The impact of groundwater lowering on pile bearing capacity in Hanoi — Vietnam ‘Trung Luu Gia National University of Civil Engineering, Ha Noi, Viet Nam, E-mail: luugiatrung97@gmail.com Long Tran Duy National University of Civil Engineering, Ha Noi, ‘Trinh Dinh Thi Kiew National University of Civil Engineering, Ha Nol, Viet Nam, E-mail: tranduylong2000@gmail.com Viet Nam, E-mail: dinhthikieutrinhO3@gmail.com Ha Nguyen Thu National University of Civil Engineering, Ha Noi, Viet Nam. F-mail: nguyenthuha021196@gmail.com Keywords: groundwater, lowering, negative skin friction, pile group, Hanoi, prediction ABSTRACT: In recent decades, over-exploiting water wage has lowered dramatically the groundwater level in Hanoi city and other major cities in Vietnam. This may result in geotechnical hazards in changing the mechanism of the underground environment, especially risks relate to the deep foundation. As a result of lowering groundwater, the bearing capacity of the existing piles could be reduced significantly due to development of the negative skin friction. To evaluate the influences of lowering grocundwater for the bearing capacity of the piles in the areas of the Hanoi city, the classical and finite element methods were employed to back analyze the actual monitoring data. The results of the analysis have showed a good agreement with the actual monitoring data and the areas of Hanoi City influenced by lowering groundwater for the bearing capacity of the pile have been established to assist the deep foundation design. 1, INTRODUCTION Through the process of urbanization and administrative expansion of the 2000's, Hanoi inner city is now a hyper urban with 12 districts, a population of about 4 million people, and an estimated area of 300 km’, The water demands for living and producing in Hanoi is the cause of massive groundwater pumping, with a lack of management, which tums to recently lowering underground water levels in the inner city Groundwater lowering is usually interpreted as depressions of groundwater levels in deep layers, mainly due to human pumping activities. The phenomenon of lowering the groundwater level causes many dangerous phenomena to the construction activities: the subsidence of the ground surface, the displacement between pile foundation and soil. Besides, this groundwater level drop also reduces the self-cleaning ability of land, causing various environmental hazards and threats to sustainable development. © Springer Nature Singapore Pee Ltd. 2020 P. Duc Long and N.T. Dung (eds) etal. Geotechnics fr Sustainable Infrastructure Development, Lecture Notes i Civil Engineering 2, ldek.og/10 100/978-981-15-2184-3. 17 The impact of groundwater lowering with pile foundation (or raft-pile foundation) is primarily in 3 phenomena: Negative friction, redistribution of load between raft-pile and reduction of buoyancy force. The impact level depends on many factors, nevertheless, the most important influence is the water level before and after the lowering compared to the bottom level of the construction. If the groundwater level before lowering is higher than the depth of the pile: a relative displacement between the ground and the pile will occur, causing negative friction. Subsequently, if the lowering of underground water level has continued, there will be a redistribution of the raft-pile load. All of the above phenomena increase the load on the pile foundation. If the groundwater level before lowering is above the raft foundation depth: the reduction of the buoyancy needs to be considered. That case is the most dangerous and should be evaluated prudently. Ifthe —_pre-lowered groundwater level is below the depth of the pile, in a738 this case, the effect of the groundwater lowering is, limited in the surface subsidence soil and seems to be not caused any impact on the durability and stability of the project. Presently, there has not been a complete report on Hanoi's underground water shrinkage, but according to various sources, the rate is about 0.3- 0.6 m per year (Tran et al., 2013). At this rate, existing construction works will be severely affected in the next 20-30 years. In the first part of the paper, the study finds the influences of groundwater lowering on a single pile and pile group in a typical construction, which is, the result of the surface settlement and the negative skin friction. The second part evaluates the effect for a section of Hanoi city by finite element method through two values: the pile capacity of a typical bored pile and the remaining capacity of that pile due to the decteasing of groundwater level 2, EFFECTS OF GROUNDWATER LOWERING IN ABORED PILE IN HA NOL 2.1 Geology and pile parameter In this section, the impact of the groundwater lowering will be considered at a typical project in Cau Giay, Hanoi 2.1.1 Geology and groundwater level ‘The groundwater level is 20 m beneath the ground surface and will be lowered 10 m in 20 years. Table 1. Geological section of project Bottom level (m) Soil characteristies 10 Fill soil 38 Clay with sit, soft 3.0) Clay, half-stiff is Clay with silt, soft 18.2) Clay with silt, bali 205) Clayey sand, hal-stift 28.0 Medium sand, medium dense 33.0 (Coarse sand, der 39.5 Sandy clayey, sti 41.0 Gravel, dense 2.1.2 Pile parameters ‘The project uses bored pile D = 1.0 m with the pile length is 31.0 m, The pile head is 11.5 m beneath the ground surface and the pile tip level is -42.5 m, with 1.5 m of pile is on the gravel layer. The concrete grade is B20 with compression strength is, T.L. Gia et al. Rs = 11.5 MPa, reinforcement 16920 with steel grade CB300V, tension strength Ri = 300 MPa. ‘The design load on pile is 4250 kN, meanwhile pile beating capacity of soil and material according to TCVN 10304-2014 is 5200 KN and 7200 KN, respectively. 2.2 Evaluate the impact of groundwater lowering ‘on pile capacity by the traditional method 2.2.1 Negative skin friction on pile Firstly, the ground subsidence is calculated by the following formula (Phan, 2016) B Bo r0;h a where Si = settlement of the #* soil layer, B ~ efficient calculated by the following formula, £\ = elastic modulus of the #** soil layer, Aoi = the stress change at * soil layer, hi: the thickness of 7 soil layer. The calculated subsidence of surface is 4.39 em as detailed in Figure 1. Displacement (en) Depth (m) Figure 1. Soil displacement ofa typical pile The negative skin friction on pile is calculated by the following formula (TCVN 10304-2014): O, Wf Fy kgs Xe @) k, = 8 Sun where «= perimeter of pile; s = the difference of displacement between pile and soil at depth z Sma the lowest displacement between the soil around the pile and the pile to appear all negative friction, resulting value is approx 3 mm (Pham et‘The impact of groundwater lowering on pile bearing capacity al,, 2016); ¢= coefficient of displacement between pile and soil at depth z and the lowest displacement between the soil around the pile and the pile to appear all negative friction, resulting value is about 15-20. Because of a mutual influence between the negative friction value and neutral axis, the iterative calculation method is taken on: initially assuming the pile tip settlement equals to zero, thus, calculate the negative friction skin value on the pile. From the negative friction result, we calculate the pile tip settlement and find the new neutral axis, Performing iteration until the values converge, we have negative skin friction results The convergence happening pretty fast: the difference between the result of the second calculation the third one is only 2.3%, and between the third calculation and the fourth one is 0.4%, ‘The final result, which is choosen from the sixth calculation, is 1400 KN. The pile load-bearing capacity can be defined according to the soil strength (Q) or by pile material (Qn), and both two values of capacity ‘must be higher than the design load P. For the material bearing capacity, under the influence of the negative skin friction, the axial load on pile increases the amount properly by the value of negative skin friction Qx: P'= P+ Qs, thus the remaining bearing capacity of material decreases the same amount: Qn rensnng = Qn — Qe @ Pile capacity of soil includes 2 parts: end bearing resistance Qs and skin friction resistance Qs, which can be divided into 2 segments: skin friction above the neutral axis Qu: and skin frietion below the neutral axis Qi2, In the usual case, all three components tend to resist the downward ‘movement of the pile. Though, with a very slight displacement of soil around the pile (~1 em) (Fellenius, 2011), the skin friction above the neutral axis disappears, therefore the soil capacity decteases: Q' = Q — Qu. Thereafter, a higher displacement tums to negative skin friction, increases the load on pile and reduces the pile bearing capacity of soil: "= 0 - Qs. In conclusion, the remaining soil capacity can be caleulated by the formula: Quemaining = 2- Dy — Oy ‘We have the remaining load capacity of the pile: ‘© Capacity of soil: $200 - 1150 - 1400 = 2650 KN, 6) 139 ‘© Capacity of pile material: 7400 — 1400 ~ 6000 KN, Performing the same calculation, the correlation between groundwater lowering level and negative friction as well as the remaining bearing capacity of the pile is calculated and shown in the following. chart: ‘400 Nexen sia ton 0 = Reining lect iy sal) Rania ple caps iy mater) «0 som A &. 5 seo 2m tom « Groundwater lowering level Figure 2. Negative skin friction & remaining pi bearing capacity by groundwater lowering level 2.2.2 Evaluate pile group effect ‘The effect of negative skin friction in the pile ‘group is a new problem which has not fully studied recently, Some points of view suggest that the pile group effect increases negative skin friction, while other views suggest that the pile group effect reduces the effect of negative skin friction. ‘The simple assumptions in the calculation of the pile group is as follows: ‘+ With the smallest pile distance (denoted as K) equal to D (D is the diameter of the pile), the soil between the piles is coherence, the negative friction of pile groups will include: negative friction on the outer part of the boundary piles, and the weight of the soil between the piles. ‘© With a spacing greater than 5D, the group effect, in negative friction is considered to be no longer available. Negative friction on the pile group is equal to the total negative friction on the entire pile (Abhijit Saha 2015), Calculation for typical pile: the construction with base area: 65.2 x 34.4 (m); number of piles: 122 piles, pile diameter: D = I m. Exchange the base and the distribution of pile to square: square edge 47.36 (m); the number of piles friction40 per edge: 11,05 piles. The average distance between piles: 4.71 m = 4.71D. Negative skin friction on a pile: 140 t, neutral axis level: -36.7 m. Multiply number of piles with negative skin friction each pile: Negative skin friction of pile group: 1400 * 122 = 170800 (kN). Exchange the pile-soil system to a large foundation: ‘+ Negative skin friction of exterior soil to the ‘exchanged foundation: Negative skin friction of ‘one pile * the mumber of edge piles’2 = 30927 (kN), ‘egative skin friction from self-weight of soil: The specific weight of 1m? of soil above the neutral axis: 406.2 KNim? ‘© Soil area: exchanged are of foundation — pile area: 2147.1 m?; ~> Self-weight of soil: 872188 (kN) ‘+ Negative skin friction on the pile group: 30927 + 872188 — 903115 (KN) ‘© Interpolate between 2 values: K =4.71D Final negative skin friction on the pile group: 170800% (4.711) +903115x(5-4.70) = 223065 (kN) a ‘+ Negative skin friction of one pile: 1828 (KN) ‘+ Influence coefficient of pile group: 1828/1400 = 1.306. The influence coefficient of pile group depends not only on K/D ratio but also negative skin friction value as well as neutral axis position when evaluating negative skin friction in a single pile. 2.3 Assessing the effect of groundwater lowering ‘on pile bearing capacity by FEM method The finite clement method (FEM) is a numerical method for solving problems of engineering and mathematical physics. Within the scope of the study, the finite element method is used through Plaxis software with two different ways to simulate soil-pile interaction: plane-strain simulation and axisymmetry simulation The calculation will be limited to calculating the bearing capacity and negative friction of the single pile, using Plaxis2D software 8.2. Plane strain simulation considers piles as a wall in the soil, calculations are made with 1m long wall. The material parameters of the soil are taken from the field survey, while the parameters of the pile are adjusted to the 2D model. Some parameters use in the modelling: T.L. Gia et al. ‘+ Elastic modulus of pile: E = 31.7 GPA (with casts = 30 GPA, Esc! 200 GPA, reinforce= ‘ment ratio 0.1%) © A= 0.7854 m?, EA = 2.490%107 © [= 0.0491 mt, E/=1.556*10° ‘The axis-symmetry simulation considers piles, soil material using axial symmetry model to simulate circular piles. The calculated results are presented in Table 2 Table 2. Result of different modeling methods Modeling Pile bearing Negative skin method capacity (KN) friction (KN) ‘Analytic 5200 1396 Plane-strain 5724 1303, ‘Axis-gymmety 5313 4752 Beside the above simulation methods, another option is the 3D simulation method which seems 10 be the most approximate simulation, but relatively complicated and difficult to implement. The axis- symmetry simulation method gives. relatively accurate load-bearing results, but negative skin friction value proved inappropriate. The plane- strain simulation method has an acceptable level of accuracy, simplicity, ease of implementation, consistent with the scale of research. We apply the plane-strain model in the computation hereafter. 3. PREDICTING EFFECTS OF GROUND- WATER LOWERING IN HANOI 3.1 Geology and groundwater level of the section 3.1.1 Geology Assessing the impact of groundwater lowering is carried out for 20 points on section A-A’ (the section is from Day river to Duong river which is shown in figure 3). The geological section and geological parameters of section A-A' will be presented in figure 4 and table 3, respectively. 3.1.2 Groundwater level Currently, Hanoi is using groundwater in Pleistocene formation (Hanoi strata and Le Chi strata, mainly sandy, gravel) and Holocene formation (Vinh Phuc formation, including gravel pebbles and quartz), with an average flow of 820000 m'/day and 110000 m°/day respectively (Pham et al., 2016). The groundwater level of 20 points in section A~A’ is measured directly from the observation in figure 5.‘The impact of groundwater lowering on pile bearing capacity Figure 3. Section A-A’ on the plan of Hanoi (Think 2015) 14 ae 17.0 onrone 710.0 r -20. elo \L ERs ‘ SANS Figure S. Groundwater level in Hanoi (Thinh and Ludmila, 2015) “y sy sy sy i a a5 0 aD aD ory 1 sion one fm Sse timc ew soi I Ponce inate El ont WH semen Stl ah on © iia I setae ey Figure 4. Geological cross section AA’ and position of 20 calculated points (Thinh 2015) Table 3. Geology parameters of section A-A’ (Thin 2015, 2017) Moire No. Soil parameters content - x Liquidity . BE. » ment (kN/m') (kNim') index (degree) (kPa) (MPa) 1 Fie 7. 2 Tisbbnbstate-Sendycly, yy age Sod Ee Pali tend ei os ko Moe a 3 sing ata Chay, ede 6 Haihangsata~ Ch, i 3511831804710 24989. 7 _Vinkphuc tata~ Ch, so 368 ~—~—=diRO—~*dT@ a0 10a © _Vinphue stata~ Chy, bal F286 000000518 9 MakphnestaleChyeyd 56g 91S TTS 4S 11S (oA os so cso oe der 11 Hawoista-SandyeHETSIE 955 Wy aga 059-90 12TH 12 Hsnof wala = Gre, dese maa B00 00 13 Lechi srata-Clyey sand, if 9591891708380 100175 1414, Loci sat Gravel dense ao 195 a50 00 250.042 3.2 Evaluate the effect of groundwater lowering on piles 3.2.1 Surface subsidence and negative skin friction The calculated results of ground subsidence of section A-A’ is presented in figure 6 and the negative skin friction is illustrated in figure 7, Figure 6, Ground subsidence in section AA’ Figure 7, Negative skin friction in section A-A” The highest value of negative skin friction is 2800 KN at point I1, where a very thick, soft soil layer appears at a deep level. The lowest value is, 520 KN at point 8, where the groundwater level is, lowest too. In general, with 10 m groundwater lowering, the value is mostly between 1700-2400 KN, 3.2.2. The effect of groundwater lowering on piles at special points ‘The study considers some special point: point 1 with the highest level of groundwater, point 8 with the lowest level of groundwater level, point 11 with a thick soft soil layer in the deep level, point 15 with a thick medium sand layer distributed in the entire depth, and point 16 with a sandy clay layer appear under the gravel layer, and the groundwater level is approximately the groundwater level at point 1. The results of T.L. Gia et al. negative friction depending on the groundwater lowering level are shown in figure 8, Pin gma paits Big) baie z Eom Sis 2 iow 2 © sq ———________. Groundwater lowering level (m) Figure 8, Negative skin friction of piles at some points In point 8, the negative friction skin value is mostly unchanged. ‘That phenomenon can be explained: when the groundwater level is lower than the gravel and pebbles layer level, the increase of the stress does not gain the surface settlement, therefrom does not increase the negative skin friction. The comparison between the point 1 and point 16 shows that the appearance of the sandy clay layer does not have any influence of the negative skin friction value, and this value increases proportally to the groundwater lowering © point 11 shows an early development of negative skin friction, which caused by great surface settlement, while point 15 has the negative skin friction linear increases with the groundwater lowering level, and may reach a value of 3750 KN, higher than point 11 with the value of 3540 KN in finally (at the year 2040). Geological characteristics have a great influence on negative skin friction values on the piles. The cross-section with soft soil layers below the pile head position is the most dangerous case, which seems could easily cause particularly high negative skin friction and ground surface subsidence. Besides, if the soft soil layer level is higher than the pile head, only surface subsidence will be occurred. Strong geological scction has smaller surface settlement and the development of negative skin friction is more deliberate than the weak one, but if the phenomenon of lowering the groundwater level continues, the skin friction is fully mobilized, the final negative skin friction value can be particularly high. For the piles anchor in the deep gravel iayer which restrains the movement of the pile toe, when the groundwater‘The impact of groundwater lowering on pile bearing capacity level lowered also causes high negative friction value. Only a slight modification in groundwater level can reduce the skin resistance of piles, immediately decreases design pile bearing capacity (10001500 KN). If the groundwater keeps lowering, the negative skin friction starts to develop linearly 10 the groundwater level, and its slope depends on geology conditions. The negative skin friction value is considered to reach the dangerous level, when reducing the bearing capacity limit to the design load, corresponding to the level of underground water level 2-3 m with the mud-rich geology, weak clay and about 5 m with geology inckading many coarse or medium sand, 3.2.3 Pile remaining capacity Combining the results of calculating the load capacity and negative friction on the pile, we have the load-bearing graph of the piles at the time of 2030 on A-A' segment in figure 9: According to figure 9 and 10, most of the piles are no longer bear the load of the building (4250 KN per pile) after 10 m of groundwater reducing. Figure 10 shows the remaining pile capacity under the effect of groundwater lowering at special points. lt? nema pe eric) b 2 woo Pout Figure 9. Pile bearing capacity of section A-A' Esa g ss00 Em Geoundater oer level (0) 3 Figure 10, Pile bearing capacity of special points, 4, CONCLUSIONS ‘The research results show the significant impact of groundwater lowering with the pile bearing capacity reduction under the urban areas. Based on the analysis resuts for the 2030s, the bearing capacity of the piled foundations constructed in 2010 will be reduced enormously by lowering groundwater level and development of negative skin friction. The study results also indicate that the development of the negative skin friction not only depend on the groundwater lowering, but also the geology characteristics. Attention should be paid to assessing the impact of the phenomenon of groundwater lowering level, right from the process of designing the foundation, especially the phenomenon of negative skin friction. Also, it should be soon put into use of other water sources (especially surface water) 10 replace groundwater resources which are currently in serious decline in both quality and quantity. 5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ‘The authors would like to thank Dr. Tan, Vu Minh. National University of Civil Engineering, Hanoi, Viet Nam, for his valuable review and comments ‘on the manuscript draft, 6. RE Abhijit, S. (2015). The influence of negative skin friction on piles and pile groups & settlement of existing structures. International Journal on Emerging Technologies,6(2): 53-59. 2015. M-Tech, Structure), West Central Railway, Bhopal, (MP), INDIA. Fellenius, B.H. (2011), Down-drag on Piles in Clay due to Negative Skin Friction. Canadian Geotechnical Journal, 9. 323-337. 10.1139/72- 037. Pham, T. A., Nguyen, T. L., Trinh, V. C. (2016). Study the behavior of single pile through T-Z. curve correction with static compressed data. ENCES Journal of Construction Science and Technology, No 4. 2016. Military Technical Academy. Phan, H. Q. (2016), Foundation Engineering. Department of Soil mechanic and Foundation engineering, National University of Civil Engineering, Hanoi, Viet Nam. Thinh, HT P., Strokova, L. A. (2015). Prediction ‘maps of land subsidence caused by groundwater exploitation in Hanoi, Vietnam. Department of44 Hydrogeology, Engineering Geology and Hydrogeology, Institute of Natural Resourc National Research University, Tomsk, Russia, ‘Think, H. P. and Strokova, L. A (2017). The typification of soil strata of the territory of the city with Hanoi (Vietnam) in the study of the subsidence of the earth's surface during water lowering. Georesource engineering. 2017. T. 328, No 4. 6-17. National Research Tomsk Polytechnic University, Russia, 634050, Tomsk, Lenin Ave., 30. ‘Tran, V. T., Ha, N. A., Dao, M. D. and Nguyen, M. T. (2013), Forecast changes of ground surface in Ha Dong atea caused by urbanization and undergroundwater exploitation. Journal of Earth Sciences, No 3. 2013. Institute of Geology, Vietnam Academy of Science and Technology. wmsk Polytechnic T.L. Gia et al.Pile design with consideration of down drag Cao Van Hoa Ho Chi Minh University of Architecture, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam. Email: hoa.caovan@uah.edu.vn Keywords: negative friction, down-drag, consolidation, pile group, settlement, case study ABSTRACT: Pile design must be considered in three separate aspects: structural strength, displacement, and geotechnical capacity (bearing capacity). In the conventional design concept, the design bearing capacity of a pile does not take into account the negative friction, usually assumed to be about 30-40% of its ultimate capacity. The large safety factor in estimating the pile capacity is quite controversial. Many design methods have been proposed recently that take into account the negative friction effect. The approach is the calculation of: neutral plane, structural strength, soil settlement, pile displacement and, geotechnical capacity of pile. Meanwhile, the friction capacity at pile — soil interface estimated by the analytical formulas is obviously inaccurate and it is difficult to understand how the frictions are ‘mobilized. This study proposes a simplified method for pile design that can overcome the mentioned difficulties. The results of this study show that this method may be applied to design practices. Lon RODUCTION Pile, driven in consolidating soil layer, will be subjective to negative friction, caused by downward settlement of soil relative to the pile. As a consequence, an additional down-drag force will be developed within the pile, and its head will experience an additional displacement. Designers, of pile foundation have long investigated the need to take effects of negative friction into account, but there was a considerable confusion as to the way in which negative friction influences pile behavior. Poulos (1997) proposed hand method and used it for estimating the settlement and maximum load in a pile, He compared the results calculated by a computer method. This hand method assumes full pile ~ soil slip, and the results agree well with the computer analysis when free field soil settlements are very large. ‘A simple (hand) design approach proposed by Poulos (1997) for estimating the maximum load © Springer Nature Singapore Pee Ltd. 2020 which can be applied to the head of a pile subjective to negative friction, This load is based ‘on the condition that the pile head displacement reaches an acceptable limiting value, regardless of the settlement of soil. He assumed that the settlement of the soft soil decreases linearly with depth. A neutral plane is where the force at the plane caused by downward force and negative stresses above it, equal to the resistance at the plane which is developed by the portion of the pile below it The boundary element method (e.g., Poulos and Davis, 1980; Kog et al., 1986; Lee, 1993 and Poulos, 1997) assumed that soil around a pile can be represented by an elastic continuum, with a limit to the stresses which can be developed at the pile — soil interface. The pile is divided into a series of elements: a vertical movement of which is, related to applied load, pile-soil interaction stresses, pile's compressibility, and its tip displacement. By considering compatibility of the incremental pile and soil movement at each 145 P. Duc Long and N.T. Dung (eds) etal. Geotechnics fr Sustainable Infrastructure Development, Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering 62, ide og/10 1001/978-981-15-2184-3_ 1846 element, one can get the equations when pile-soil interface conditions remain in the non-failure state. Solving the equations together with equilibrium equations, one can obtain the incremental pile-soil stresses and pile tip displacements, from which the axial force and vertical displacement distributions, within the pile may be computed. Fellenius (2004) proposed a unified method with emphasis on settlement analysis. According to him, design of pile should establish resistance distribution along it, determine the location of the force equilibrium (the neutral plane), estimate the magnitude of drag-load from accumulated negative skin friction at the neutral plane, evaluate the length of a zone where the shear forces change from negative to positive direction, establish the load-movement relation for the pile toe and the load distribution in the pile at the time that settlement becomes an issue for the design, and finally, perform a settlement analysis. From the above studies, it can be seen that the pile design considering negative friction need to estimate: (1) the load, the bearing capacity and the equilibrium between them (force equality); (2) the pile displacement, the subsoil settlement and the equilibrium between them (settlement equality). ‘The behaviour of the pile is not only a behavior of load bearing or pile head displacement, but much ‘more important are the force equilibrium and the settlement equilibrium at every position along the pile length, 2. ASSUMPTIONS OF PILE DESIGN 2.1 Condition #1: Force equality Assuming that piles are installed in undergoing- consolidation soil, thus the condition of force equality requires the load distribution along a pile to be equal its bearing capacity. A horizontal plane at the point where load is equal to bearing capacity is called “the Force equality plane ~ FEP”. 211 Pile bearing capacity Pile bearing capacity includes toe resistance and shaft resistance. Fellenius (2011) believed that toe resistance is mainly developed from compression behavior and it has no ultimate value. As the load is increased, the volume of soil is compressed to the maximum, but it’s never reached failure or peak value. Therefore, the toe resistance is only an assumption value. It can be assumed that the behaviour of toe resistance is similar to that of compressive force at the plate load test. Field CV. Hoa experiments by Ismael (1985), Bergdahl et al. (1984) or the Osterberg test of Fellenius (2011) showed that on the load - displacement curve, there were no point of failure. The behavior of toe resistance can be simulated by hyperbol models. ‘Toe resistant can be determined by many methods. For this study, toe resistance will be determined by the B-method: t a R= Ar, = ANO!5 Q) where N; = Toe “bearing capacity” coefficient, D = Depth to pile toe, o%-p = Effective overburden stress at the pile toc, A: ~ Toe area (normally, the cross-sectional arca of the pile). The shaft resistance is developed from friction at the soil-pile interface and it is characterized by shear force, so it has an ultimate value (Fellenius, 2011). That shaft resistance is a real value. The external load is distributed along pile length due to shaft resistance, The remaining load at pile toe shall be bore by toe resistance. The shaft resistance (both negative and positive) can be estimated by: Ng =e'+ Bo, 8 Rf Ay.de~]A,(c'+ Bo! )de (4) where c’ = Effective cohesion intercept, 2 = Bjerrum-Burland coefficient, 0’: Effective overburden stress, 4, — Circumferential area of the pile at Depth z (surface area over a unit length of the pile), The distributed bearing capacity can be determined by: R=Ry RK, =(R+R)=] 4, (c+ Bo! dz © where Ry is toe resistance in which soil is being behave elastically, Rv is total ultimate shaft resistance, 2412. Distributed load along ple length The distributed load includes the external load acting on the pile head and the down-drag load. It Gan be estimated by. Ra RefAle's pate ©Pile design with consideration of down drag where P,is external load, includes loads from superstructure. 2.1.3 Force equality plane Figure 1a shows the curves of load and bearing capacity distribution along a pile (Fellenius, 2011). It shows that the distributed load on the pile increases from head to toe due to the influence of down-drag. And the pile bearing capacity decreases from the head to toe due to the influence of positive friction, Figure 1. Force and displacement equality planes by Fellenius The condition of force equality is when the load curve (formulae 5) meets the bearing capacity curve (formulae 6). In figured 1a, the plane passing through the point where the P; curve intersect the R- curve, is called “Force Equality Plane ~ FEP” Itean be noted that: ‘+ With a specific value of toe resistance, the FEP location will not be changed too much, even using, different calculation methods or different friction parameters, because the curves of negative and positive friction are symmetrical; ‘© When increasing the length of piles, the value of toe resistance increases slightly while the shaft resistance is increases greatly; so FEP moves lower toward its toe, and vice versa, By selection the pile length, one can adjust FEP location. ‘+ To determine the corect FEP location, it is very important to determine the pile toe resistance as accurately as possible, FEP is not real, each pile always has an FEP. 2.2 Condition #2: Settlement equality ‘Ata location where the subsoil settlement is equal to the pile displacement, where there is no slip between the pile and the surrounding soil, the 7 friction is equal to zero, Above this location, the soil settlement is more than the pile displacement, so a negative friction occures. Below this location, the pile displacement is greater than the soil settlement, so a positive friction occures. The plane passing through this location is called “the Settlement Equality Plane - SEP”. 22.1 Subsoil settlement is originated from soil consolidation. Estimation of soil settlement needs to be considered not only by the effects of direct and/or indirect loads impacting in subsoil, but also the effects of lowering groundwater level, soil filling and/or urbanization load. Subsoil in urban area is always under pressure from constructions and other human activities. Erkens et al, (2015) warn that HCM city is among, top 5 cities in the world that are settling annually. In the past 25 year, HCM city has settled nearly half a meter, and its main cause is the excessive use of groundwater for daily life. Many researchers noted that the ground in the suburban districts of HCMC, is settling from 5 to 10 mm per year, with the main reason being the excessive use of groundwater, Specifically, it is recorded that Nguyen Huu Canh St. has settled almost 1.2 m since it was built (2002). Meanwhile, many studies have noted that with only a few millimeters of ground settlement, negative friction can reach depths of several tens meters. Therefore, negative friction is a fact in construction practice in Ho Chi Minh city. timates subsoil settlement based on calculations of over-burden stress and pressure from the external loads. Stress distribution in the subsoil under shallow foundations and surcharges can be calculated based on the Bousinesq solution: o,=kp a where k = A factor depend on 2/b and U/b, z = Depth from loading area, b = Raft width, / = Raft length. Subsoil settlement Additional stress due to lowering water level: Ao, = LAH, (7-7!) + Yah + Py ®) where AH, = Thickness of soil layer in draining » area, yi = Natural unit weight, y' = Bouyant unit weight, yu = Natural unit weight of upper soil layer (filing), hay = Thickness of upper soil layer (filling), yw = Water unit weight, = Depth from ‘ground water level to top level of pressured aquifer48 Subsoil under shallow foundation and surcharge settles due to pressure arising from the extemal load, and it can be determined in variety of ways. The sub-layer settlement superposition method is, used to determine soil settlement, disregarding the stiffness of raft. It can be estimated by: s-¥5-¥, where S= The final soil settlement at ground, S,= The final settlement of soil layer i, Number of soil layers, ,, = Void ratio of soil layer i at the load level equal to over-burden stress, ¢,,= Void ratio of soil layer i at load level equal to total value of over-burden stress and surcharge stress, A,= Thickness of layer i Settlement of the subsoil under piled foundation can be estimated based on Mindlin solution, similar to the assumption in PRAB written by Kityodom and Matsumoto (2002, 2003), in which raft and piles are divided into clements. The subsoil settlement at any node can be written by: =Lae, Where wi = Settlement of node i, aij = Soil flexibility coefficient denoting settlement at node i due to a unit load acting at node j, P= Force acting at node j Subsoil settlement at any point in the semi- clastic space under foundation is a superposition of settlements caused by each type of external load and interactions between foundation structures. h, @) (10) 2.2.2 Pile displacement Pile head displacements, is consisted of pile toe displacement s» and elastic deformation of pile se thus: ay Allowable pile head displacement, according to the British, French, Japanese standards and by many other researchers, is set from 2.5% to 10% of pile diameter. Chinese standard sets displacement at 40-80 mm, or: 8, = 2PLI3EA+20 (12) Poulos & Davis (1980) proposed: CV. Hoa ms 30F 3) Elastic deformation of pile can be determined by: 5 =p 14) ae aa) 2.2.3 Settlement Equality Plane The “Settlement Equality Plane ~ SEP” is a vital condition for determining whether pile is subject to positive friction or negative friction. Figure Ib shows the pile displacement subsoil settlement curve and SEP. It can be noted: ‘+ If the pile displacement is equal to the soil settlement, the friction at pile-soil interface is 2er0; ‘+ Ifthe displacement of the pile is greater than the soil settlement, negative friction occurs; ‘+ If the pile displacement is smaller than the soil settlement, negative friction will occur; ‘+ The intersection where the pile displacement curve intersects the soil settlement curve, dividing the pile into two halves, in the upper half where the negative friction develops and in the lower half where positive friction develops. SEP js real, it is determined by the subsoil settlement and the pile displacement, 2.3 Pile design When designing piles, during of SEP and FEP ‘matching, there are three possible cases: ‘+ Piles are considered to be capable to cary external load if the FEP’s location is below the the location of the SEP, because its bearing capacity is greater than the load. ‘+ Piles are not capable to carrying the load if FEP is above SEP, meaning its bearing capacity is smaller than the extemal load. ‘+ If these two planes coincide, the pile bearing capacity is equal to the extemal load, in this case these planes are called Neutral Plane as per ‘many researchers. Negative and positive friction ‘can be determined when the neutral plane is in this equilibrium, 3. EXAMPLE AND CASE STUDY Bitexco tower was built in District 1, HCM city, 68-stories high. Some geotechnical parameters of soil in District 1, HCM city are listed on Table 1Pile design with consideration of down drag (by Chiu Ngoc An, 2000), The soil layer just below the raft is a medium-density-fine sand layer of 31 m thick. The fine sand is underlined by a layer of hard yellow - brownish clay of 15 m thick. Under the clay is a layer of dense medium-size sand down to 100 m depth (Nguyen and Phienwej 2016). This study uses soil data from the authors in which the soil properties are summarized statistically by Chau Ngoc An in Cao (2015) and the geological profile based on boreholes at the same site carried out by Nguyen and Phienwej (2016). The Tower has 4 m thick large-size raft supported by 109 piles of 1.5 m diameter, consisted of 69 piles 75 m long at raft perimeter and 40 piles 85 m long at the raft center (Fig. 2). The raft and piles were modeled and analyzed by Cao (2015, 2017) using PRAB program. Figure 2, Plan of Bitexco Tower Pile raft The analysis results using PRAB showed that the load distributions along 109 piles were different. The piles in the centre have neutral plane near the pile head, and the outer piles have neutral plane near the middle of the pile length. The load distribution of the pile at the raft comer is shown in, Fig. 3a ‘+ Load case | in which the extemal load is only a part of load that is carried by raft - SEP 1 ‘+ Load case 2 in which the external load consists of a part of building load to be carried by the raft plus urban load (in this study we assume 10 KN)—SEP 2, of; 149 ‘© Load case 3 in which the extemal load is the entire load of the building, it is considered as, the uniform load and acting on the rigid plate on semi-elastic space, distributed in the subsoil by Boussinesq solution - SEP 3. SETTLEMENT (nm) 0 200 400 600 LOAD (MN) 0 5 10 15 20 25 a ay] Neby Pras] Ea Fa . 5 eo 8 60] % 20| 100 1001 Figure 3 The estimated results of pile load distribution, pile displacement and soil settlement ‘This means that location of the SEP determined by the PRAB matches well with the results of hand calculation if the settlement of the subsoil is calculated by formula (10). Loon) 0 5 10 15 20 25 Za 5 % eol_/ \Vircomfom Weereroens| 80) OO UN sino Uae aean tates Figure 4 A comparison of neutral planc (SEP and FEP) calculated by PRAB with FEP location determined by various methods Fig. 4 shows @ comparison of neutral plane location (when SEP coincides with FED) determined by PRAB with FEP locations determined by different analytical methods. The toe resistance of the pile takes a minimum value from the used methods, which can be compared with the results from the load test. The load at the pile head can be calculated by any method based on raft stiffness. It can be recognized that: The locations of FEP determined by the analytical0 C.V.Hoa Table 1 Statistic soil parameters for District 1, HCMC Thick nh a em GG Soil ayers : Compression tests one (a)__gem’ ple " deg _deg_kefiom? keen Likgifem? 2 kgllem? 3 keen? 4 kgflem? 7 Sand ti 321 TSS 0.701 _O.S 0.816 0.608 8 100.12 0.15 2. Clay 16196 1980613 0593 0581 0578 14 16 03 032 3. Blush gay 3 Bish 28 192 1.94 0687 0.608 0586 0578 13 15 021 0.24 clay, har 4. Fine sand, 34 191 1.940.672 06490638 0.630 «27-29 : medium dense " 5, Yellowish 155 2.00 2.05 0.526 04980484 0.47916 «18 O45 OS brown clay, hard 6, Medium-size 44 201 2.06 0517 0.503 0496 0.490 5133. : sand, medium dense ‘methods are located in the lower part of the pile and; All the FEPs are located under the neutral plane, which means that the pile has a larger beating capacity than required. With careful consideration of the subsoil behavior, the pile length of 85 m can be significantly reduced. Adjust the length of the pile in this case by reducing it until the FEP coincides with the SEP. 4, CONCLUSIONS The above design method can explain well the behaviors of piles. The design of the pile, taking into account the downedrag, is relevant on the settlement equality plane (SEP) and the force equality plane (FEP) * The behaviour of the load and the bearing capacity of a pile are characterized by FEP. The toc resistance of the pile should select conservative because the displacement of the pile depends only on the load acted at the pile toe. The external load acted at the pile head is, ven, so the shaft resistance is the only factor affecting the location ofthe FEP. Considering that, the negative and positive friction curves are symmetrically, so the location of the force equality plane does not change much. The location of the FEP is determined in this way to be more conservative, ensuring that the bearing capacity is greater than the total load (including external load and down-drag), FEP is usually in the lower half of pile. ‘+ The behaviour of soil settlement and pile Aisplacement is characterized by SEP. Soil settlement is estimated to be the total settlement caused by pressure due to external loads through raft, piles or surcharge loads or by lowering of groundwater. SEP goes through the point where the settlement of the soil is equal to the displacement of the pile. This point divides the pile into two halves, the upper half of the soil settlement is greater than the pile displacement and in the lower half the pile displacement is ‘gteater than the soil settlement, By adjusting the pile length one can determine the desired displacement. Designing piles taking into account negative friction is to match FEP with SEP. To do so, it is possible to increase or decrease the length of the pile. The pile is considered to be able to carry the design load if FEP is below SEP. The magnitude of friction, both negative and positive, can be determined when FEP and SEP are coincided ACKNOWLEDGMENT In this paper, the authors used PRAB program, a present to Construction Department of University Architecture of HCM city by Prof. T. Matsumoto. ‘The authors of this paper sincerely are thankful for Prof Matsumoto’s team. 5. REFER ICES Cao, V.H. (2015). An analysis on raft deformation in piled raft foundation on Ho Chi Minh City sand by PRAB. Vietnam IBST Journal of Science and Construction Technology, No. 2/2015, ISSN 1859-1566, pp 52-60. Cao, V.H. (2017). An analysis of raft behavior laying on pile group. HoChi Minh City University of Technology, Ho Chi Minh City.Pile design with consideration of down drag Erkens et al. (2015). Prevention and mitigation of natural and anthropogenic hazards due to land subsidence Sinking coastal cities. Proc. IAHS 372,189-198,Proc-iahs.net/372/189/2015/ Fellenius, BH. (2004). UNIFIED DESIGN OF PILED FOUNDATIONS WITH EMPHASIS. ON SETLEMENT ANALYSIS. Geo-Institute Geo-TRANS. Conference, Los Angeles, July 27-30, Fellenius, B.H. (1984). Negative skin friction and settlement of piles. Second International Seminar, Pile Foundations, Nanyang Technological Institute, Singapore, 28-30 Nov. Inoue, Y., Tamaoki, K., and Ogai, T. 1977. Settlement of building due to pile downdrag, Proc. Sth ICSMFE, Tokyo, July 10-15, Vol. 1, pp. 561-564. Kitiyodom, P., and Matsumoto, T. (2002). A simplified analysis method for piled raft and pile group foundations with batter piles. International Journal for Numerical and Analytical Methods in Geomechanics, vol. 1369, pp. 1349-1369, Kitiyodom, P., and Matsumoto, T. (2003). A simplified analysis method for piled raft foundations in non-homogeneous _ soils. International Jowmnal for Numerical and Analytical Methods in Geomechanics, vol. 27, Issue 2, pp.85-109. Koerner, RM. and Mukhopadhyay, C. (1971). Behavior of negative skin friction on model piles in medium plasticity silt. Drexel University. Lee, C.J., Bolton, M.D, and Al-Tabaa, A. (2001). Recent finding on negative skin friction in piles and pile group in consolidating ground. Sth International Conference on Deep Foundation Practice incoporating Pile talk, Singapore, 4~ G/Appril Nguyen and Phienwej (2016). Practice and Experience in Deep Excavation in Soft Soil of Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam, KSCE Jounal of Civil Engineering, 20(6): 2221-2234, issn 1976-3808. Okabe, T. (1977). Large negative skin frietion and friction-free methods. Proc. 9th ICSMFE, Tokyo, Vol-1, pp. 679-683, Poulos, H.G. (1997). Piles Subjected to Negative Friction: A procedure for design. Journal of Southeast Asian Geotechnical society, volume 28, Poulos, H.G. (2001). METHODS OF ANALYSIS, OF PILED RAFT FOUNDATIONS. 4 Report 15 Prepared on Behalf of Technical Committee TCI8 on Piled Foundations, July. Thiem, Q. T., Huynh, N. S., and Tran, L.TD. (2007), “Understanding the mechanism of land subsidence due to groundwater extraction in Hiep Binh Phuoc Industrial Park, Thu Duc District, Ho Chi Minh City. Journal of Science and Technology Development, Volume 10, No. 6 in Vietnamese). Tomlinson, MJ. (1994). Pile design and construction practice. E & FN SPON. An imprint of Chapman & Hall, London.A study on behavior of a rotary pre: horizontally loaded Naoya Kuze ss-in pile with wings Center for Better Living, Tsukuba, Japan, E-mail: kuze@tbil.org Naoaki Suemasa Tokyo City University, Tokyo, Japan, E-mail: nsuemasa@tcw.ac,jp Mikio Futaki Center for Better Living, Tsukuba, Japan. E-mail: futa ki@ubtlorg Keywords: Serew pile, Pile with wings, Lateral loading behavior ABSTRACT: One of the few cases examined in clay by the authors in the previous study showed that the pile installation made the density increase, the stiffness decreases and the gap occurrence in the ground surrounding the pile (Kuze et al., 2016). In this study, , the horizontal loading test of a full-scale pile was conducted using the ratio (Dw/D») of wing diameter (Dy) and pile shaft diameter (D,) as a parameter. As a result, it was confirmed that the ft of a pile with wings decreases as Dw/Dy increases. 1. INTRODUCTION ‘The authors examined and reported in the previous study that the installation of a rotary press-in pile with wings leads to density increase, stiffness decrease, and gap occurrence in clay ground surrounding the pile (Kuze et al., 2016). However, the effect of the wing’s shape and size on the behavior of the horizontally loaded pile has not been confirmed, In this paper, a series of experiments was performed to grasp the effect of a diameter ratio (Ds/Dr) of the wing (Ds) to the pile (Dp) on the behavior of the horizontally loaded pile. ‘The shape of the pile with wings used in the model testis shown in Fig. 1 2. PROPERTY CHANGE OF SOIL AROUND ‘A PRESS-IN PILE WITH WINGS Property change of soil around a press-in pile with wings was confirmed by various physical tests including a water content test, a wet unit weight test, a consolidation test and a triaxial test. After installing the pile with wings into a ground, these © Springer Nature Singapore Pee Ltd. 2020 P. Duc Long and N.T. Dung (eds) etal. Geotechnics fr Sustainable Infrastructure Development, Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering 2, ldo. og/10.1001/978-981-15-2184-3_ 19 physical tests were conducted using the soil samples collected from the ground around the pile with wings by pushing a small thin wall tube into the ground. supe a scone oommdse Figure 1. Shape of pile with wings 21 Specifications of pile and sampling positions The piles used in the tests were steel pipe piles with a shaft diameter (Dp) of 267.4 mm, a wings diameter (D«) of 550.0 mm, and a wings pitch (p) of 140 mm, The bottom sections of the piles were in a closed state, The positions of the soil sampling, are shown in Fig. 2