety device.
High/Low Pressure Protection

Pressure sensors are mounted in the suction line and the discharge line of the compressor. If
line pressures exceed the high pressure set point, unit operation is terminated. A low-pressure
switch provides loss of charge protection. Some units may use a temperature switch on the
discharge line for loss of charge protection. High and low pressure protection is typically manual
reset.
Freeze Protection
Most WSHP units have an air heat exchanger and water heat exchanger freeze protection
device built in. For the water heat exchanger, a sensor is set at 30° F for standard closed loop
applications, or approximately 10° F for colder ground loop applications. The sensor is used to
shut off the compressor if water temperatures fall below this set point. For the refrigerant-to-air
heat exchanger, a sensor set at 30° F is typically used.
Condensate Overflow
This sensor is located in the condensate pan and will shut down the compressor if condensate
builds up in the drain pan indicating a potential overflow situation. This function is typically
automatic reset.
Unit-Mounted Controllers
Two basic unit-mounted WSHP controllers are typically available: a non-communicating
type (which means the controller is not capable of being connected to a building-wide network
communications bus) or a communicating type for use on a building wide network.

19
Hydronic Accessories
The following are several important accessories that are used with most WSHP installations.
Supply and Return Water Hoses

The most basic type of hose
package is a supply and return hose
with fittings and ball valves as shown
in Figure 26. This package allows the
simple and quick connection of a heat
pump to a rigid pipe connection. The
flexible hose provides vibration
isolation. Balancing is accomplished
with the return side ball valve. Valves
are equipped with a memory stop.
A manual kit includes accessories
that allow the system or surrounding
devices to be tested and manually
adjusted for flow rate. The term “kit” Figure 26
refers to a supply or return hose with Supply and Return Water Hose
associated valves and accessories. (Photo courtesy of Hays Fluid Controls)
Ball valves are generally included to
enable the unit to be isolated and flow
shut down. Pressure and temperature
ports are included to determine the
flow rates at predetermined levels.
Temperature ports allow the system
performance to be monitored and
adjustments made for system balance.
Automatic kits are similarly
equipped, but the automatic-balance
valves eliminate the need to manually
adjust the flow rate. See Figure 27. A
variety of options such as air vents,
strainers, blow down valves, electric Figure 27
control valves, etc., are available to Hose Kit with Automatic Flow Control Valve
suit specific applications. (Photo courtesy of Hays Fluid Controls)

20
Automatic balancing valves in piping packages are growing in popularity as they are a major
cost reduction method and offer constant flow control over a wide range of operating pressures
and flow rates. See Figure 28. The major advantage is the constant adjustment to operating
conditions. Automatic balancing
valves maintain proper system flow
control without periodic manip-
ulation of the flow control devices
to accomplish a balance in the
system. That means there is a
significant reduction in cost to
setup and maintain the system.
Figure 28
Manual and Automatic Valves
(Photo courtesy of Hays Fluid Controls)
Condensate Hoses
A condensate hose is often a clear, vinyl hose accessory. The hose comes with a pre-formed
trap. They are usually 46 inches in length and can be field cut to a desired length. Hoses are UL
94 rated and treated with anti-
fungicidal elements to allow for
long life with undisturbed flow.
Condensate hoses are available in
kit form, with end fittings, blow-
down fitting tee and clamps. See
Figure 29.
Ball Valves
Ball valves are used for full
open/closed service with limited
capability for control. Their
advantage is low cost, high
capacity, low leakage, and tight
sealing properties. Other valve Figure 29
types are best for balancing. Condensate Hose with Pre-Formed Trap
(Photo courtesy of Hays Fluid Controls)
Gate Valves
A gate valve can be used to isolate the WSHP system from the main supply and return.
Gate valves are sometimes preferred on larger heat pump applications. Gate valves, also known
as “stop valves,” are designed for shutoff duty. When the valve is in the wide-open position, the
gate is completely out of the fluid stream, thus providing straight through flow and a very low
pressure drop.

21
Strainers
A strainer can be used on the supply line to the heat pump to
Strainer
keep the refrigerant-to-water heat exchanger free of debris. Use
of strainers on individual WSHP units in closed loop A 16 to 20 mesh rating
applications is not always done, but a 16 to 20 rated mesh for the strainer is fine
strainer is recommended for any open system like a well or pond enough to strain out
application. On closed-loop systems, a central strainer is particles found in typical
recommended at the circulating pump. open-loop water
systems.
Automatic Shutoff Valve
Some WSHP systems utilize variable water flow in order to save pumping energy. When a
unit cycles off on a constant flow system, water continues to circulate through the refrigerant-to-
water heat exchanger. An automatic shutoff valve will stop the flow of water to the exchanger
when the compressor is deenergized, allowing the pump to save energy by only pumping water
through active units. A bypass line is typically installed in the piping system to allow minimum
pump flow.
Automatic Balancing Valve

This device contains a rubber diaphragm and an orifice plate. Unlike manual balance valves
that have fixed-orifice openings, the automatic balance valve is a constant flow/variable orifice
device. The hardness of the rubber and the area of the orifice openings determine the flow rate.
The valve maintains constant flow by varying the orifice opening with changes in differential
pressure. As the differential pressure increases, the rubber diaphragm distorts and presses further
into the orifice opening creating a different opening size and maintaining constant flow.
WSHP Unit Types

Water source heat pump equipment is available in the following unit types. Each type is
intended for a specific application. A WSHP system may utilize multiple unit types depending on
the building configuration. In this section we will examine these WSHP unit types:
• Horizontal units
• Vertical units
• Console units
• Stack units
• Rooftop units
• Water-to-water units

22
Horizontal Units
Horizontal units are

available in capacities from
1/2 to 10 tons, and are used
for ceiling mounted applica-
tions. Typically, applications
include office buildings,
apartments, schools, hotels,
and medical clinics. See
Figure 30.
Figure 30
Horizontal Unit
Units are hung from the ceiling with isolation hangers to minimize vibration and the
transmission of noise to the occupied spaces as shown in Figure 31. Typically, horizontal WSHP
units are suspended by their lifting bracket using threaded connector rods and a rubber grommet
isolator. On installations
where mostly larger units are
used (over 3 tons) and
vibration is a concern, the
units may be installed with
springs. Large capacity units
(3 tons or more) are typically
located over corridors, over
public spaces, or in utility
closets. These locations
isolate the units acoustically
from the conditioned space
and make them accessible for
service.
Figure 31
Typical Horizontal Unit Installation
Office Buildings
Horizontal units are the most commonly used WSHPs for
Horizontal units are the large office buildings. They occupy no floor space and are
most commonly used positioned above standard T-bar ceilings, which allow access for
WSHPs for large office
maintenance.
buildings. They occupy
no floor space and are Horizontal units are utilized for both interior and perimeter
positioned above zones, and are easily integrated with a separate ventilation
standard T-bar ceilings, system to provide fresh air to the zone. Air from the conditioned
which allow access for zone is returned to the horizontal unit through either a ceiling
maintenance.
plenum return or direct-ducted return system.

23
Vertical Units
Vertical units are typically avail-

able in capacities from 3/4 to 25 tons,
and are commonly located in utility
closets or small equipment rooms.
Some very large tonnage units are
also manufactured as variable air
volume units. Units are installed in
interior zones of office buildings, or
in schools, apartments, and condo-
miniums. See Figure 32.
Vertical units require little floor
space. Mounting the units on
vibration-absorbing pads minimizes Figure 32
sound transmission to the conditioned Vertical Unit
space. Units typically come with a
removable service panel, providing
service access to all major com-
ponents. See Figure 33.
Vertical units are easily integrated
with a separate ventilation system to
provide fresh air to the zone. Air
from the conditioned zone is returned
to the vertical unit through return air
ductwork, or the utility closet itself
can be utilized as a return plenum.
Console Units
Figure 33
Console units are typically Typical Vertical Unit Installation in Utility Closet
available in capacities from 1/2 to 2
tons. See Figure 34. Console units
require minimal use of the
conditioned floor space. Units
typically come with a removable front
service panel, providing service
access to all major components.
Console units are suited for
installations beneath windows in
perimeter zones or in entryways.
Units are commonly used in perimeter
offices, hotel rooms, hospital rooms,
apartments, dormitories, and
condominiums. Figure 34
Console Unit

24
Separate filter access is usually

provided for easy filter changes. See
Figure 35.
Ventilation air can be provided
integral to the unit through a wall box
accessory that introduces air into the
back of the unit. However, a separate
ventilation system is a more common
solution.
Stack Units
Figure 35
Stack units are typically available Typical Console Unit Installation
in capacities from 1/2 to 3 tons, and
are usually built into the wall with
only the face panel exposed to the
conditioned space. See Figure 36.
Exposed cabinet models are also
available. Units may also be located
in the conditioned space with the pipe
risers located in the wall. Stack units
are commonly used in high-rise
hotels, condominiums, and apartments
where floor space is limited and the
“vertical-stacking” feature of the
product can simplify piping
installation. Supply, return, and
condensate pipe risers are built into
the rear of the unit at the factory, Figure 36
thereby minimizing field installation Stack Unit
labor.

25
Supply air can be ducted from the top of the unit or supplied from a grille built into
the cabinet. Air is typically returned from the zone to the unit through a grille in the front of
the cabinet. Units typically
come with a removable
service panel to provide
service access to all major
components.
Ventilation with stack
units is typically provided by
a separate ventilation system.
Shown in Figure 37 is an
example of stack units
installed in a multi-floor
building. Direct return piping
is shown, but reverse return
piping is also utilized.
Figure 37
Typical Stack Unit Installation
Rooftop Units
Rooftop water source heat pump units are available in capacities from approximately 3 to
20 tons, and are ideal for applications where it is not desirable to install equipment in a ceiling,
utility closet, or small equipment
room. See Figure 38. Units are
commonly used in low-rise office
buildings, schools, hotels, motels,
nursing homes, and hospitals. Since
the units are located on the roof, no
floor space is required, and outside
walls need not be penetrated. Units
are typically located on the roof over
less acoustically critical areas like
storage rooms or rest rooms. Units
typically come with removable
service panels, providing service
access to all major components.
Figure 38
Rooftop WSHP Unit

26
A rooftop WSHP is used for applications where a larger tonnage unit is necessary and no
ceiling or floor space is available for other WSHP unit configurations. Unlike a conventional air-
cooled rooftop, a water source rooftop
can be connected to the building water
loop. See Figure 39.
No Available Space
A rooftop WSHP is used for
applications where a larger
tonnage unit is necessary and
no ceiling or floor space is
available.
Outdoor air is easily provided

through the outdoor air intake of the
unit, and is controlled by either a two- Figure 39
position damper or an airside Typical Rooftop WSHP Unit Installation
economizer option. Supply air is
provided through ductwork to the conditioned zone. Air is returned to the unit through a ceiling-
plenum return or a direct-ducted return. A standard rooftop WSHP unit is normally applied with
approximately 20 percent outdoor air as a maximum, unless preconditioning the outdoor air is
accomplished by another means, such as energy recovery. See the Ventilation System Energy
Recovery section on page 45. For a detailed discussion, see TDP-910, Energy Recovery.
Water-to-Water Heat Pump Units
The water-to-water heat pump is

typically available in 3 to 30 ton
capacities and utilizes two refrigerant-
to-water heat exchangers. A
refrigeration cycle transfers heat from
water in the source to water in the
load heat exchanger. The water for the
load heat exchanger can be used to
provide chilled or hot water for air-
handling units, fan coils, hydronic
baseboard, radiant in-slab piping, or
swimming pools. See Figure 40. Figure 40
Water-to-Water Unit

27
These units can be piped in multiples in a parallel or series configuration. These arrangements
are meant to provide additional capacity beyond what a single unit can offer. If large capacity is
required, units may be piped in
parallel as shown in Figure 41. Total
pressure drop is the same as a single
unit.
In a series arrangement, lower
leaving water temperatures are
available than could be accomplished
by a parallel or single unit. The
leaving load water temperature of the
first unit becomes the load entering
water temperature of the second unit.
This arrangement provides an
additional decrease in water
temperature beyond the capability of a
single unit. Capacity control is Figure 41
accomplished by cycling the units on Series and Parallel Piping
or off.
For piping diagrams showing integration of water-
Preconditioning Ventilation Air
to-water heat pumps in a WSHP system, see the System
Water-to-water WSHP units are Variations section of this TDP.
used in several applications. One
is to precondition the ventilation
air in the dedicated outdoor air
unit by extracting heat or cool
energy from the common loop.
System Overview
Components
In this section, we will discuss the components of a closed-loop, commercial water source
heat pump system.
Cooling Tower
The purpose of the cooling tower is to reject excess heat from the common WSHP water
loop. The cooling tower is staged to be on full capacity when the loop starts to approach its upper
value of 90° F.
There are two types of cooling tower designs that are used for a closed-loop WSHP system:
• Closed-circuit cooling tower
• Open cooling tower with a heat exchanger
Both options ensure that the loop water never comes in contact with the atmosphere. This is
accomplished with the open tower by using a plate and frame heat exchanger. The WSHP loop
passes through one circuit and the tower loop through the other. Because loop water does not

28
come in contact with the atmosphere, both corrosion and scaling in the WSHP refrigerant-to-
water heat exchangers are eliminated. Scaling degrades WSHP unit performance and reduces
equipment life.
Both options make use of the evaporative cooling effect, which takes advantage of both
sensible and latent heat exchange. The cooling capability of a tower is dependent on entering wet
bulb temperature of the outdoor air, not the entering dry bulb temperature as with a dry cooler.
Since wet bulb temperatures are always less than the associated dry bulb temperature, the
potential for a greater cooling effect is realized.
Closed-Circuit Cooling Tower

The more popular choice for
WSHP systems is the closed-circuit
cooling tower. A closed-circuit
cooling tower has the WSHP loop
water circulated through its coil. See
Figure 42.
In this design, the water coil is an
integral part of the cooling tower. The
water coil isolates the loop water from
the atmosphere. The potential for
contamination is reduced. The tower
may be located outdoors or indoors.
When it is located indoors, centrifugal Figure 42
type fans are often provided to
Closed-Circuit Cooling Tower
overcome the additional pressure drop
associated with discharge ductwork. The closed-circuit tower is usually equipped with inlet and
discharge dampers that can be closed when the tower is off thus minimizing heat loss.
Closed-circuit cooling towers for WSHP systems can be justified based on the benefits they
supply over open towers: less maintenance, ability to run dry in winter, less down time, and
limited fouling on the outside of the tubes.
The closed-circuit design results in a higher first cost than open cooling towers for the same
tonnage. Much of this cost is from the large water coil and the centrifugal type fan that is
required.
It is important to realize that the use of closed-circuit cooling towers results in less condenser
and piping fouling than with an open cooling tower because the water in the loop is not being
aerated and is not exposed to the environment. Also, a relatively small spray pump is used to wet
the coil for an evaporative cooling effect versus a larger system loop water pump that an open
tower requires. Loop temperature is maintained by staging a spray over the coil and regulating
airflow. There is still a requirement for water treatment with a closed-circuit tower.

29
Open Cooling Tower with Heat Exchanger
For a closed-loop WSHP appli-

cation on an open tower arrangement,
as shown in Figure 43, the following
are required:
• a separate tower water pump
sized at approximately 3 gpm/ton
• a plate and frame heat exchanger,
which can be located indoors for
freeze protection
• a field-installed piping run
between the heat exchanger and
the open tower Figure 43
The pumping costs are greater on Open Cooling Tower with Heat Exchanger
an open tower than a closed design
because the full loop flow is being pumped through the tower. The open loop part of the system is
limited to the circuit on the tower side of the heat exchanger. This open cooling tower
arrangement is sometimes used instead of a closed circuit cooling tower on larger projects.
With an open cooling tower, the tower sump can be located indoors for freeze protection. In
this arrangement, the tower water drains by gravity into the sump when the tower is off. See the
Freeze Protection section of this TDP for more information.
Open Cooling Tower
One negative of an open cooling tower is that it
introduces an additional inefficiency into the heat transfer Between the sizes of
process with the heat exchanger. Also, additional controls approximately 200 to 300
are required. However, between the sizes of approximately tons, the open tower and plate
200 to 300 tons, the open tower and plate heat exchanger is heat exchanger is a cost
a cost effective alternative to a closed-circuit tower. effective alternative to a
closed circuit tower.
Preferences of one type over the other may be regional.
An open cooling tower is subject to scaling and corrosion, therefore, professional water
treatment is required. Also the evaporation of the circulating water will tend to build up
concentrations of the minerals in the water, so bleeding some water off and replacing it with fresh
water will help limit concentration. See the Water Conditioning section on page 44 for more
information.
Boiler (Heat Adder)
If the rejected heat available from the WSHP units operating in the cooling mode is not
sufficient to meet the needs of zones requiring heating, a boiler (also known as a heat adder) is
required to maintain the loop temperature. The boiler may run on fossil fuel (oil or gas), or
electricity depending on the availability, convenience, and relative cost of the various forms of
energy.

30
If the boiler runs on fossil fuel, it

will operate at much higher
temperatures (140° F and higher)
than the WSHP loop temperature of
60 to 90° F. The introduction of full
flow of colder loop water could cause
internal heat exchanger condensation
and damage (also known as boiler
shock). The piping arrangement
shown in Figure 44 illustrates a
bypass arrangement that allows the
system to operate at any temperature
above 60° F without condensation
forming in the boiler. Figure 44
As a general rule, copper-tube Fossil Fuel Boiler Piping

type fossil fuel boilers do not require
the piping arrangement shown in
Figure 44 to prevent boiler shock.
Cast-iron type boilers, however, do
require this piping arrangement.
If the heat adder is an electric
type, thermal shock and condensation
within the heat exchanger is not a
concern. The heater may be piped as
shown in Figure 45. This type of
boiler allows are large portion of the
WSHP loop to pass through it.
Multiple staged heaters are usually
supplied for capacity control.
Figure 45
Electric Boiler Piping

31
Air Distribution System
Water source heat pump units (other than console and water-to-water type) deliver a constant
volume of air through a low-pressure duct system to the conditioned space. This duct system
typically terminates at one or more diffusers located in the ceiling of the conditioned space. In
order to provide proper room air
distribution during both cooling and
heating modes of operation, care must
be given to the sizing of the ductwork
and the selection and location of the
diffusers.
Water source heat pump systems
benefit from using simple
symmetrical duct layouts as shown in
Figure 46. One of the benefits of
WSHP systems is that the ductwork is
a simple low velocity, low pressure
design. The design is simplified Figure 46
further if a return duct system is not Symmetrical Duct Layouts
used.
The basic WSHP air distribution design should accomplish the following objectives:
• Produce a low pressure drop within the confines of the space available for the ductwork
• Minimize sound levels by reducing airflow velocities
• Maintain low cost by using simple layouts and direct duct runs
Ventilation Air Distribution Units
The dedicated ventilation air

distribution unit can be a central
station air-handling unit, packaged
DX unit, gas-fired unit, or an energy
recovery unit. See Figure 47. The use
of energy recovery for the ventilation
system is highly recommended.
ASHRAE Standard 90.1 requires
that individual fan systems that have
both a design supply air volume of
5,000 cfm or greater and bring in at
least 70 percent of the supply air from
the outside be equipped with energy
recovery. There are some exceptions Figure 47
to this. Refer to TDP-910, Energy Ventilation Air Distribution Units
Recovery for details.
Packaged rooftop WSHP units connected to the water loop have been used for dedicated
ventilation air, but some designers do not like to position the heat exchanger on the roof because
of the potential to freeze. Also, additional heat is required since the WSHP refrigerant-to-air coil

32
can only accomplish approximately 20° F rise in the air. An energy wheel may be used with the
rooftop unit to precondition the outdoor air.
Water Pumps
Centrifugal water pumps are the

most common type of pump used in
comfort air conditioning applications.
There are several types of centrifugal
pumps used in the HVAC industry,
such as inline, close-coupled, end
suction, vertical split case, and
horizontal split case. The type of
pump to use for a WSHP system is
typically determined by the flow rate
and head pressure requirements,
available space, serviceability, and
first cost. For a detailed discussion on
pump types refer to TDP-502, Water Figure 48
Piping and Pumps. WSHP Loop Pump and Standby
Usually two pumps piped in parallel are provided for a WSHP system. See Figure 48. One
pump is a 100 percent standby. The pump location within the WSHP loop pushes water into the
WSHP units. Heat generated by the pump enters the loop water prior to the flow entering the
WSHP refrigerant-to-water heat exchangers.
Air Separator and Expansion Tank
Air separators are used in addition to an expansion tank in a closed system. Air separators
eliminate entrained air from the system. Circulation of the water through an air separator can
remove a large percentage of this air. This will improve the overall heat transfer efficiency of the
system (air is an insulator) and also reduce corrosion caused by dissolved oxygen.
An expansion tank should be
sized to handle the excess volume of
water that is a result of temperature
change. A water expansion tank
should be part of every closed-loop
system. See Figure 49. The change in
volume for a WSHP system is
approximately 2 percent for the range
of temperatures of a typical closed-
loop system. The change in water
system volume is usually about 1
percent for chilled-water systems and
about 3 to 4 percent for normal hot Figure 49
water systems in the 180 to 200° F Air Separator and Expansion Tank
range.

33
Controls
The system control requirements for WSHP are in addition to the unit-mounted controls
discussed earlier. The system level controls should have the ability to control the following:
• Loop water temperature by sequencing the heat adder and heat rejecter
• Occupied and unoccupied time scheduling
• Pumps and their sequencing
• Ventilation air supply
• Alarm, emergency shutdown, maintenance
• Warm up or cool down cycle
• Communications to other building systems like lights and fire safety (optional)
• Integration to outside building automation controls (optional)
For a discussion of the WSHP controls, refer to the Controls section of this TDP.
Example System Configurations

This section illustrates several types of buildings and their configuration for WSHP systems.
If the building is divided into a number of separate temperature control zones, some of which
call for heating at the same time that others need cooling, that building is an ideal candidate for a
WSHP system. There is a good possibility for heat recovery from core cooling units to perimeter
heating units. Whenever there are concentrated heat loads (solar, lights, or equipment) in zones
that can be used for heating of other zones, a WSHP system should be considered.
It should be noted that many WSHP systems are used in
Reclaim Possibilities buildings with limited or no actual heat reclaim possibilities. If the
building configuration does not generate a simultaneous heating
Many WSHP systems and cooling call, then heat recovery cannot take place. However,
are used in buildings
there are other reasons why a WSHP system may still be desirable.
with limited or no
actual heat reclaim When the occupancy is variable, a WSHP system can shut off units
possibilities. for zones not in use. Also, off-hour occupancy (evenings or
weekends) can be accommodated by operating only those units
required.
Water source heat pump systems are desirable if the building owner wishes to defer a
substantial portion of his HVAC investment until individual tenants sign leases for their
respective areas. In that case, individual heat pump installation can occur at a later date.
If the cost of energy is to be billed to tenants, the WSHP system is able to accommodate that
need. There will still be some common component energy to proportion like towers, pumps, and
boilers. However, the decentralized approach of the WSHP system lends itself to separate billing
by usage.
Buildings where floor space is at a premium with limited room for mechanical equipment are
good candidates for WSHP systems. If horizontal WSHP units in the ceiling areas are used, only
the pumps, a tower and a boiler must be located in or on the building.
In buildings where ceiling space is limited, large duct runs may be impossible. Vertical units
in closets, or console units under windows are a good solution.

34
Single-Story Buildings
Single-story buildings are usually good candidates for WSHP systems. They may contain
areas of different sizes and usage patterns requiring different air conditioning needs. Larger areas
may require their own independently metered HVAC systems.
A single-zone cooling/heating
unit installed on the roof supplies
ventilation air. The arrangement in
Figure 50 shows how the major
components of a WSHP system can
be configured on ground level to serve
a one story building. Air is distributed
by ductwork in the ceiling plenum
space. Horizontal heat pump units can
be suspended above the ceiling to
leave more available floor space for
rental.
Figure 50
Single-Story WSHP Layout
Two to Four-Story Buildings
Here in Figure 51 is a modern looking high-rent, medium size building that can be handled
economically by a WSHP System. On this building the WSHP system incorporates a central
station air-handling unit with energy
recovery located in a rooftop
penthouse. The boiler, tower, and
pumps have also been located in the
rooftop penthouse. Horizontal WSHP
units provide heating and cooling
throughout the rest of the building.
Figure 51
Two to Four-Story WSHP Layout

35
High-Rise Buildings
In the building shown in

Figure 52, horizontal WSHP units
provide heating and cooling
throughout the building. Outdoor air
is supplied by a roof-mounted central
station unit with a modulating gas-
fired heat exchanger with an energy
recovery wheel incorporated into the
configuration. The tower has been
located on the roof to minimize stack
and tower discharge ductwork. The
boiler and pumps have been located in
the basement. Figure 52
High-Rise WSHP Layout
System Variations
This section discusses variations to the basic closed loop system, which incorporates a boiler,
cooling tower, constant speed pumps, WSHP units, control system, and a dedicated ventilation air
unit.
Variable Volume and Temperature (VVT®) System
A VVT system can provide a small, separate zoning system for individual WSHP units. The
VVT concept would utilize a standard WSHP unit coupled to a variable volume and temperature
computerized control system. The
system includes zone dampers
controlled by special zone controllers
and zone sensors. All controllers
communicate to their respective zone
damper and then to the WSHP unit
through an air source unit controller.
A complete VVT system will have
numerous zone controllers arranged in
a linkage coordinator/zone controller
relationship. A VVT system uses a
system pilot user interface to provide
access and to program the VVT
system as well as any other device Figure 53
residing on the communication bus. VVT System with WSHP
See Figure 53.
The WSHP unit with VVT delivers a variable volume of
VVT Systems
either cold or hot supply air to each zone as load dictates.
For a complete discussion Constant airflow, however, is maintained through the WSHP
on VVT systems, refer to unit by use of a bypass damper and controller. For a complete
TDP-704, Variable Volume discussion on VVT systems, refer to TDP-704, Variable
and Temperature Systems. Volume and Temperature Systems.

36
VAV in the Interior Zone
Indoor water-cooled packaged

VAV units can be incorporated into
the WSHP loop. When a load analysis
confirms that a large interior area will
require varying amounts of cooling all
year long, the individual space loads
within it benefit from zoning. See
Figure 54. This scheme offers the
advantage of individual space
temperature control and fan energy
savings at part load operation.
Since it is unlikely that all the
spaces served by the by the VAV unit Figure 54
will reach their peak cooling Self-Contained VAV Units in the Interior Zone
requirements at the same time, the
water-cooled packaged unit is selected for less capacity and less airflow than the sum of the peaks
in the individual spaces. This, coupled with the fact that a single water-cooled packaged unit can
replace several smaller WSHP units, may reduce cost. This scheme tends to be used in larger
WSHP applications where the core has a year round cooling load.
Variable Flow Systems
The use of variable flow in the WSHP loop is widespread and can provide pump energy
savings for many buildings that have temporary occupancy areas like hotels, motels, or multiple-
tenant offices. Because the occupancy varies significantly during the occupied period, many of
the WSHP units may be in the off mode for significant periods of time. When individual WSHP
compressors are off, water flow to the unit’s refrigerant-to-water heat exchanger is controlled by
an automatic isolation valve. The result is a reduction in overall system flow and a savings in
pump energy.
The main loop pump must be
provided with a VFD (variable
frequency drive), controlled by a
differential pressure sensor located in
the piping. See Figure 55. The two-way
automatic isolation valves must be
provided on the return lines for each
WSHP unit. The valves should be slow
response type to prevent water pressure
damage. The WSHP manufacturer can
normally supply these valves as an
accessory. At the end of the water loop,
some automatic three-way valves (or a
single-bypass water line) should be used Figure 55
to provide a minimum flow as required Variable Flow WSHP System
by the boiler.

37
If PVC pipe is used for the loop piping in conjunction with a variable flow system, it is
important to avoid high loop water temperature. Piping could sag at high temperatures and low
flow. Again, a bypass line for minimum constant loop flow should be considered.
The purpose of using a few automatic three-way isolation valves is to bypass the WSHP unit
when the compressor is off and still maintain some water flow in the system. In this way, a
minimum circuit flow is ensured to protect the pump and/or boiler.
Hot Water Pre-Heating
Buildings in warm climates typically have year-round cooling loads and are a good supply for
low-grade heat. Rather than reject this heat through the cooling tower, the rejected heat may be
used as pre-heat for the building’s domestic hot water needs in applications like hotels, hospitals,
and schools. A separate water-to-water heat exchanger is required to pre-heat the domestic water
with loop water.
Sprinkler Piping Integrated with the WSHP Loop
When allowed by local building and fire codes, combining the building fire-sprinkler with the
WSHP water loop can lower installed cost. The design can be used with either single or double
riser systems. The piping to the WSHP is tapped into the sprinkler grid. The supply line to each
unit must include a shut-off valve and an automatic balancing valve. See Figure 56. The return
line requires a check valve and a
shut-off valve. In addition, the
piping layout for the two-riser
system includes a bypass with check
valve (around the cooling tower,
boiler, and pump) to provide a direct
path for the sprinkler water coming
in from the city in case of fire
emergency.
During fire emergency, when
sprinklers are activated, the pump of
the hydronic circuit is shut off. Each
sprinkler head is then supplied
directly with the necessary amount
of water under pressure from the city Figure 56
main or from a fire pump. During Sprinkler System Integrated with the WSHP Loop
normal operation, the loop water is
circulated.
The system has various other requirements related to codes governing the fire sprinklers and
may need a considerable amount of engineering work, as well as close coordination between the
HVAC, control, and sprinkler specialists during design, installation, and start-up. Applications are
subject to proper qualification by a consulting engineer and the applicable codes.

38
System Without a Boiler
In some circumstances, it may be

possible to omit the use of a central
heat adder altogether in a closed-loop
system as shown in Figure 57. For
instance, in mild climates, where the
total heating loads are relatively
small, the boiler is sometimes
eliminated. However, supplementary
heat is still required and can always
be provided by an electric heating coil
in the WSHP discharge for those units
on the perimeter zone.
In a system without a boiler, if the Figure 57
water loop temperature stays above System without a Boiler
60° F, the system works in cooling
and heating mode in the usual manner. But if the loop water temperature approaches the lower
limit of 60° F, more heat is being absorbed from the loop by units in the heating mode than is
being added to it by units in the cooling mode. At that point WSHP units must be prevented from
absorbing more heat from the loop. A water temperature sensor deenergizes the compressors in
the heat pumps requiring heating and the electric heat is cycled on in those zones. If, at the same
time, other WSHP units in the system are on the cooling cycle rejecting heat into the loop, the
loop water temperature will stabilize and rise. After the temperature rises to an acceptable level,
the corresponding perimeter WSHP units are allowed to return to the heat pump heating mode.
System With a Storage Tank
During the winter or intermediate seasons, some WSHP systems with substantial interior
cooling loads may generate more rejected heat to the loop than can be absorbed by perimeter
heating units. If that is the case,
excess heat can be stored in a tank
instead of rejected to the atmosphere
through the tower. In the heating
season, this excess heat can be used to
minimize the use of the boiler. See
Figure 58.
A storage tank increases the fluid
volume in the WSHP system. The
storage tank acts as a heat sink whose
heated or cooled water can be released
whenever it is needed. Depending on
the load profile of the building and the
local utility’s demand structure, a
storage tank can help minimize the Figure 58
electrical demand charges caused by System with Storage Tank
an electric boiler.

39
Storage tanks are sometimes used to maintain loop temperature during the morning warm-up
or cool-down period. During the morning warm-up period, all the WSHP units simultaneously
require their THA (total heat of absorption) from the water loop. The unit THA is shown in
WSHP printed literature or can be generated by their selection software. During this period, the
storage tank can help maintain the loop temperature from falling too low by adding heat to the
loop.
If the beginning of the occupied cycle requires a cool-down mode instead a warm-up mode,
all the heat pumps will start in the cooling mode. The rejected heat for each unit will enter the
water loop simultaneously. This value (in Btuh) is available from the manufacturer for each heat
pump. During this period, the storage tank can help maintain the loop temperature from rising too
high by adding cooled water to the loop.
Water-to-Water Heat Pump
Water-to-water heat pump units can use heating or cooling from the common water loop for
various applications like pre-conditioning the ventilation air or for reheating supply air. A typical
application during the cooling season is for the heat pump to pre-cool and dehumidify building’s
central ventilation air. On the load side of the water-to-water heat pump, chilled water is
circulated to the air-handling unit
where it cools and dehumidifies
ventilation air. The water absorbs heat
from the ventilation air and returns
back to the water-to-water heat pump
where the heat is removed via the
refrigeration circuit and then trans-
ferred to the source heat exchanger.
Heated water from the source heat
exchanger is used to reheat air in the
ventilation unit. The heat is then
absorbed from the water by the air in
the reheat coil and, if necessary,
returned to the cooling tower, boiler, Figure 59
or ground loop for further heat
Water-to-Water Heat Pump in Cooling Season Applications
rejection. See Figure 59.
During the heating season, the
water-to-water unit can extract heat
from the building’s exhaust system by
use of a coil in the exhaust air. The
unit uses the heat to provide hot water
to the ventilation unit’s heating coil to
temper the air entering the building.
On the load side of the heat
exchanger, hot water is circulated to
the air-handling unit for heating
ventilation air. As the heat from the
water is released to the air, the water
is circulated back to the unit. On the
source side of the unit, water is Figure 60
circulated through the heat recovery Water-to-Water Heat Pump in Heating Season Applications

40
coil, is heated by the exhaust airstream, and then is circulated to the water-to-water unit. Control
valves, as shown in Figure 60, maximize the process of extracting heat from the exhaust. Control
valves on the source heat exchanger supply and return water work to minimize or eliminate the
need for additional heat from boilers.
System Application Topics

WSHP Units With Reheat
Dehumidification of the supply air can be handled in a number of ways. One method is with a
modulating reheat coil. This technology takes advantage of the transfer of heat through the water
piping loop. Loop water is diverted
during the cooling mode to a hydronic
reheat coil positioned downstream of
the refrigerant-to-air coil. If the water
from the coaxial heat exchanger is not
warm enough, the water is sent back
for another pass through the heat
exchanger to pick up more heat via an
internal loop. Proportional reheat is
controlled to the desired leaving air
temperature regardless of the loop
water temperature. See Figure 61.
Figure 61
Reheat
WSHP Reheat with Loop Water
Another reheat method uses a
conventional refrigeration cycle In many instances, dehumidification can be required
based hot gas reheat coil. under less than full load operating conditions a large part
of the time. Therefore it is important that the reheat
function is capable of 100 percent capacity in the intermediate seasons of Spring and Fall. During
these times the loop temperature can be relatively cool. The desired reheat is achievable by
controlling the number of passes through the heat exchanger.
Typical applications are classrooms, theatres, auditoriums, or applications where humidity
can be a problem.
Another reheat method uses a conventional refrigeration cycle based hot gas reheat coil. This
method depends on an elevated refrigerant temperature in order to work to full capacity.
However, with hot gas reheat, an elevated refrigerant temperature may not be available during
intermediate seasons when reheat is required. That is because the unit may be partially loaded at
these times.
Freeze Protection
Water source heat pump systems that have piping exposed to loop temperatures below 32° F
should be protected from potential freeze-up.
The major component of a conventional WSHP system that may be susceptible to freezing is
the water coil inside the closed circuit cooling tower. If an open tower with heat exchanger is

41
used, the critical part of the system for freeze protection is the heat exchanger. To ensure proper
freeze protection, locate the heat exchanger indoors. Closed circuit towers are normally
winterized (protected from freezing) by one or more of the following methods:
Full Tower Coil Flow
Maintaining full tower coil flow year round is the easiest and most typical way of preventing
freeze-ups. Moving water should not freeze.
Indoor Located Tower
Locating the closed-circuit tower indoors reduces heat loss of the system loop and minimizes
the potential for freeze-up.
Sump Heater
Shown in Figure 62 is a tower

sump heater. Steam, hot water, and
electric heaters are available. If a
heater is not available, the sump can
be located indoors to avoid potential
freeze-up.
Intake and Discharge Dampers
When the tower fan is not Figure 62

operating, positive-closure dampers Tower Heating Element
are used to prevent cold air circulation
and to seal off the opening to the
outside air. See Figure 63.
Heat Tape on Exposed Piping
It is good practice to provide heat

tape on water loop lines that run
outside or in freezing areas.
Antifreeze in the Closed Loop

An antifreeze solution can also be
added to the closed loop to protect it
from freezing. The concentration
requirement rises as the required Figure 63
freeze protection temperature is Intake and Discharge Dampers
reduced. This translates into an
increase in pumping horsepower over
the identical fresh water flow rate,

42
especially when the concentration of the anti-freeze exceeds 10 to 15 percent. Use of anti-freeze
solution also results in a reduction of in WSHP capacity.
As the degree of concentration rises, the protection in the fluid increases from burst level
protection (where slush is going to form), to freeze protection (where no crystals at all are going
to form). A decision must be reached as to the level of protection desired. This can vary with the
type of system under consideration. Refer to TDP-622, Air-Cooled Chillers for a detailed
discussion of freeze versus burst protection.
Antifreeze Solutions
Antifreeze solutions are used more frequently in closed-
loop, geothermal systems where the piping is buried Fresh Water
underground than in conventional loop piping systems inside Water may contain chemical
the building. Their use can result in an increased pressure additives for corrosion,
drop through the refrigerant-to-water heat exchanger and a scale, and bacteria and still
decrease in capacity over fresh water. The term “fresh water” be considered fresh water.
applies to water that contains no antifreeze.
Glycols
The ability of glycols to lower the freezing point of water is the main reason that glycol based
heat transfer fluids are popular. Ethylene glycol based fluids are widely used and consist of
ethylene glycol (EG), water, and corrosion inhibitors. The term “inhibited” means that additives
have added to prevent (inhibit) the effects of corrosion. Ethylene glycol’s disadvantage is that it is
toxic if ingested and cannot be used where contact with food or potable water may occur.
Propylene glycol consists of a mixture of
Ethylene Glycol propylene glycol (PG), water, and corrosion
inhibitors. Propylene glycol fluids are
The disadvantage of ethylene glycol is
recommended for use where incidental contact
that it is toxic if ingested and cannot
be used where contact with food or with potable water is possible, or where use of a
potable water may occur. propylene glycol-based fluid is required by state or
local regulations.
Brines
Brine solutions are corrosive and leakage can cause damage to surrounding materials. It is not
recommended for use with WSHP systems.
While salt solutions provide satisfactory Brine
performance especially in low temperature applications
like ice rinks, they should be avoided in WSHP Salt solutions should be avoided
applications because of their potential for corrosion. in WSHP applications because of
The use of salt solutions will void some manufacturer’s their potential for corrosion.
warranties.

43
Methanol
This freeze protection fluid consists of a mixture of methanol and corrosion inhibitors and it
is sometimes used in closed-loop ground source heat pump applications. Methanol is also used
with industrial refrigeration. It has a low viscosity at the lower temperatures, which makes it
attractive from a pumping and heat transfer standpoint.
If antifreeze is used, methanol or propylene glycol solutions are the chosen fluids. Freeze
protection should be maintained to 15° F below the lowest expected entering loop temperature. For
example, if on a geothermal application the
Table 1
lowest expected entering loop temperature is Antifreeze Percentage by Volume
30° F, the freeze protection solution should Minimum Temperature for
offer protection down to 30° F - 15° F = Antifreeze Freeze Protection (°F)
15° F. So either 21 percent methanol or 10 15 20 25
30 percent propylene glycol is required. See
Methanol (%) 25 21 16 10
Table 1.
100% USP Food Grade
38 30 22 15
Propylene Glycol (%)
Water Conditioning
As we have seen, WSHP systems typically utilize small coaxial refrigerant-to-water heat
exchangers that must be kept clean to maintain proper heat transfer and system efficiency. The
entire loop should be cleaned and flushed before initial start-up. The refrigerant-to-water heat
exchangers are bypassed with hoses during this process.
Water quality varies from location to location and is unique for each project. Water
characteristics such as pH value, alkalinity, hardness, and specific conductance are important in
WSHP systems. See Appendix A.
A low pH and a high alkalinity can cause system problems. The term pH refers to the acidity,
basicity, or neutrality of the water supply. A pH below 7.0 means the water is acidic. A pH above
7.0 means the water is basic. Neutral water has a pH of 7.0. Water typically includes impurities
and hardness that must be removed. The required treatment will depend on the water quality and
the system type.
The three main problems that can
result from poor quality water are:
• Scale formation caused by hard
water reduces the heat transfer rate
and increases the water pressure
drop through the heat exchanger.
As water is heated, minerals and
salts are precipitated from a
solution and are deposited on the
inside surface of the pipe or tube.
See Figure 64.
• Corrosion is caused by absorption Figure 64
of gases from the air coupled with
Scale
water on exposed metal.
• Organic growths such as algae can reduce the heat transfer rate by forming an insulating coating
on the inside tube surface. Algae can also promote corrosion by pitting.

44
A water treatment specialist can

help with these problems. See
Figure 65.
One of the advantages of the
closed-loop WSHP system is that only
normal water corrosion inhibitors are
necessary to maintain proper water
quality inside the loop system. Some
designs also incorporate a solids
separator to remove particles. The Figure 65
formation of scale and organic growth
Water Treatment
is not normally an issue since the loop
water does not come in contact with
the air.
However, the spray water on a closed-circuit cooling tower is open to the environment and
requires water treatment and bleed off to maintain chemical balance. For a complete discussion
on water treatment, see TDP-641, Condensers and Cooling Towers.
If the system is a once-thru design as described in the Geothermal Systems section on
page 55, scaling and the growth of algae and slime must be addressed depending on the source of
the water. Frequent cleaning must be done. Use of a cupro-nickel heat exchanger is an option
depending on water quality.
Water testing should be performed prior to using Testing
refrigerant-to-water heat exchangers on any well, lake, or
Water testing should be
river once-thru system. performed prior to using
refrigerant-to-water heat
exchangers on any well, lake,
or river once-thru system.
Ventilation System Energy Recovery
For energy recovery to take place, the exhaust airstream must exchange heat with the
incoming ventilation airstream. Exhaust from the building is accomplished by positive means
from toilets, conference rooms, and
other spaces within the building. If the
building design allows, exhaust air
can be ducted to the same location as
incoming ventilation air, making it
convenient to use most types of
recovery products. Figure 66 shows a
representation of side-by-side
recovery. When the two airstreams
cannot be positioned close together,
recovery is still possible by using a
runaround loop.
Figure 66
Side-by-Side Recovery

45
ASHRAE Standard 90.1 requires that individual fan systems that have both a design supply
air volume of 5,000 cfm or greater, and bring in at least 70 percent of the supply air from the
outside be equipped with energy recovery. Dedicated outdoor air units on WSHP systems are a
prime candidate for energy recovery. In this section we will describe several energy recovery
options that may be incorporated into the ventilation air unit for a WSHP system.
For more detailed information, see TDP-910, Energy Recovery.
Energy Wheel
An energy wheel is a revolving exchanger filled with an air-permeable medium. This medium
has a large internal surface area. The exchanger is designed to be installed between two adjacent
ducts with opposing flow directions. This establishes a counterflow heat exchange pattern similar
to that illustrated in Figure 67. The
wheel rotates between 10 and 60
revolutions per minute depending on
the application. When the wheel
passes through the higher-temperature
airstream, the media temperature
increases as heat is transferred and
stored in the media material. When
the media wheel rotates into low-
temperature airstream, the media are
cooled and release heat.
The wheel can be coated with a
desiccant, which allows for total
recovery. Total recovery means the
transference of both latent and Figure 67
sensible heat between the ventilation Energy Wheel with Rooftop WSHP
and exhaust airstreams. In this type
application, the building ventilation and exhaust systems are routed into single ducts and brought
in close proximity to one another. The wheel then rotates between the two airstreams.
Effectiveness is a term used to describe the ability of the energy recovery device to change
the condition of supply air from outdoor air to indoor air. The higher the effectiveness, the greater
heat or energy transfer occurs. Effectiveness for a rotary wheel is typically in the 60 to 80 percent
range. This is high relative to other forms of air-to-air recovery.
Wheels are often mounted inside the cabinet of the ventilation system air handler or rooftop
packaged unit. They are also available mounted in a separate cabinet with a supply and an
exhaust fan for use next to or remote from the ventilation unit. When packaged this way the unit
is called an ERV, or energy recovery ventilator as shown in Figure 67.

46
Heat Pipes
Heat pipe exchangers have the appearance of ordinary finned coils, but each successive tube
is independent and not connected to other tubes. Each tube is built with an internal capillary
“wick” material. The tube is
evacuated, filled with a fluid (like
refrigerant or water) and individually
sealed. See Figure 68.
With the tubes installed
horizontally, one-half of the heat
exchanger will act like an evaporator
and the other half acts as a condenser.
There is a partition between the halves
of the heat exchanger. In summer, the
high-temperature outside airstream
passes over half of the tubes. As the
internal refrigerant is warmed and
vaporized in the evaporator half, the Figure 68
incoming outdoor air is cooled. The Heat Pipes
internal vapor pressure drives the gas (Photo courtesy of Heat Pipe Technologies)
to the condenser end of the tube. In
the condenser end, the fluid releases the latent energy of vaporization as it condenses, thereby
transferring the heat from the incoming outdoor air to the cooler building exhaust air.
Heat pipes are useful for sensible heat transfer only. However, some small amount of latent
effect is achieved if the hot, humid outdoor airstream is cooled sufficiently to condense moisture
on the evaporator end of the unit.
A heat pipe’s typical effectiveness is approximately 40 to 50 percent. Heat pipes, like all
recovery devices, are most effective when the airflows are balanced. Heat pipes can also be
mounted in rooftop units and air handlers to precondition the ventilation air.
Fixed-Plate Heat Exchangers
There are many different con-

figurations and sizes of fixed-plate
heat exchangers. The heat transfer
core of a fixed-plate heat exchanger is
made from alternate layers of plates,
formed and sealed at the edges to
create two adjacent, but separate,
airflow paths as shown in Figure 69.
The most distinct advantage is that the
fixed-plate heat exchangers have no
moving parts. Sensible heat transfer
across the plates from one airstream to
the next is driven by the thermal
gradient only. Therefore, fixed plate Figure 69
heat exchangers transfer sensible heat Fixed-Plate Heat Exchanger
(Photo courtesy of AEX USA)
only.

47
Fixed-plate heat exchangers are manufactured so there is little or no leakage between the
airstreams. Air leakage, however, may occur outside of the fixed-plate exchanger, such as within
the air-handling unit casing.
Effectiveness of heat transfer is about 60 to 75 percent. Airside pressure drops range from
approximately 0.35 in. wg to over 1.5 in. wg of pressure drop in each airstream.
Fixed-plate exchangers can be factory-mounted in air handlers or used in ventilation air
distribution units. However, wheels are used more often than fixed-plate heat exchangers because
they transfer sensible and latent heat.
Runaround Loops
A coil energy recovery runaround loop is a heat recovery system and distinct from the
individual pieces of equipment like energy wheels or heat pipes. Runaround systems circulate a
fluid (usually a glycol mixture) between two airstreams to transfer heat using standard finned tube
coils. See Figure 70. In the winter, the warm exhaust air from the building is transferred to the
circulating fluid, which warms the
supply airstream containing incoming
cold ventilation air. In summer, the
cool exhaust is transferred to the
circulating fluid, which then cools the
warmer supply air.
The supply air coil may be
installed in an air handler in a pre-
cool and pre-heat position. There
may also be multiple coil locations in
multiple exhaust and supply ducts.
The runaround loop piping connects
all the coils together. This is the major
Figure 70
advantage of this approach to heat
recovery. Runaround Loop
The major components of the system are: a pump, expansion tank, interconnecting piping,
exhaust and supply coils, and controls, which include a 3-way valve.
Runaround loops are very flexible and well suited to industrial applications or comfort-to-
comfort applications with remote supply and exhaust ductwork. The airstreams do not need to be
next to one another. There are no cross contamination issues.
Runaround loops have an effectiveness of approximately 50 to 60 percent in transferring
sensible heat.
System IAQ Topics

Indoor air quality (IAQ) involves the maintenance of the indoor air and is considered
acceptable if there are no harmful concentrations of known contaminants and if less than
20 percent of the occupants express dissatisfaction.
All participants in the design, installation, and operation of a building share the responsibility
of good IAQ. The design engineer, however, has the responsibility to design the HVAC system in

48
accordance with construction codes and the generally accepted IAQ standards (ASHRAE
Standard 62.1-2004, Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air Quality).
In this section, we will discuss various topics that affect indoor air quality for a WSHP
system.
See TDP-902, Indoor Air Quality for detailed discussion of this topic.
Ventilation and Ductwork
The ventilation air system should deliver the recommended amounts from ASHRAE Standard
62.1. If a ceiling plenum is used to distribute ventilation air, design the ductwork so that the
ventilation air is as evenly distributed as possible. Ducting the ventilation air directly to the return
duct of each WSHP or directly to the conditioned space ensures the proper distribution of fresh
air throughout the building.
Unit Filters
Use the best filter the unit can safely accommodate. On many WSHP units, this means
upgrading to a 2-in. filter. Confirm that unit fans can accomplish the required static pressure of
the system with thicker filters. On the ventilation system unit, extended surface filters like bag
filters or cartridge filters can be used to accomplish greater efficiencies. Many WSHP thermostats
include a dirty filter light option. This is a good feature since it is often difficult to track filter
loading on systems with hundreds of units.
The dirty filter light on a standard water source heat pump wall thermostat is usually lit after
a cumulative number of fan run hours has been surpassed. The number of run hours before the
light is activated is usually adjustable on programmable thermostats. This does not take into
account the actual filter loading condition. Filter loading can vary depending on airflow and
environmental conditions. On some control systems, the filter may be equipped with a pressure
switch or differential pressure sensor that measures actual filter pressure drop. Filter pressure
drop is an actual indication of filter loading. The building control system can post an alarm when
filters need to be changed out.
If a ducted return is used, provide a suitable slot in the duct for filter access.
Condensate Removal
The entire condensate line should be

properly vented to prevent fan pressurize-
tion from causing a blockage in the line. It
is also a recommended practice to field-
install a secondary condensate drain pan
under units above finished ceilings to
prevent damage to the ceiling in the event of
a plugged condensate drain. See Figure 71.
Provide chemical treatment for algae in the
condensate pans and drains in geographical
areas that are conducive to algae growth.
Document the recommendation for periodic Figure 71
flush-out of the condensate system to rid the
Secondary Drain Pan
system of sludge and dirt.

49
Water source heat pump units can be

Overflow Protection
equipped with a solid-state electronic condensate
Units can be equipped with overflow protection that shuts the unit down if the
condensate overflow protection that condensate level in the drain pan rises above a
shuts the unit down if the condensate safe level.
level in the drain pan rises too high.
Access For Coil and Condensate Pan Maintenance

Regardless of the type of WSHP
used, the installation location must
provide easy access to inspect and
replace filters, inspect and clean the
condensate pan, and make unit
repairs. When installing horizontal
units, do not run rigid piping under
any part of the unit. Install a hinged
access door in the ceiling beneath the
unit. In tee-bar or lay-in ceilings,
removal of ceiling panels can be
substituted for an access door. See
Figure 72
Figure 72.
Access to Unit
Part-Load Humidity Control
Humidity control is not typically a problem at full load. The WSHP unit refrigerant-to-air
exchanger will be at its coldest temperature and moisture is being removed from the space. Most
humidity problems occur at part-load. If the WSHP has one stage of cooling and is cycled on/off
to control room temperature, the room relative humidity may rise during the off cycle. This
phenomenon is common to all standard WSHP units up to approximately 8 tons in capacity since
they all typically have one compressor and use on/off control to maintain room temperature.
Units above 10 tons usually have multiple compressors to provide better part-load humidity
control.
Some new WSHP units
incorporate a single scroll compressor
with unloading capability. An internal
unloading mechanism provides an
unloading step of 67 percent of full
capacity. The compressor modulates
between the two capacity steps. The
result of this technology is better
overall unit and system efficiency and
control of humidity at part-load
conditions. See Figure 73.
Some manufacturers provide an
optional electronic fan speed control Figure 73
matched to thermostat or to a Compressor Unloading Technology

50
humidistat demand. Varying the fan speed in this manner keeps the cooling coil active for much
longer periods of time and significantly improves part-load humidity control.
Reheat capability with each WSHP unit is an excellent way to control space relative
humidity. The air is initially cooled by the refrigerant-to-air heat exchanger, then the air heated as
required to the desired space dry bulb and relative humidity. ASHRAE Standard 90.1 allows for
reheat as long as the source is site-recovered energy. This is the case with hot gas or loop water
reheat.
Lastly, the ventilation air handler can pre-cool the outdoor air to a neutral condition using
recovery coupled with an on board cooling coil as required. If outdoor air is ducted, it can be
conditioned to the unit supply air temperature and sent directly to the unit for mixing with return
air. This relieves the WSHP unit of any latent outdoor air loads and helps with part load humidity
and control.
Demand Controlled Ventilation
The design ventilation airflow for each space in the building is established by ASHRAE
Standard 62.1. The design rates ensure adequate dilution of room contaminants and a healthy
occupant environment. The ventilation equipment is then set to provide the design airflow rate as
long as the building is occupied.
However, the occupancy rate for individual spaces, as well as the building as a whole, varies
throughout the day. For example, there can be a large drop in building occupancy around noon as
people leave for lunch. If the current occupancy is lower than the design occupancy, then a lower
ventilation airflow can be used. Operating at a lower ventilation airflow during these times can
save significant operating cost dollars, while maintaining adequate building IAQ.
Direct digital control systems are capable of utilizing CO2 sensors to track the occupant
density in the building and match the ventilation rate to occupancy needs. See Figure 74. This can
be done on a space-by-space level, and the
ventilation source is continually adjusted to
match space needs.
With a WSHP system, the ventilation air
duct from the dedicated ventilation air unit
can be routed into the unit inlet duct. The
inlet duct is a small length of ductwork
provided by the contractor. An internally
lined elbow is often used. This scheme
directs the correct amount of ventilation air
to each WSHP zone instead of just spilling it
in the proximity of the unit.
Certain areas of a multi-unit WSHP Figure 74
system can be designed for DCV usage, such CO2 Sensor
as conference rooms, cafeterias, or other
large zones where heavy ventilation amounts
may exist.

51
Acoustics Considerations
Following are recommendations for three major types of WSHP units with respect to sound.
Manufacturers offer software programs to assist in detailed analysis. Measured sound power
ratings on the equipment and a software program can be used to determine the sound attenuation
effect of the ceiling and room. In addition to the software analysis, there are many suggestions
that, if followed, can minimize unwanted noise reaching the conditioned space. See TDP-901,
Acoustics for detailed information on this subject.
Horizontal Units
To minimize sound from horizontal WSHP installations (see Figure 75):

• Use common sense in locating
units. Do not locate larger WSHP
units over a sound sensitive
space. Try and position units
above hallways, utility closets,
restrooms, or storage rooms.
• Provide at least 10 ft between
WSHP units to avoid the additive
effect of two noise sources.
• Hang the unit as far above the
ceiling tile as practical.
• Size the sheet metal supply duct
with velocities no greater than
1000 fpm.
Figure 75
• Locate the supply duct balancing
damper as far away from the Sound Control for Horizontal Units
outlet diffuser as possible.
• Locate the balancing damper at the trunk duct exit.
• If return air is drawn through a ceiling plenum, provide an
Minimize Sound
acoustically lined return duct elbow or “L” shaped boot at
the WSHP to eliminate line-of-sight noise into the ceiling Use spring isolators on
cavity and return air grilles. Face the elbow or boot away WSHP units located above
from the nearest adjacent WSHP unit to prevent additive and below or where
noise. lightweight floor
construction is used
• Use the factory-available unit sound treatment.
Vertical Units
Vertical units tend to be installed in small equipment rooms or closets. To minimize sound
from vertical WSHP installations:
• Mount the unit on a pad made of high-density sound absorbing material such as rubber or cork.
• Prevent line-of-sight noise into the space if there is a grille mounted in the closet door for non-
ducted return applications.
• Use an elbow with turning vanes in the direction of the fan rotation to minimize discharge
turbulence.

52
Console Units
With console units, the fan and compressor are located within the space, and only the unit casing
design attenuates the transmission of these sound sources. The designer should review the decision to
utilize console units in general, and if concerned, use lowest fan speed to make unit selections.
Refrigerants
As of this writing, most manufacturers of WSHP units utilize R-22 refrigerant. R-22 has been the
refrigerant of choice for many years; however, this situation is in transition. R-22 contains chlorine,
which, if released to the atmosphere, has detrimental environmental effects. Therefore R-22 is being
phased out under current legislation. By the year 2010, R-22 cannot be used in new equipment.
Consequently, newer WSHP designs will utilize new blends like R-410A (Puron®) and R-407c.
With the year 2010 in mind, manufacturers are modifying their products in phases to use new
environmentally sound refrigerants. It should be understood that it is not possible to replace R-22
with R-410A in an existing WSHP unit. R-410A has far different pressure, temperature, and heat
of vaporization characteristics than R-22.
It is acceptable to have WSHP units of
different refrigerants on the same water loop.
For instance, new R-410A units can share the
same water loop as R-22 units. Please consult
TDP-402, Refrigerants for a full discussion
concerning refrigerants. See Figure 76.
Refrigerants
The phase out date for R-22 is 2010
when supplied in new equipment and
Figure 76 2020 for service.
Refrigerants Not Scheduled for Phase-Out
Airside Economizer
An airside economizer is a standard energy saving feature on most commercial air-handling
units, rooftop units, and indoor packaged units. ASHRAE Standard 90.1 mandates the application
of economizers in most regions of the country (with exceptions).
An airside economizer provides
“free” cooling with outdoor air
whenever the temperature and relative
humidity conditions outside are
acceptable. One type of economizer
control is a simple dry bulb changeover
economizer that uses outdoor air for
cooling whenever it is approximately
55° F or colder outside. At this
changeover temperature, the compres-
sors are turned off to save energy.
Shown in Figure 77 is an arrangement
for an airside economizer with water Figure 77
source heat pumps. Economizer for Horizontal WSHP Units

53
On a WSHP system, however, the use of an airside economizer is not required and might
actually result in greater overall energy consumption. Water source heat pump units providing
cooling with an economizer are not operating their compressors and, therefore, not rejecting heat
into the loop. The potential exists for the loop temperature to drop below the lower limit, since
some perimeter units may be absorbing heat from the loop. This may require the boiler to be
activated to maintain loop temperature. Running the boiler and consuming “new” energy may
cost more than is saved from shutting off the compressors.
If the loop water temperature during the economizer
Economizers mode of operation stays above the boiler loop water
activation temperature (approximately 60 to 65° F), then
If the loop water temperature
airside economizer operation with WSHP units is acceptable.
during the economizer mode
of operation stays above the In a WSHP system, the economizer would have to be
boiler activation temperature locked out to allow for the normal operation of the heat
(approximately 60 to 65° F), recovery from the interior zone cooling units to the perimeter
the air side economizer zone heating units. Coupled with the additional cost of duct
operation with WSHP units
outlets to each WSHP unit sized for full unit airflow (and the
is acceptable.
cost of controls), an economizer is not often utilized.
Water-Regulating Valves
A water-regulating valve can be used to maintain the proper head pressure for WSHP units
installed on widely fluctuating entering water temperature applications such as open loops. For
closed-loop applications, water-regulating valves are not typically necessary since the loop
temperature is maintained by the boiler and tower through the system controls. The water-
regulating valve responds to rising and falling refrigerant pressure and controls the flow through
the refrigerant-to-water heat exchanger for proper unit operation.
Maintenance
Some designers feel the maintenance aspects of a WSHP system are a disadvantage because a
typical commercial installation has many units positioned throughout the building. Some may be
under windows, while some may be
above ceilings, while others may be in
utility closets. However, WSHP units
are designed to operate while
requiring no greater amount of
maintenance than any other water-
cooled air-conditioning unit. See
Figure 78.
The components of a WSHP that
require maintenance are the
refrigerant-to-air coil, the blower
assembly, the filters, the refrigerant-
to-water heat exchanger, and the drain
pan. Let’s discuss maintenance Figure 78
requirements of each of the Maintenance of Ceiling-Mounted Unit
components.

54
Refrigerant-to-Air Coil
The coil should be inspected yearly and any lint or dirt should be removed from the fins. The
drain pan should be kept clean and free of any bacteria producing growth. The condensate drain
line must be open for the complete removal of any water that condenses on the coil in the cooling
mode.
Blower Assembly
Most units have direct drive blower assemblies so maintenance of belts is not an issue. Larger
units with belt drive blowers should have an annual inspection.
Filters
Filters must be changed at regular intervals in order to promote good IAQ. Dirty filters
restrict the airflow and degrade fan performance. Overall unit efficiency is affected. Using a dirty
filter warning light on the unit thermostat can help the operating staff maintain clean filters.
Since most closed-loop systems use a closed-circuit cooling tower, sediment inside the loop
after initial commissioning is generally not an issue. However, the individual refrigerant-to-water
heat exchangers should be inspected and chemically cleaned if waterside fouling has occurred.
Since all units are on the same loop, a representative unit can be inspected for film formation or
deposits inside the tubing.
The strainers in a system loop require cleaning if the water source is a well, river, or pond.
This is discussed in the geothermal section. A water quality test must be conducted prior to using
well, river, or pond water with a WSHP refrigerant-to-water exchanger. The services of a water
treatment specialist are recommended on systems where an open tower has been used. Deposits
of minerals and contaminants must be kept at an acceptable level.
Since some WSHP systems incorporate an antifreeze mixture, the mixture should be checked
periodically to maintain the desired solution percentage. Major pieces of equipment like boilers,
cooling towers, and pumps have manufacturer’s procedures that should be followed.
Geothermal Systems
Up to now we have been discussing closed-loop WSHP Limited Applications
systems where the loop piping is run inside a commercial
building. With closed-loop systems, a heat adder and heat Geothermal systems are
rejecter are used to keep the loop within a normal operating often used for residential
and medium to small
range of 60 to 90° F. This is the majority of applications for
commercial applications.
WSHP systems.
However, some WSHP systems can be designed to take advantage of the fact that the Earth’s
resources (ground or water) remain at a relatively constant temperature at a certain depth all year
long. Instead of using a conventional heat adder like a boiler and a conventional heat rejecter like
a closed circuit tower, the ground or water can be used as the heat sink for absorption or rejection
of heat.

55
The term geothermal is used to describe using the Earth’s ground or water as a heat sink for
WSHP systems.
Geothermal systems tend to be used for residential and medium to small commercial
applications. This is because land areas, boring costs, and once-thru water quantities are limited
on most applications.
Geothermal heat pumps can work with closed loops or open loops. Open loops are used with
well, river, or lake water applications. Open-loop designs are also known as ground water
systems. Closed-loop designs are often called ground-coupled or ground-loop systems.
Most manufacturers offer extended range WSHP units for use in geothermal applications.
These extended range units can handle entering fluid temperatures from 20 to 120° F (instead of
the standard 60 to 90° F range) and incorporate factory-installed insulation on the coaxial coil and
refrigerant and water piping to prevent condensate from dripping. The units also have field-
selectable freeze protection for well or loop application. Units used with ground water are usually
available with an optional cupro-nickel coaxial heat exchanger when there is concern about the
water quality. Thermostatic expansion valves are the required metering device. Extended range
water source heat pumps typically are used for all geothermal applications.
There are several factors that affect the design of a geothermal WSHP system. For instance,
assuming the same soil type, a small capacity system will require a relatively small ground-source
loop, while a larger capacity system will require a larger ground-source loop length.
Some of the application factors that are evaluated prior to designing a geothermal system are:
• Ground water availability and quality
• Loop installation costs
• Land area availability
• Subsoil conditions
• Local codes
• Owner preferences
Many regions have contractors specializing in the installation of the ground loop portion of
the earth-coupled system. Most heating and air conditioning contractors are not experts at soil
identification. There are two choices available: become proficient at soil identification through
study and field experience or have an independent soil testing laboratory or geologist perform the
identification. For the contractor not familiar with earth-coupled comfort systems, this second
choice will remove any doubt about this aspect of system design.
Closed-Loop Systems
Closed-loop systems consist of an underground (or underwater) heat exchange network of
sealed, high-strength, polyethylene plastic pipes and a pumping module. When in the cooling
mode, the loop fluid temperature will rise, and rejected heat is dissipated into the ground or water.
Conversely, while heating, the loop fluid temperatures fall, and heat is absorbed from the
ground or water. The pump module circulates the water/anti-freeze fluid within the piping
system. Closed loops do not require a ground water supply or drain, and they are not subject to
mineral build-up.
Closed loops can be installed in vertical or horizontal ground configurations, or submerged in
a pond or lake. When designed properly, all three alternatives operate with similar efficiency.
Typically high-density polyethylene (HDPE) pipe is used for all closed loop installations. Pipe

56
connections are heat fused to form strong joints. The heat-fusion process requires special tools
and training and should not be attempted without these items. The pipe manufacturer can provide
additional literature and training on this subject.
Loop piping has a life expectancy in excess
of 50 years. High-density polyethylene is the Life Expectancy
recommended pipe material that should be used Loop piping has a life expectancy in
in the ground-source loop. Materials such as excess of 50 years. High-density
PVC should not be used for a ground-source polyethylene is the recommended pipe
loop. material that should be used in the
ground-source loop
Polyethylene pipe is available in a variety of
diameters in straight lengths and coils. Fittings to perform various functions are also available.
For closed-loop systems, if the fluid may reach freezing temperatures, an antifreeze solution
is used instead of fresh water in the pipes. Refer to the Freeze Protection section of this TDP.
Horizontal Loops
Horizontal loops are often

considered when adequate land area is
available. The pipes are placed in
trenches, excavated by a backhoe or
chain trencher to a depth of 4 to 6 ft.
Depending on design, one to six pipes
are installed in each trench. Multiple
pipe and coiled “spool” config-
urations are often used to conserve
land requirements and reduce overall
installed loop costs. See Figure 79.
Trench lengths range from 100 to
400 ft per system ton. Pipes are Figure 79
spaced from 6 to 10 ft apart. See Horizontal Closed-Loop System Parallel Piped
Figure 80. The overall land area
required ranges from about 750 to
1500 ft2 per system ton.
Horizontal designs can use a
series or parallel flow path. Series
paths offer higher performance per
pipe length, but a large pipe size must
be used and the pressure drop can
become too high.
Figure 80
Horizontal System Trench

57
Vertical Loops
Vertical loops are the ideal choice

when available land area is limited.
See Figure 81. Drilling equipment is
used to bore small diameter vertical
holes. Two pipes joined together with
a U-Bend fitting are inserted into the
vertical bore. Vertical systems use
piping installed in bore holes. The
space around the pipe is filled with a
grout material. This provides support
and also promotes heat exchange
between the pipe and the ground. Figure 81
Bore hole depth ranges from 100 Vertical Loop

to 300 ft per system ton. Bores should
be spaced about 20 ft apart and
properly grouted. The land space that
is required ranges from 100 to 200 ft2
per system ton. The number of loops
requires depends on ground
conditions, depth of each hole, and
load requirements. See Figure 82.
Figure 82
Vertical Loop Installation
Pond and Lake Loops
Pond or lake loops are very

economical to install when a body of
water is available. See Figure 83. The
water serves as the source for
absorption and rejection of heat.
Local codes may not permit the use of
a lake or pond for heat transfer. This
must be checked before using a lake-
loop design.
Figure 83
Pond and Lake Loops

58
One popular design uses a spiral loop

or “spool.” These designs require less area
than straight pipe systems. A pond or lake
is attractive as a heat sink because
excavation costs are virtually eliminated.
Coils or “spooled” mats of pipe can be
placed in the pond or lake. A typical
residence would require ¼ to ½ acre of
water surface at a depth of 8 to 10 ft. See
Figure 84. The coils should not rest on the
bottom of the lake so heat transfer can
occur on all sides of the coil. Figure 84
Coil Loop Installation in Pond
Open-Loop Ground Water Systems

Open-loop systems utilize ground water as a direct energy source when good quality water is
available at a reasonable pumping depth. It is very important to examine the water quality and
quantity first. A well must have enough
capacity to deliver a minimum of 1.5
gpm per ton during peak operation. On
every open-loop system, after the water
absorbs or rejects the building heat, the
water must be returned. When two wells
are used, the source is called the
production well and the discharge is
called the injection well. Ditches, ponds,
or streams are the most common discharge
systems. See Figure 85.
Recirculation wells can also be Figure 85
utilized in some regions. Local codes will Open Loop
often govern how and where water may
be returned to the earth after use in a
WSHP system. In ideal conditions, an
open loop application can be the most
economical type of system to install. See
Figure 86.
Water quality is an issue on these
systems. Mineral build-up inside the
refrigerant-to-water heat exchanger is a
concern. Usually an intermediate plate
and frame heat exchanger is employed.
An intermediate heat exchanger causes a
slight decrease in overall efficiency and Figure 86
must be kept clean and excessive fouling Recirculation Well
avoided. (Photo courtesy of Oklahoma State University Boring and Environmental
Thermal Systems Group)

59
Hybrid Ground Water System
This system utilizes two independent refrigerant circuits on the heat pump unit. A closed loop
of approximately 60 percent of the typical length is installed as the source for the first stage
refrigerant circuit with ground or city water as the source for the second stage refrigerant circuit.
See Figure 86. The unit will operate the majority of the time on the earth loop and only use the
well or city water a small percentage of the time. Benefits include a reduction in required land
area, less expensive earth loop, increased overall cooling and heating capacity and efficiency, and
much lower water usage than a standard once-thru ground water system. The annual well/city
water consumption is approximately 20 percent of a typical ground water application.
Geothermal System Advantages

Now that we have seen many of the configurations possible with geothermal systems, let’s
discuss why its popularity is growing.
High Efficiency
The extremely high levels of efficiency are possible because a geothermal heat pump only
uses power to move heat, not produce it. A geothermal WSHP unit typically supplies about
4 kilowatts of heat for every kilowatt of electricity used. Three of these kilowatts of heat come
directly from the earth itself, and are clean, free and
Hot Water Generator renewable. Some geothermal units can also include
a hot water generator, which diverts a portion of the
Some geothermal units also include
supplied heat to the domestic water heater. This
a hot water generator, which diverts
a portion of the supplied heat to the option is used for residential systems and can
domestic water heater. provide a substantial portion of a family’s hot water
needs at a very low cost.
High Comfort Levels
Geothermal heat pumps can provide high comfort levels for the conditioned space. By using a
relatively warm source of heat such as the Earth, supply air temperatures are maintained.
Geothermal heat pumps may also cycle less often than other forms of heat like fossil fuel boilers,
creating a more consistent indoor temperature.
Environmentally Sound
The environmental advantages of geothermal systems appeal to governmental agencies such

as the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the Department of Energy (DOE). Because it
is lowest in CO2 emissions, geothermal technology provides a solution to global warming by
primarily using the natural energy of the earth. In contrast, traditional space conditioning systems
depend upon burning of fossil energy sources with the resultant greenhouse gas emissions.

60
Low Operating Costs
Attractive life-cycle costs are provided by the low operating and maintenance costs of
geothermal systems, even when the higher initial installation costs are considered. Life
expectancy of the WSHP unit exceeds 20 years. Electric utilities, recognizing the dual benefits of
high efficiency and low electric peak demand, often provide incentives to purchase these systems.
Codes and Standards

There are a number of codes and standards applicable to water source heat pumps that are
important to understand. They have been divided into performance and safety related categories
in this section.
Performance Related Codes and Standards

Air Conditioning and Refrigeration Institute (ARI)
The ARI is a trade association for the industry that

has established a water source heat pump certification
program with defined testing procedures and tolerances.
Manufacturers whose equipment bears the ARI label
participate in a program of random audit certification
testing. See Figure 87. The test checks that the water
source heat pump performs per the manufacturer’s
ratings as represented in product rating literature such as
selection software and catalogs. The ARI standard for
water source heat pumps is ARI/ISO Standard 13256-1.
This was the first ARI Subsection to incorporate an
international standard into its certification activities Figure 87
when it was adopted on January 1, 2000. This standard ARI/ISO Seal
covers all water-to-air and brine-to-air heat pumps and
replaced the former ARI Standards 320 (boiler/tower), 325 (ground water) and 330 (ground loop).
ARI/ISO Standard 13256-1 covers those heating and cooling systems usually referred to as water
source heat pumps. A system may provide cooling, heating, or both functions. The system is
typically designed for use, within one or more of the following liquid heat source/sink
applications:
• Water-loop heat pump – using temperature-controlled water circulating in a common piping loop
• Ground-water heat pump – using water pumped from a well, lake or stream
• Ground-loop heat pump – using brine circulating through a subsurface piping loop
Standard 13256-1 uses different operating rating conditions than the previous standards. The
standard also uses a consistent methodology for including fan and pump energy to calculate
cooling capacity, heating capacity and energy efficiency ratio (EER). Tables 2 and 3 compare
ARI and ISO rating and performance test conditions.

61
Table 2
Comparison of ARI ISO Rating Test Conditions
Water-Loop Heat Pumps Ground-Water Heat Pumps Ground-Loop Pumps
Rating Tests
ARI/ISO ARI 320 ARI/ISO ARI 325 Hi ARI 325 Lo ARI/ISO ARI 330
Standard Cooling
Air dry bulb, °F 80.6 80 80.6 80 80 80.6 80
Air wet bulb, °F 66.2 67 66.2 67 67 66.2 67
Airflow rate, cfm per mfr per mfr per mfr per mfr per mfr per mfr per mfr
Liquid full load, °F 86.0 85 59.0 70 50 77.0 77
Liquid part load, °F 86.0 75 59.0 70 50 68.0 70
Liquid flow rate, gpm per mfr per mfr per mfr per mfr per mfr per mfr per mfr
Standard Heating
Air dry bulb, °F 68.0 70 68.0 70 70 68.0 70
Air wet bulb, °F 59.0 60 59.0 60 60 59.0 60
Airflow rate, cfm per mfr std clg std clg std clg std clg per mfr std clg
Liquid full load, °F 68.0 70 50.0 70 50 32.0 32
Liquid part load, °F 68.0 75 50.0 70 50 41.0 41
Liquid flow rate, gpm per mfr std clg per mfr per mfr per mfr per mfr std clg
External Static
Air H2O 0 0.1-0.3 0 0.1-0.3 0.1-0.3 0 0.1-0.3
Liquid, ft H2O 0 na 0 50 50 0 17
Table 3
Comparison of ARI ISO Performance Test Conditions
Water-Loop Heat Pumps Ground-Water Heat Pumps Ground-Loop Pumps
Performance Tests
ARI/ISO ARI 320 ARI/ISO ARI 325 ARI/ISO ARI 330
Maximum Cooling
Air dry bulb, °F 89.6 95 89.6 95 89.6 95
Air wet bulb, °F 73.4 71 73.4 71 73.4 71
Liquid, °F 104.0 95 77.0 75 104.0 100
Maximum Heating
Air dry bulb, °F 80.6 80 80.6 80 80.6 80
Liquid, °F 86.0 90 77.0 75 77.0 75
Minimum Cooling
Air dry bulb,° 69.8 67 69.8 na 69.8 80
Air wet bulb, °F 59.0 57 59.0 na 590 67
Liquid, °F 68.0 65 50.0 na 50.0 32
Minimum Heating
Air dry bulb, °F 59.0 NA 59.0 60 59.0 60
Liquid, °F 59.0 NA 41.0 45 23.0 25
Enclosure Sweat
Air dry bulb, °F 80.6 80 80.6 80 80.6 80
Air wet bulb, °F 75.2 75 75.2 75 75.2 75
Liquid, °F 68.0 80 50.0 50 50.0 50
Notes:
All ratings based upon 208v operation
Ground loop heat pump ratings based upon 15% antifreeze solution
For ease of comparison, most of the U.S. manufacturers list ARI/ISO performance for their
WSHP units. Please note that a rating based on ARI conditions will not compare equally with a
rating based on ARI/ISO conditions.

62
ASHRAE Standard 90.1
The ASHRAE (American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air Conditioning Engineers)
organization establishes and maintains standards for the industry. ASHRAE Standard 90.1
defines minimum energy efficiency standards for a variety of building components, including air
conditioning equipment. This standard also applies to water source heat pumps. The standard
defines the minimum EER, IPLV (integrated part load value), and COP of the units. Below in
Table 4 are the current water source heat pump efficiency requirements.
Table 4
WSHP Efficiency Requirements
Subcategory ASHRAE 90.1 ASHRAE 90.1
or Minimum Efficiency Minimum Efficiency
Rating (1989) (2004 Code)
Size Category Standard Condition OBSOLETE APPROVED
ARI 320 85° F EWT 9.3 EER —
<17,000 Btuh
ISO-13256-1 86° F EWT — 11.2 EER
≥17,000 Btuh and 210/240 85° F EWT 9.3 EER —
< 135,000 Btuh ISO-13256-1 86° F EWT — 12.0 EER
70° F EWT 11.0 EER —
<135,000 Btuh 210/240
59° F EWT — 16.2 EER
77° F EWT 10.0 EER —
<135,000 Btuh 210/240
77° F EWT — 13.4 EER
EER (Energy Efficiency Ratio)
Standard efficiency WSHP units have an EER range (which varies by size) of about 12.0 to
13.0 for closed water loop (boiler/tower) applications. Premium efficiency R-22 models have an
EER range of about 12.5 to 16.0. Premium efficiency Puron® refrigerant two-stage models have
full-load EERs from 15.0 to 16.0 and part-load EERs from 17.5 to 18.5 when used in closed-
water loop applications.
All of the EERs are higher for geothermal applications. That is because the entering water
temperature for EER calculations in geothermal systems (set by the ISO 13256-1 Standard) are
cooler than for conventional boiler/tower systems.
Energy Star
Energy Star is a voluntary labeling program of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) and the U.S. Department of Energy that identifies energy efficient products. Qualified
water source heat pump products exceed minimum federal standards for energy consumption by a
certain amount, or where no federal standards exist, have certain energy saving features. These
units may display the Energy Star label.
Energy Star models exceed all levels of legislated efficiency and are designed for utility
and/or local and federal government rebate and energy-driven incentive programs.

63
As an example, a state energy agency may offer $140/ton for 14.0 SEER units up to 5 tons
and $500/ton for using Energy Star rated units on a geothermal application. These figures are for
illustration only. Actual rebate programs will vary based on the local situation.
ASHRAE Standard 90.1 was developed to establish building efficiency requirements in the
U.S.A. Energy Star efficiency standards exceed ASHRAE 90.1.
Safety Related Codes and Standards

UL/CSA and ETL
Several safety standards apply to water source heat pumps. Agencies such as Underwriters’
Laboratories, Inc., Canadian Standards Association, and ETL Testing Laboratories, test for
compliance to those standards. When a water source heat pump is approved by these agencies
from the required testing, it will bear a mark or label from the certifying agency.
UL (Underwriters’ Laboratories, Inc.) is an independent nonprofit organization that tests
products for safety and certifies them. The Canadian Standards Association (CSA) is a non-profit
association serving business, industry, government, and consumers in Canada. Among many
other activities, CSA develops standards that enhance public safety. For heating, ventilating, and
air conditioning, UL/CSA Standard UL 1995 / CSA C22, Heating and Cooling Equipment
applies.
The ETL Testing Laboratories, like UL, conducts electrical performance and reliability
testing. OSHA (Occupation Safety and Health Administration) recognizes ETL and UL as
nationally recognized testing laboratories. The ETL Listed Mark and Canadian-ETL Listed Mark
are accepted throughout the United States and Canada as compliance with nationally recognized
standards such as ANSI (American National Standards Institute), UL, and CSA. This
certification mark indicates that:
• The product has been tested to and has met the minimum requirements of a widely recognized
U.S. product safety standard.
• The manufacturing site has been audited.
• The applicant has agreed to a program of periodic factory follow-up inspections to verify
continued conformance.
If the mark includes a small “US” and/or “C,” it follows product safety standards of United
States and/or Canada respectively.
System Sizing and Layout Tips

In this section we will review the sizing and layout of the major components that comprise a
typical closed-loop WSHP system. The reader is encouraged to consult with the Carrier System
Design Guide – Water Source Heat Pumps for detailed sizing and a sample layout of an example
building.

64
WSHP Units
Most manufacturers offer computerized selection programs to aid in the selection of
individual WSHP types. See Figure 88. Manual selection can also be made from product catalogs.
Regardless of the method
involved, the following
information is required to
make a selection for a water-
to-air WSHP unit:
• Total capacity required
• Voltage
• Airflow or static pressure
• Entering dry bulb and
wet bulb temperature
• Loop entering water
temperature during
cooling and heating
• Flow rate
• Unit configuration
The final selection of the
unit should ensure that it
meets the zone sensible heat
and latent heat loads. See Figure 88
Figure 89. Office applications
Selection Program Base Unit Screen
typically have an 85 percent
sensible heat ratio (15 percent
latent, 85 percent sensible),
and WSHP units are well
suited for this need.
Applications with a lower
sensible heat factor (higher
latent load) require selection
at a lower cfm per ton in order
to meet the sensible and latent
needs of the space. Oversizing
of units by more than
20 percent is discouraged
since the units will cycle more
often and lose control of zone
relative humidity at part load.
When the unit’s sensible
capacity is close to the
required zone sensible load, Figure 89
minimal cycling is assured. Unit Performances Screen

65
Many selections for WSHP units are based on a relatively low external static pressure of
about 0.25 in. wg for each unit. This is because the WSHP units are located close to the area they
serve and have minimal duct lengths. The final duct layout is usually not known at time of
selection. When the final duct design is finished, the unit fan can be checked. Since most units are
direct drive, different fan speeds are
available. If the unit selections are
based on low fan speed, and slightly
more capacity is required, the unit
can always be switched to higher
fan speed. See Figure 90.
The following water temp-
erature assumptions are often used
to select the units. During cooling,
the loop can rise to as high as 90° F.
Thus, for cooling duty, the WSHP
units can be selected to make
capacity at 90° F entering water
temperature. During the design
heating load, the building will be
unoccupied, and the loop
temperature could drop to 60° F as
an operational low temperature.
Thus, the units heating performance Figure 90
can be based on 60° F entering Final Selection Screen
water temperature.
Cooling Tower Selection

The cooling tower selection is
usually based on the heat of
rejection of the block cooling load.
It may need to be sized based on the
total heat rejection of all the
installed units in the building. The
engineer must examine the building
loads and determine whether or not
all units can operate at full cooling
together. This may be the case on
smaller WSHP projects.
When the tower size is based on
the heat of rejection of the block
cooling load, as opposed to the heat
of rejection of the total installed
units, a stagger start up of heat
Figure 91
pumps to reduce morning pull-down
load is recommended. That way, all Closed Circuit Tower Selection Screen
WSHP units are not simultaneously (Photo courtesy of Baltimore Air Coil)
rejecting heat to the loop.

66
On larger jobs, the cooling tower size is typically selected based on the following inputs (as
shown in Figure 91):
• Fluid type (fresh water, propylene glycol, etc.)
• Water flow (gpm) – this is the total loop water flow for all the units in the system.
• Entering fluid temperature – calculated as follows:
EWT = 90° F + [(THR) ÷ (gpm ∗ 500)]

THR = block total heat rejection load, in Btuh.
gpm = total loop water flow
500 = conversion factor
• Leaving fluid temperature – this is the temperature of water exiting the tower. We will use 90° F
since that is the upper loop temperature
• Entering wet bulb temperature – this is the outdoor wet bulb temperature that exists when the
block load is at peak, and it will be found on the printout of the block cooling load. It can also be
found from the
ASHRAE outside
design conditions for
the location being
considered.
As shown in Figure 92,
typical computer selection
results are tower model,
dimensions, airflow, fan
motor hp, coil volume,
connection sizes. Sound data
is available as an option
also.
Figure 92
Tower Computer Selection Screen
(Photo courtesy of Baltimore Air Coil)
Boiler (Heat Adder)

The auxiliary boiler adds heat to
the hydronic circuit to maintain the
water temperature above the lower
limit (usually 60° F). See Figure 93. In
most commercial buildings, the
maximum demand on the boiler takes
place at morning warm-up on a winter
day.
Figure 93
Boiler

67
To simplify the boiler selection and avoid under-sizing, three assumptions are often made:
1. There is no ventilation air load at start-up, and no heat gain credit from lights, people, or any
other zones.
2. The cooling tower is a closed-circuit type. It is installed indoors and does not contribute heat
loss to the loop.
3. There is no storage tank.
For systems without night set-back, the installed boiler capacity should sized between 70 and
90 percent of the block heating load. This varies based on the building configuration and amount
of perimeter space versus core space. Buildings with greater areas of perimeter spaces use the
90 percent rule.
For systems with night set-back, the boiler capacity should be
Boiler Sizing sized for the heat of absorption of all connected WSHP units. This
assumes that all units will be in heating mode simultaneously.
A second method for
boiler sizing with night Please note that a staggered start would avoid all the units starting
setback is to multiply simultaneously.
the block heating load A second method for boiler sizing with night setback is to
of the building by 1.25. multiply the block heating load of the building by 1.25. The
25 percent extra is to account for morning heating allowance.
Ventilation System
The ventilation air load contains
both a sensible and a latent
component. This load is best handled
by a dedicated ventilation air unit. See
Figure 94. If the load is handled by
the ventilation air system, then the
individual WSHP units only need to
be sized for their space loads. Since
the outdoor air load is variable, a
dedicated system can be selected to
maintain reasonably close control of
the ventilation air exit conditions. The
heat pumps will handle their
individual space loads leading to
better humidity control. The units will Figure 94
also be smaller to save valuable space. Dedicated Ventilation System
The ventilation system fan should be sized to supply the required outdoor air necessary based
on building occupancy and use per ASHRAE 62.1-2004 Standards. The cooling capacity for the
ventilation air unit typically is sized to deliver neutral air. The cooling capacity of the ventilation
air unit can be downsized by the use of energy recovery. For an example of this procedure, see
TDP-910, Energy Recovery.
A typical ventilation air unit design incorporates an energy recovery device such as an energy
wheel to precondition the outdoor air. Another popular design uses an indirect gas-fired heat
exchanger with modulating blowers and discharge air control to maintain a neutral discharge air
temperature of about 65 to 70° F in the cold weather months.

68
During the cooling season, a separate DX cooling system in the ventilation air unit takes the
preconditioned air from the energy recovery device and cools it to about 50 to 60° F for delivery
to the individual WSHP units. Other methods of delivery are used and they are discussed next.
Method of Delivery of Ventilation Air

One of the important considerations involved in the design of a WSHP system is the way ventilation
air is to be provided to the conditioned space. Regardless of the chosen method of delivering the
ventilation air, the ASHRAE Standard 62.1 recommended ventilation rates should be maintained.
There are several methods that can be used. An outside wall grille with console WSHP units is one
method. However, this method typically may not introduce the required ASHRAE 62.1 ventilation
amounts. The other methods we will discuss all use a dedicated ventilation air system and they are:
• direct ventilation to the conditioned space
• ventilation using the interior units only
• ventilation using a ceiling plenum
• ventilation with ductwork to each WSHP
Outside Wall Grille with Console Unit

Console type WSHP units must be located along the outside wall. An optional air intake
accessory is available. The accessory requires a wall penetration to the outside behind each
console unit. Wall penetrations are subject to unpredictable airflows. High winds and stack
effects may cause the outside air to bypass the WSHP coil altogether and enter the space
untreated. To help minimize the wind effects, wind deflectors should be installed over the
outside grilles. Units are typically provided with motorized dampers to close off the wall
penetration when the unit is not operating. Also, as mentioned above, the design engineer must
evaluate the ability of the console unit selected to introduce proper ventilation air amounts.
Wall penetrations with console type WSHP units should only be used in low-rise buildings
(less than three stories) that are protected from the wind. Hotels, motels, and schools may lend
themselves to the use of console type units.
From an IAQ standpoint, the quality of the filter used for the outdoor air on a console unit is
usually less efficient than that in a central unit. For these reasons, on WSHP systems used in most
commercial jobs, the ventilation air is handled by a dedicated system.
Delivery Direct to the Conditioned Space
In applications that utilize console or stack

type WSHP units, outside wall penetrations may
not be feasible. A constant volume of outside air,
tempered to room conditions by a ventilation air
handler or rooftop unit, is delivered to the
conditioned space ceiling diffuser. See
Figure 95. Tempering the air to neutral or room
conditions prevents overcooling of the space
when no cooling load is present, and prevents
reheat when the space requires heating. A ceiling
plenum or ducted return with exhaust fans is Figure 95
used to remove air from the space. Direct Delivery to Conditioned Space

69
The WSHP unit in the space handles the room sensible and latent loads, while the separate
ventilation air unit handles the ventilation air sensible and latent loads.
Delivering to Interior Units Only
In applications involving open floor plans, it may be acceptable to supply ventilation air for
the entire floor through interior WSHP units. In this arrangement, large vertical WSHP units are
located in central mechanical rooms on each floor and utilized to condition the interior spaces.
Smaller WSHP units located in ceiling cavities are utilized to condition the perimeter spaces.
With open floor plans, supply air has a chance to mix and spread the ventilation air throughout
the entire floor. With a large vertical WSHP located in a mechanical room on each floor, a
centrally located vertical building shaft is used to provide ventilation air to the mechanical room.
In this design, the mechanical room itself is used as a mixture plenum. Outdoor air is brought
into the room and mixed with return air entering the room through grilles from adjacent ceiling
plenum returns. The vertical WSHP units condition the mixture of untreated fresh air and return
air.
Should the interior spaces have floor-to-ceiling partitions, this method will not prove feasible,
and ventilation air must be ducted to the perimeter horizontal WSHP units.
Ceiling Plenum Near Each WSHP
This method requires less installation cost. It is used with horizontal WSHP units that are
located in a ceiling return air plenum. The outdoor air is ducted in close proximity of each
horizontal WSHP unit’s return air
inlet. The WSHP unit fan draws the
fresh air in along with return air from
the plenum and delivers it to the
conditioned space. See Figure 96.
During summer operation the
outside air will be cooled and
dehumidified by the central unit. Care
should be taken to ensure that this
cold air does not enter in an
uncontrolled manner into the
conditioned space through ceiling tiles
or return air grilles.
During winter operation, the air
should be heated to neutral Figure 96
temperatures (about 65° F). Ceiling Plenum Return
Some designs deliver untreated outdoor air directly to the ceiling plenum. This approach is
not recommended as it can introduce warm moist air or very cold air into the building and the
WSHP units must then be sized to handle the outdoor air load along with the local space loads. A
better solution would be to utilize energy recovery in the dedicated ventilation air unit to provide
preconditioning of the outdoor air.

70
Direct-Connected to Each WSHP
An effective way to deliver

outside air in a controlled manner
throughout the building is to direct
connect the outside air duct to each
WSHP unit. This method can be used
with both large vertical WSHP units
that serve the interior of a building
and smaller horizontal units above the
ceiling.
The outdoor air is delivered
through a vertical building shaft to
ductwork on each floor. The ductwork
provides fresh air to each vertical
WSHP. The ductwork also passes
through the ceiling cavity to the return Figure 97
air inlet of each horizontal WSHP. Direct Connection Ventilation Air
See Figure 97.
Final duct connections to each WSHP (vertical or horizontal) are made with runout ducts
with balancing dampers. If the runout ducts penetrate a firewall, a fire damper will also be
required. The balancing damper is typically motorized and tied to the WSHP unit fan so it opens
only when the WSHP runs.
Ventilation Air Duct Design
Ventilation air ductwork should be designed and sized based on standard low velocity duct
design. Use an equal friction rate of 0.10 in. wg per 100 ft. Maintain duct velocities of 1000 to
1400 fpm to keep the system quiet and the static drop low.
If the fans of vertical WSHP units located at each floor have to pull the fresh air down the
ventilation shaft, the shaft should be designed with a very low pressure drop. This can be
accomplished by sizing the shaft between 1000 and 1200 fpm for sheet metal ductwork.
Piping Systems
Loop Piping
As discussed earlier in this TDP, loop risers should be arranged for reverse return. In some
installations, this will be the natural layout. In other systems, reverse return will require an
additional length of vertical pipe, but will eliminate the need for balancing valves and balancing
work.
Typically the piping used in a WSHP system is schedule 40 black steel. Type L copper or
threaded schedule 40 black steel pipe is normally used for 2-in. diameter and smaller. In some
closed-loop water source heat pump applications, schedule 40 PVC piping has been used where
local codes and inspectors permit.

71
The procedure for sizing the pipe and determining pump horsepower is as outlined below. For
a complete example problem, refer to the TDP-502, Water Piping and Pumps. A pipe sizing chart
is shown in Table 5.
Table 5
Water Pipe Sizing
Pipe Size Design Parameters
Basic Design: Pressure Loss of 1 to 4 ft wg/100 ft
2” and smaller Velocity Limit: 2 to 4 fps
Can exceed 4 fps only is system has good air eliminator and low turbulence
Basic Design: Pressure Loss of 1 to 4 ft wg/100 ft
Over 2”
Upper Limit: 4 ft/100 ft
Pipe Sizing and Pump Horsepower

1. Layout the piping in a reverse return arrangement. Use one of the suggested configurations
from this TDP that best fits the building height and size.
2. Determine pipe water velocity to be used for sizing. For WSHP systems consider limiting
velocities to 2 to 4 fps.
3. Note the gpm for each section of loop piping. These values are based on the selected WSHP
units, tower, and other major system components.
4. Size all pipe on a pipe friction chart. A separate pipe friction chart exists for steel piping, and
copper piping. The charts and procedures are reproduced in Carrier System Design Guide
Water Source Heat Pumps and in TDP-502, Water Piping and Pumps. For closed-loop WSHP
systems, a pressure loss of 1 to 4 ft wg per 100 ft is recommended.
5. For pump sizing, find the length of the highest pressure drop piping circuit in the loop. Add
valves and elbows to convert it to total equivalent pressure drop. Some designers simply
multiply actual length by 1.4 to find equivalent length.
6. Multiply the total equivalent length by the pressure drop per 100 ft for the highest pressure
drop circuit. This is the friction loss in the piping. Sum all other components like the tower,
boiler, etc.
7. Use the formula in the pump sizing section to find required pump horsepower.
Condensate Piping
In the cooling mode, the evaporator coil will condense moisture from the airstream into the
drain pan. This condensate must be collected from each unit and removed. Since the condensate
piping often runs above finished ceilings, it is important to maintain a clean, debris-free path for
the water to flow to a central disposal point.
Disposal of condensate is regulated by local codes. In some locations, the condensate lines
from the individual WSHP units can be run into the storm drain system. In other areas it is
permissible to connect into the building sanitary system. In either case, a design practice that is
recommended is the use of an air gap between the unit condensate discharge and the building
drain system. This prevents the possible entrance of vapors from the building system into the
WSHP unit drain pan.
If condensate is not free to flow, the backup of water could lead to damaged ceilings and
walls. Therefore, all piping runs must be sloped to drain properly. Any areas where gravity
drainage is not possible should be equipped with a condensate pump.

72
Often, PVC piping is used for the condensate system. Insulation is required if the pipe surface
temperature may drop below the dewpoint of the air in the ceiling plenum. Insulation extending 6 to
8 ft from the trap is common practice. Copper piping may be required depending on local codes.
Secondary Drain Pans Table 6

Condensate Pipe Sizing
Many building codes call for a secondary
Maximum Minimum
drain pan under the horizontal WSHP unit
Connected Pipe Size
regardless of ceiling access.
Cooling Load (Tons) (in.)
The condensate piping should be sloped 1 in. per 2 ¾
10 ft of pipe. If the slope is less, then the pipe size should 5 1
be doubled. The pipe sizes are based on the normal 30 1¼
collected tonnage of the WSHP units. Normally a one ton 50 1½
WSHP unit will produce about 3.0 pounds of condensate
170 2
per hour during cooling. When used in high latent areas,
up to double the amount of condensate will be produced 300 3
by the WSHP coil. Double the unit capacity in tons when 430 4
sizing the condensate pipe for a high latent unit. A 700 5
condensate pipe sizing chart is shown in Table 6.
All condensate-piping connections to WSHP units should be properly vented to prevent the
unit fan suction from pushing the flow of condensate away from the drain pan. When hard
ceilings without service panels are installed below WSHP units, a secondary drain pan should be
installed below the WSHP unit to prevent damage in the event of a plugged unit drain. Many
building codes call for a secondary drain pan under the horizontal WSHP unit regardless of
ceiling access.
Condensate pipe sizing is a simple matter of adding the cooling capacities of the WSHP units
as the condensate piping is connected. Double the unit capacity for high latent load applications.
All units typically come with at least a ¾-in. condensate connection. No condensate line should
be less than ¾ inches in diameter.
Pumps
After the loop piping system has been laid out, and the total pressure loss for the pumps is
calculated, the selection of
pumps can be made.
In terms of performance, a
pump should be selected to
provide the required flow rate at
the design head pressure while
trying to achieve the lowest
possible horsepower. Refer to
TDP-502, Water Piping and
Pumps for a pump type
comparison chart to help in the
selection process of one
centrifugal pump type versus
another. Figure 98
Typical Computerized Pump Selection
(Photo courtesy of Bell and Gossett)

73
Pump catalogs, with pump performance curves, allow the proper pump to be selected. Most pump
manufacturers also have software programs that can select the optimal pump for your
application. Figure 98 shows the selection of a pump producing 150 gpm at 66 feet of head pressure.
The total head pressure of the pump will consist of the following: pipe friction loss, valves
including control valves, any accessories, equipment such as closed circuit coolers and boiler, the
WSHP unit that establishes the highest pressure drop circuit, air separators, etc.
Liquid Horsepower
Liquid horsepower is obtained by the formula, gpm ∗ head ∗ specific gravity ÷ 3960 (for
standard water sp gr = 1.0), where 3960 converts the equation units into horsepower (33,000 ft ∗
lb per minute, divided by 8.33 lb per gallon).
Brake Horsepower
Brake horsepower (bhp) is the power required to drive the pump and equals the liquid
horsepower divided by the overall efficiency of the pump. As a rule of thumb, the efficiency is
usually about 65 percent.
Air Separator and Expansion Tank

The air separator is selected from the manufacturer’s catalogue, on the basis of the required flow.
For an expansion tank, the variation of water volume caused by temperature changes can be
calculated. Determine the total water volume in the system and multiply it by the change in
specific volume of water for the highest and lowest temperatures expected.
As a rule of thumb, the change in water system volume is usually about 2 to 3 percent for a
WSHP system. This volume, however, is not the volume of the expansion tank. It represents the
expansion volume of the system.
Bladder type tanks have an acceptance volume of approximately 95 percent, which means if
the system expansion were calculated to be 200 gallons, the actual tank size required would be
approximately 210 gallons.
Controls
This section covers basic principles and general guidelines that apply to the design and
selection of controls for WSHP systems. See the Carrier System Design Guide Water Source
Heat Pumps for additional information.
The following control system components and functions will be discussed in this section.
• WSHP thermostats and unit controllers
• Loop control panels
• Water sensors and switches
• Pump controls
• Cooling tower and boiler controls
• Ventilation systems
• System safety and alarms
• Methods of reducing operating costs
• Overall system controls

74
WSHP Thermostats and Controllers

Several types of thermostats are available for WSHP units. A programmable thermostat is
used to establish the occupied and unoccupied periods in a zone with its own internal timeclock.
A programmable thermostat can have
seven day occupancy and set point
programming, holiday programming,
security levels, and the ability to be
wired to a remote room sensor.
A programmable thermostat can
be used in a “stand alone” control
strategy. This means the thermostats
for the individual WSHP units are
non-communicating and each one
controls the operation of its respective
unit in its zone. See Figure 99.
Figure 99
The thermostat can also be a Programmable Thermostat
communicating type and can be wired
to a building wide communications bus. The thermostat provides all the capabilities of the
programmable thermostat for zone occupant flexibility, but through communications, allows an
interface to a building automation system. This provides external linkage to the WSHP unit and
room temperature control information.
Controllers
Two basic unit-mounted WSHP controllers are typically available. The first type of controller
is non-communicating and can be wired to a standard thermostat, a programmable thermostat, or
a communicating thermostat. A non-communicating thermostat is not capable of being connected
to a building-wide network communications bus. A non-communicating thermostat is the normal
choice for many WSHP applications where internal operational and safety information about the
WSHP unit is not needed on a building-wide basis.
The other type of WSHP controller
is capable of communicating on a
building-wide network bus and may be
connected to a space sensor, a
thermostat, a communicating sensor, a
linkage thermostat, or a CO2 sensor for
indoor air quality monitoring and
control. See Figure 100. The WSHP
controller’s ability to communicate
allows all internal operational and
safety information of the WSHP to be
available to an overall building
management system. This is useful for
report gathering, tracking, service and Figure 100
maintenance activities, and energy PremierLink™ Communicating Controller
management options.

75
Linkage Thermostat
New technology has led to a “linkage thermostat.” A linkage thermostat is a programmable
communicating thermostat designed to control multiple WSHP units equipped with communicating
controllers. With functionality similar to a programmable thermostat, the linkage thermostat can
control up to eight WSHP units.
Linkage is a term used to describe a sophisticated “handshake” between the major components that
comprise a total system. This connection actually passes packets of information back and forth between the
players, such as the WSHP units and the loop controller. The WSHP system utilizes linkage software to
“link” the other system components with their source of air (WSHP units) to form a coordinated system.
Loop Control Panel

A loop control panel is usually offered by
the heat pump manufacturer for use with
WSHP units in either a stand-alone or a DDC
WSHP system. See Figure 101. The panel
monitors and controls the operation of the
closed water loop consisting of the WSHP
units, the cooling tower, the heat adder, and
the system pumps. Functionality includes the
ability to control up to two water circulating
pumps and monitor water temperature to
initiate up to eight stages of cooling tower and Figure 101
boiler operation. Loop Control Panel
The panel can work with variable speed pumping arrangements. It also has control of loop alarms,
safeties, and can signal an energy management system for central shutdown on system fault. See
Figure 102 for a
system schematic.
Figure 102
Loop Control Panel Schematic

76
Summer Operation
During the summer, the loop water temperature is maintained between 60 and 90° F for
efficient system operation. The loop controller sequences the heat rejector when loop water
temperature rises to about 83° F and provides full tower operation with high fan speed if loop
water temperature continues to rise to 90° F.
Winter Operation
In winter, the loop controller sequences the heat adder when loop water temperature falls to
about 65° F and provides full boiler capacity if loop water temperature continues to fall to 60° F.
Alarms
The loop controller can also provide an alarm and emergency shutdown signal as follows:
• Alarm if loop temperature rises to 100° F, shutdown at 105° F (high limit)
• Alarm if loop temperature falls to 55° F, shutdown at 50° F (low limit)
• Alarm and shutdown for lack of loop water flow.
Water Sensors and Switches

Loop sensors and switches for system control functions are contractor installed. The loop
water temperature sensor is installed in an immersion well in front of the WSHP units. A water
pressure sensor is used to provide a signal for use with a VFD-equipped pump for variable flow
systems. The water pressure sensor is installed on the discharge side of the pumps in a common
location. A loop water flow switch is also installed on the pump discharge in a common location.
Pump Control
It is normal practice is to have the circulating pump Standby Pump
in operation 24 hours per day. The pumps should be
The use of a standby pump is
automatically sequenced by the loop control panel. If the highly recommended. Water
main pump does not start or produce adequate flow, the source heat pump systems
standby would be energized. In the event of no flow, a cannot cool or heat without flow
shutdown signal is sent to all WSHP units. This prevents unless each unit has an
the WSHP units from tripping on a safety device. auxiliary electric heater.
Cooling Tower and Boiler

The cooling tower is staged by a water temperature controller. On a rise in loop temperature
the tower is staged in the following order:
1. The dampers are opened.
2. The spray pump is started.
3. Low speed fan is energized.
4. High speed fan is energized.
When the loop temperature falls, the reverse staging is initiated.

77
The boiler control depends on the type of boiler used. For instance, many fossil fuel boilers
require isolation from the WSHP loop because they operate at higher temperatures. Condensation
inside the heat exchanger is prevented by regulating a valve to divert sufficient water through the
boiler to maintain inlet water temperature at approximately 140° F while allowing the WSHP
loop to operate at normal temperatures. A water temperature controller will energize the boiler
and a separate boiler-circulating pump, if provided. The on-board boiler control regulates the
burner. Hot water will be blended into the loop as required to maintain loop temperature.
If the heat adder is electric, the heating element is staged by the water temperature controller
to maintain loop temperature.
Most loop control systems have a temperature reset option that automatically raises the
minimum loop water temperature during periods of extremely cold weather. This allows the
WSHP units in heating mode to deliver more capacity during extreme conditions.
Ventilation System
There are several ventilation air unit types that can be used, such as: DX packaged units, gas-
fired make-up units with cooling, or central station air-handling units with heating and cooling.
Regardless of the unit type, the objective of the ventilation unit in summer is to deliver outdoor
air that has the sensible and latent load (moisture) removed. That way, the outdoor air does not
impose a load on the heat pumps units and they can be sized for the loads in the spaces they
serve. In winter the objective is to deliver neutral air. To help accomplish this, the ventilation air
unit may incorporate sensible or latent recovery, which preconditions the outdoor air in both
summer and winter.
A separate ventilation air unit controller that maintains discharge air temperature is required.
The controller modulates or stages the cooling and heating to maintain a ventilation air
temperature of approximately 60° F. At the onset of the occupied mode, the ventilation system
remains inoperative for a pre-determined period of time (during building warm-up). Then the
outdoor damper opens and the fan starts. Conditioned air is sent to the heat pump inlets, or
conditioned space. Details on these three most common methods of delivery are discussed earlier
in this TDP. Reheat, if available from an onsite energy source may be used to temper the air.
When the WSHP system switches to the Unoccupied Mode, the cooling or heating mode is
deenergized, the fan stops, and the air damper closes. Two-speed fan motors or VFDs can be used
to adjust outdoor air amounts based on schedule or occupancy rates.
System Safety and Alarms

Operational safety is ensured by
proper interlocks and safety controls
for each piece of equipment as well as
for the system as a whole.
Figure 103 illustrates an overall
schematic for controlling loop
elements. The boiler is equipped with
all internal operational controls and
safeties by its manufacturer. Once
energized, the boiler’s controls vary
Figure 103
the heat input and protect the boiler
Typical Stand Alone System

78
against possible malfunctions. In case of malfunctions of either the boiler or the tower, the
temperature limit controls (high and low) will initiate an emergency shutdown of the system. The
cooling tower dampers are of the positive shutoff type, and will drive to the closed position in
case of power failure to protect against coil freeze-
up at low ambient temperature.
Loop Flow Alarms
For WSHP units, in the event of a system
Loss-of-system loop flow is critical
fault, the general shutdown should be made from a and interlocks should result in
central control point. If this is not done, the WSHP stoppage of boiler and tower
units will continue to operate until each one goes operation. An alarm should notify
off on its own safeties. This would require manual building personnel so corrective
resetting of each unit when the system fault has action can be initiated as the system
been corrected. may now be using the standby pump.
Reducing Operating Cost

Night Setback
Night setback lowers the heating set point of the local thermostats during the unoccupied
mode. As a result, the WSHP units will be required to do less heating, which means less power
consumption and lower operating cost. Night setback should permit temperatures at least 5° F
below room design conditions.
Reduced Demand
The starting of individual WSHP units should be staggered upon start-up or after an
emergency shutdown, to reduce peak simultaneous demand. A random start timer in the on-board
WSHP controls typically accomplishes this. Also, a storage tank can assist in the heating the loop
at morning start-up, reducing demand if an electric heat adder is used.
Optimal Start/Stop
Optimal Start/Stop calculates the WSHP start and stop times to match anticipated
occupied/unoccupied times based upon load conditions, previous start/stop history, outdoor air
temperature and how long the building has been unoccupied. This reduces the amount of energy used.
Demand Controlled Ventilation (DCV)

Demand controlled ventilation varies the amount of ventilation air to match the actual
building occupancy at any point in time. With the recent development of low-cost, maintenance-
free, carbon dioxide sensing technology and direct digital controls, implementation of demand
controlled ventilation has become practical. Water source heat pump units equipped with carbon
dioxide sensors can track people density and communicate this information to the ventilation air
handler. The air handler modulates the outside air dampers to match the amount of outdoor air
needed to keep the building supplied with the proper ventilation rate.
Overall System Control

System level control typically utilizes a network communication bus that connects
microprocessor controllers on all equipment located throughout the building. The network bus is
used to implement system control strategies between the controllers. Control functions can
generally be arranged into three categories for a WSHP system: master control panel functions,
computer access functions, and energy management and building automation control functions.

79
Master Control Panel Functions
The Master Control Panel provides centralized control for the entire WSHP system in the
building. See Figure 104. The panel coordinates and monitors all these functions:
• Occupied or unoccupied mode
• Pumps
• Ventilation system.
• Individual unit thermostats
• Night setback
• Manual override, when in the
unoccupied mode
• Alarms and emergency
shutdowns
• Staggered start of the WSHP
units (this function may be
handled by random timers in the
WSHP controllers and not needed
in the master control panel)
• Outdoor air and loop water
temperature
• Status of all equipment
• System emergency shut down
• Optimized start and stop of the
building
Computer Access
Figure 104
In order to provide for human DDC Network

interface to the WSHP system,
computer access may be added to the
building network. In addition, remote
computer access may also be provided
from outside the building through the
use of the telephone system or the
internet. A central computer on site,
directly connected to the
communications bus, can provide
central access, monitoring, cal-
ibration, remote troubleshooting, and
manual override of any controller in
the building. Other user functions
include the ability to execute central
holiday scheduling, central occupancy Figure 105
programming, and central set point User Interface
modifications. See Figure 105.

80
Building and WSHP System Management
The highest level of system control includes the utilization of building and WSHP system
management functions.
Control of building lighting, parking lot lights, and other miscellaneous equipment not
already controlled by the loop controller and master panel controller is possible. A data collection
module can time and record building temperatures, pressures, etc. The module can also keep track
of building consumables like kWh and gpm and can record equipment runtimes for service
operations. A loadshed function can monitor and control building electrical demand by shedding
electrical loads as pre-programmed. Tenant billing modules can monitor and record any use of the
thermostat override buttons in the building and assigns after hours usage charges to tenants
accordingly.
Summary
Water source heat pump systems have become a very popular choice for use in commercial
buildings where individual zones of control are required to maintain comfort conditions. Building
types that exhibit a simultaneous cooling and heating load are ideal candidates. This is because the
water loop can transfer heat of rejection from the cooling units to the heating units. This provides
heat recovery, which leads to low system operating costs. However, WSHP systems have other
desirable characteristics like zoning capability, ease of design, and reliability so that buildings
where little or no reclaim will take place are often still considered for using a WSHP system.
There are several WSHP unit types available. The more popular units types are consoles,
horizontal ducted (above the ceiling), vertical (for use in a utility closet), stacked (one above the
other), and rooftop models. A single WSHP system may utilize several types of units all connected
to the same water loop.
The WSHP system is configurable by adding or deleting some of the major components as
required to best fit the application. Typical systems used in commercial buildings incorporate a heat
adder and a heat rejecter to maintain the water loop within the 60 to 90° F range. Earth coupled
WSHP systems utilize buried loop piping, which acts as the heat sink and heat source since the
temperature of the ground is constant. This allows for the elimination of the heat adder and rejecter
in most cases. The piping can be buried in a vertical, horizontal, or spiral pattern depending on soil
conditions and surface area available.
Another WSHP configuration uses lakes, rivers, or a well to serve as the heat sink. These
systems may not recirculate the water. They can be a once-thru design, so proper straining of the
water is important in these applications. The designer must be sure proper water flow is available as
WSHP units require approximately 3 gpm per ton.
Water source heat pump systems are often designed with a dedicated outdoor air unit to supply
ventilation air per ASHRAE 62.1 requirements. Often, heat recovery devices like heat pipes, energy
recovery wheels or runaround loops are incorporated into the unit to precondition the outdoor air.
Other ventilation air alternatives include using a motorized damper in the outdoor air wall box if
using console units or utilizing a separate rooftop WSHP unit as the ventilation air unit. In all cases,
the outdoor air should be filtered and conditioned so as not to introduce dust and humidity into the
building.
Lastly, there are a variety of control options that are offered with WSHP systems. Most often,
the manufacturer of heat pump units can supply a complete control system that ranges from a
simple programmable thermostat to a complete DDC network that incorporates computer access,
energy management and building automation control functions.

81
Work Session
1. Explain how a WSHP system accomplishes heat recovery.

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
2. List the six types of water source heat pumps that are available.
_____________________________ _____________________________
_____________________________ _____________________________
_____________________________ _____________________________
3. True or False? Water source heat pumps have more problems with moisture control during
full-load conditions than with part-load conditions. ____________________
4. Name the advantages of a WSHP system for each of the four customer types: owners,
architects, facility staff, and the utility company.
Owners: _________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Architects: _______________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Facility Staff: ____________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Utility Company: _________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
5. What is the typical WSHP loop temperature range and how is it maintained?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
6. An earth-coupled WSHP system often eliminates what typical components from a standard
closed-loop WSHP system?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

82
7. What kind of heat rejection unit is normally used in a closed-loop WSHP system and why?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
8. What is an alternative to using the heat rejecter type described in question 7 above?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
9. What five inputs are required for a WSHP unit selection?
____________________________ _______________________________
____________________________ _______________________________
____________________________
10. Name the three conditions for which the WSHP controls must provide a signal for emergency
shutdown.
________________________________________
______________________________________
________________________________________
11. Name 6 objectives of a WSHP control system.

_____________________________ _______________________________
_____________________________ _______________________________
_____________________________ _______________________________
12. Which type of piping configuration utilizes the least amount of land area in an earth coupled
WSHP design and why?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
13. Explain how an airside economizer can be incorporated into a WSHP system. Define any
limitations and explain why.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
14. Explain why it is important to install a standby pump for a WSHP system.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

83
15. Explain how a variable flow WSHP system works.

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
16. Name three common methods of supplying outdoor air preconditioning using heat recovery
from the building exhaust on a WSHP ventilation system. Which require the exhaust and
ventilation airstreams to be close together?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
17. Name four methods of ventilation and delivery design for WSHP systems.
________________________________________
________________________________________
________________________________________
________________________________________
18. Explain the purpose and function of adding a storage tank to a WSHP system.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
19. What is the current performance standard for WSHP units in the industry and what standards
did it replace?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
20. Describe why an electric heater might be used on a WSHP unit and how it works in the system.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
21. List the seven components of a WSHP system and a brief description of their function.
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________

84
Notes

85
Work Session Answers

1. Water circulating in the loop acts as a heat source for WSHP units operating in the heating
mode and as a heat rejection sink for those units operating in the cooling mode. Thus, heat
may be transferred from building zones that need cooling to zones that need heat. This
reclamation of heat adds to the overall efficiency of the WSHP system.
2. WSHP units are available in the following types:

Horizontal units Stack units
Vertical units Rooftop units
Console units Water-to-water units
3. False, Water source heat pumps have more problems with moisture control during part-load
conditions than with full-load conditions. That is because at full load the unit will run for
longer periods of time and remove moisture from the air. During part-load operation, single-
stage WSHP units will cycle on and off and can lose control of relative humidity in the space.
4. Owners and developers: WSHP systems offer low first cost, zoning flexibility, operating cost
savings, and ease of design.
Architects: WSHP systems provide design flexibility and require minimal building space.
Facility Staff: WSHP systems offer low maintenance costs and minimal downtime.
Utility Company: WSHP systems offer low electrical usage and generating costs through
electrical demand limiting and control.
5. The circulating loop temperature is maintained between 60° F and 90° F. When more zones
require heat than those needing cooling, the loop temperature drops (approaching 60° F), and
the boiler is activated to make up the heat deficit. When more zones need cooling than those
needing heat, the loop temperature rises (approaching 90° F), and the cooling tower is
activated to reject unwanted heat.
6. The boiler and the cooling tower. That is because the earth serves as the heat sink and heat
source in an earth coupled system.
7. The most cost effective and popular choice for systems under approximately 250 tons is the
closed-circuit cooling tower. In this design, the heat exchanger is an integral part of the
cooling tower – isolating loop water from the atmosphere and thus minimizing the potential
for corrosion and scaling of the individual heat pump heat exchangers.
8. An open cooling tower can be used but must incorporate a plate heat exchanger and a pump
to isolate the WSHP loop from the open tower loop.
9. Zone Total or Sensible Capacity from Load Estimate

Required Zone cfm from Load Estimate
Unit Type
Entering Water Temperature
Flow Rate

86
10. Loop temperature rises past 100°F (shut down at 105° F – the high limit)
Loop temperature falls to 55°F (shut down at 50° F – the low limit)
No loop water flow detected in the system
11. The selection of controls for a WSHP system should fulfill the following major objectives:
Ability to alter the operating mode (Occupied/Unoccupied)
Control of indoor temperature conditions
Control of loop water temperature
Control of the ventilation system
Provide equipment and system safety
Reduced operating and maintenance cost
12. An earth coupled system that utilizes vertical piping loops occupies the least area because it
accomplishes most of the required heat sink requirements beneath the ground’s surface, not
parallel to it.
13. An airside economizer can be utilized with a WSHP system. However, since the economizer
will be taking the place of operating the compressors on cooling duty, the potential exists to
draw the water loop temperature down too low. That is because there is no heat being rejected
into the loop by units in cooling mode while perimeter units are absorbing heat while in the
heating mode. A heat adder would be required to keep the loop temperature up. The boiler
energy consumed may offset the economizer savings. To prevent this, controls can lock out
the airside economizer operation, and activate the heat pumps in mechanical cooling mode if
the loop temperature approaches 60° F.
14. A WSHP system requires water flow in order to maintain set points during both the occupied
and unoccupied modes. The compressors cannot be operative with no water flow. Since the
loop should be operative whenever a compressor requires flow, a standby pump is a practical
design.
15. A VFD controls the main loop pump. Each WSHP unit should be fitted with a two-position
valve to close automatically if the compressor cycles off. In fact, this arrangement is
becoming more common than constant flow systems.
16. Energy wheel

Heat pipes
Coil runaround loops
Energy wheels and heat pipes require the airstreams to be next to each other. The coil
runaround loop, unlike the other two methods, does not require the exhaust and outdoor
airstreams to be physically close together.
17. Outside wall grilles (console units only)

Dedicated ventilation unit delivering air through ducts to the conditioned space itself
Dedicated ventilation unit delivering air to a ceiling plenum near each WSHP
Dedicated ventilation unit delivering air through ducts to each WSHP

87
18. A storage tank can store excess heated loop water and use it during the morning warm up
period in the morning. That way, the boiler does not have to be sized for the total warm up
load which involves all units simultaneously requiring heating.
19. Performance standard ARI/ISO/ASHRAE 13256-1 became effective as a certification

program on January 1, 2000 and replaced the existing ARI Standards 320 (Water-Loop Heat
Pumps, WLHP), 325 (Ground-Water Heat Pumps, GWHP), and 330 (Ground-Loop Heat
Pumps, GLHP).
20. Electric heaters can be added to WSHP units as a way of avoiding the installation of a central
heat adder like a boiler. When spaces require heat the WSHP units can operate as normal
absorbing loop water heat to the point where the loop temperature drops to near 60° F. At that
point instead of activating the boiler, the WSHP units requiring heat will turn off their
compressors and turn on the electric heat coil. Eventually, if some units are operating in the
cooling mode the loop temperature will rise. Installations not requiring a lot of supplementary
heat or those where the electric costs are not the concern of the owner may use this scheme.
21. Heat pumps – provide cooling and heating to the conditioned space
Boiler – maintains 60° F minimum loop temperature by adding heat
Cooling tower – maintains 90° F maximum loop temperature by rejecting heat
Circulation pumps – maintain loop flow to all components
Expansion tank and air separator – allow expansion of loop volume and remove entrained air
Controls – maintain lop water temperature and zone set points
Air distribution ductwork – delivers air to zones

88
References
AEXUSA, Kalamazoo, MI. www.aexusa.com
Andrew Chiasson, P.E., Research Engineer at Geo-Heat Center Oregon Institute of
Technology, Klamath Falls, OR (provided review of geothermal chapter)
Air Conditioning and Refrigeration Institute (ARI), Arlington, VA. www.ari.org
ASHRAE, Atlanta, GA. www.ashrae.org
Carrier System Design Guide – Water Source Heat Pumps
Hays Fluid Controls, Dallas, NC. www.haysfluidcontrols.com
Heat Pipe Technologies., Gainesville, FL. www.heatpipe.com
International Ground Source Heat Pump Association (IGSHPA), Stillwater, OK.
www.oksate.edu

89
Appendix A – Water Quality

HX Closed
Condition Open Loop and Recirculating Well**
Material* Recirculating†
Scaling Potential – Primary Measurement
Above the given limits, scaling is likely to occur. Scaling indexes should be calculated using the limits below.
pH/Calcium Hardness pH < 7.5 and Ca Hardness, <100 ppm
All N/A
Method
Index Limits for Probable Scaling Situations (Operation outside these limits is not recommended)
Scaling indexes should be calculated at 150° F for direct use and HWG applications, and at 90° F for indirect HX use. A monitoring plan should be
implemented.
6.0 to 7.5
Ryznar Stability Index All N/A
If > 7.5 minimize steel pipe use
Langelier Saturation -0.5 to +0.5 If < -0.5 minimize steel pipe use.
All N/A
Index Based upon 150° F HWG and direct well, 85° F indirect well HX.
Iron Fouling
< 0.2 ppm (Ferrous)
Iron Fe2+ (Ferrous)
All N/A If Fe2+ (ferrous) 0.2 ppm with pH 6 to 8,
(Bacterial Iron Potential)
O2 < 5 ppm check for iron bacteria.
< 0.5 ppm of Oxygen
Iron Fouling All N.A
Above this level deposition will occur.
Corrosion Prevention††
6.0 to 8.5 6.0 to 8.5
pH All
Monitor/treat as needed. Minimize steel pipes below 7 and no open tanks with pH <8.
< 0.5 ppm
At H2S > 0.2 ppm, avoid use of copper and cupronickel piping or
HXs.
Hydrogen Sulfide (H2S) All N/A
Rotten egg smell occurs at 0.5 ppm level
Copper alloy (bronze or brass) cast components
are okay to < 0.5 ppm
Ammoina Ion as
Hydroxide, Chloride,
All N/A < 0.5 ppm
Nitrate, and Sulfate
Compounds
Maximum allowable at
maximum water temperature.
50° F 75° F 100° F
Copper N/A < 20 ppm NR NR
Maximum Chloride Levels
CuproNickel N/A < 150 ppm NR NR
304 SS N/A < 400 ppm < 250 ppm < 150 ppm
316 SS N/A < 1000 ppm < 550 ppm < 375 ppm
Titanium N/A > 1000 ppm > 550 ppm > 375 ppm
Erosion and Clogging
< 10 ppm of particles and
< 10 ppm (<1 ppm “sandfree” for reinjection) of particles and a
a maximum velocity of 6
Particulate Size and maximum velocity of 6 fps. Filtered for maximum 800 micron
All fps.
Erosion size. Any particulate that is not removed can potentially clog
Filtered for maximum 800
components.
micron size.
Use cupronickel heat exchanger when concentratiosn of calcium
Brackish All N/A or sodium chloride are greater than 125 ppm are present.
(Seawater is approximately 25,000 ppm.)
††If the concentration of these corrosives exceeds the
LEGEND maximum allowable level, then the potential for serious
HWG – Hot Water Generator corrosion problems exists.
HX – Heat Exchanger Sulfides in the water quickly oxidize when exposed to air,
N/A – Design Limits Not Applicable Considering Recriculating Potable Water requiring that no agitation occur as the sample is taken. Unless
NR – Application Not Recommended tested immediately at the at the site, the sample will require
SS – Stainless Steel stabilization with a few drops of one Molar zinc acetate solution,
allowing accurate sulfide determination up to 24 hours after
*Heat exchanger materials considered are copper, cupronickel, 304 SS sampling. A low pH and high alkalinity cause system problems,
(stainless steel), 316 SS, titanium. even when both values are within ranges shown. The term pH
**Reciculating open wells should observe the open recirculating design refers to the acidity, basicity, or neutrality of the water supply.
considerations. Below 7.0, the water is considered to be acidic. Above 7.0, water
†Closed-recirculating system is identified by a closed pressurized piping is considered to be basic. Neutral water contains a pH of 7.0.
system. To convert ppm to grains per gallon, divide by 17. Hardness in
mg/L is equivalent to ppm.

90
Prerequisites:
To obtain the highest benefit from this module, it is suggested that participants have prerequisite
knowledge from the TDPs listed below, or equivalent.
Book Instructor
TDP No. Cat. No. CD Title
Cat. No.
TDP-103 796-027 797-027 Concepts of Air Conditioning
TDP-502 796-043 797-043 Water Piping and Pumps
TDP-504 796-045 797-045 Duct Design, Level 1: Fundamentals
TDP-701 06-796-066 06-797-066 System Selection
TDP-801 796-074 797-074 Controls, Level 1: Fundamentals
Learning Objectives:
After reading this module, participants will be able to:
• Demonstrate how a WSHP unit works in the cooling and the heating mode.
• Review the six types of WSHP units and explain the application of each.
• Describe the function of the internal components of a typical WSHP unit.
• Show how WSHP units function together in a complete system for summer, winter, and
intermediate season.
• Describe the function of each component that comprises a WSHP system.
• List the advantages and the disadvantages of a WSHP system.
• Compare the differences between a closed loop, earth coupled, pond and well water
WSHP system.
• Describe various WSHP system variations such as variable speed pumping, systems
without a boiler, and use of a storage tank.
• Explain WSHP application topics like freeze protection, refrigerants, economizers, and
maintenance of WSHP systems.
• Describe typical WSHP controls and how they control individual units, the water loop, and
the WSHP system.
Supplemental Material:
Book Instructor CD
TDP No. Cat. No. Cat. No. Title
TDP-703 06-796-068 06-797-068 Variable Air Volume Systems
TDP-631 796-056 797-056 Rooftops, Level 1: Constant Volume
-- 811-10088 -- Carrier Demand Controlled Ventilation Design Guide
-- 795-202 -- Carrier System Design Guide – Water Source Heat Pumps
Instructor Information
Each TDP topic is supported with a number of different items to meet the specific needs of the
user. Instructor materials consist of a CD-ROM disk that includes a PowerPoint™ presentation
with convenient links to all required support materials required for the topic. This always includes:
slides, presenter notes, text file including work sessions and work session solutions, quiz and
quiz answers. Depending upon the topic, the instructor CD may also include sound, video,
spreadsheets, forms, or other material required to present a complete class. Self-study or student
material consists of a text including work sessions and work session answers, and may also
include forms, worksheets, calculators, etc.
Carrier Corporation
Technical Training
800 644-5544
www.training.carrier.com
Form No. TDP-706 Cat. No. 06-796-071

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COMMERCIAL HVAC

Technical Development Program

© 2006 Carrier Corporation. All rights reserved.

Commercial HVAC Systems

Water Source Heat Pump Unit Operation

Commercial HVAC Systems

Commercial HVAC Systems

WSHP System Operation

Commercial HVAC Systems

Cooling Mode (Summer Operation)

Block Load and Diversity

Commercial HVAC Systems

Heating Mode (Winter Operation)

Commercial HVAC Systems

Intermediate Season (Spring and Fall Operation)

System Advantages and Disadvantages

Commercial HVAC Systems

A traditional strength of the

Low Operating Costs

Commercial HVAC Systems

Water source heat pump systems have a distinct

During building occupancy,

Commercial HVAC Systems

Units are available in many sizes

The WSHP system utilizes

Commercial HVAC Systems

Minimal Building Space Usage

Since WSHP units are small, they

Ease of Maintenance and Repair

The vast majority of installed

Commercial HVAC Systems

Commercial HVAC Systems

Multiple Access Points

Commercial HVAC Systems

Most WSHP units contain a single

Hermetic reciprocating compressors and rotary

Commercial HVAC Systems

New Modulating Scroll Technology

The reversing valve reverses the

Refrigerant-to-Water Heat Exchanger

The refrigerant-to-water heat

Commercial HVAC Systems

Expansion Metering Device

When liquid refrigerant flows

Commercial HVAC Systems

Refrigerant-to-Air Heat Exchanger

The refrigerant-to-air heat

Most WSHP units use centrifugal

Commercial HVAC Systems

Condensate drains are required on

Most WSHP units come with a

Each WSHP unit typically comes

Commercial HVAC Systems

Anti-Short Cycle Timer

Over/Under Voltage Protection

High/Low Pressure Protection

Commercial HVAC Systems

Supply and Return Water Hoses

Commercial HVAC Systems