1 and Laurel Tanner. Supervision in Education bara dyer ‘end Practices. New York: MacMillan Publishing Company, 1987. e Joseph Bondi. Curriculum Development: A Guide beg Srd ed., New York: MacMillan Publishing Company, 1989. notional Encyclopedia of Curriculum. Bdited by Arieh eo “Curriculum Components” by M.J. Bash. Oxford: Pergamon Fress, 1991. 8 TIME-TESTED METHODS Objectives 1. Enumerate and explain the time-tested methods of r ing 2. Demonstrate each method of teaching a” Required Activities 1. Lecture 2. Demonstration on the different time-tested methods 3. Examinations Introduction Lardizabal, (1991) state that the concept of method is probably as old as education itself. Methods go as far back ‘a8 antiquity. These include the Socratic method, Commenius’ nature teaching, Pestalozzi’s object teaching, the Herbartian steps, and others, Only those methods that have stood the test of time and are still used today will be discussed in this chapter. ‘THE TIME-TESTED METHODS A. The Inductive Method Induction ii a given generaliz: from the specific to the general, the particular to the ‘universal, from simple to complex, and from the concrete to the abstract. Steps of the Inductive Method a) Preparation b) Presentation’ 79Steps in the Field Study Technique 4) Class reportin ‘an operation carried out under eon fons to discover an unknown effect. It is also important to remember that any analysis and interpretation done should not so: conclusive. In the first place, it is impossible to fo mulate any given generalization on the basis of th : findings of one or two studies made. Phrases lil “The data seem to show.. »” “They tend to indicate. a and the like could be used to begin a statement an interpretation, ©) Making a formal report of the research done. How this is done should be formally discussed in class, ‘The teacher should sce to it that the significant points Stressed during the discussion are correctly followed. Field study technique is « tochnique in which the stu dent investigates a given situation by being a part or an integral component of it. ‘The ultimate purpose is to get 4 first-hand information to clear up some uncertainties | and doubts. The more integral he becomes in the situa tion, the more truthful the data he can obtain, Itis because, _ the respondents or subjects do not give the accurate and complete information to an outsider of the locality. Usually, the residents put up a “front,” withholding the more vital facts, a) Preparation; b) Actual investigation; ©) Making a formal report; and or law, to test or establish a hypothesis, or illustrate a known law. The definition stresses two points: a) experi. ‘menting is an active process since it is an operation; and ) it is highly purposeful, Another definition of the experimenting technique is that it is not merely a manipulation of scientific appa- 142 ratus. In experimentation, a genuine problem or question exists and it is an attempt to discover or test possible relationships, causes, and effects. This definition gives importance to the existence of a real problem before any experimental undertaking is done by the students. It follows, then, that experimenting is not pursued for the sake of doing it. Students experiment because they must and have to. ‘Types of Experiments Experiments can be any of the following: a) structured; b) unstructured; and c) semi-structured, ATI oon student strictly answer a set of predetermined questions. ae REAR see: 29 en i type of conducting this activity. This involves fal Sle: freedom for students as they raise the problem, plan out the experimental project which includes the determination of both experimental and control variables, the formulation of hypotheses, and the choice of materials and procedures. ‘experimentation shows nt teacher-student involvement in the planning of an experiment. This type is more commonly done in the classroom. °) Experiments can also be classified based on their speci- fied purposes. Such types are: a) methodological; b) explana- tory or heuristic; e) fact-finding; and d) boundary setting, a) Methodological experiments serve the purpose of im- proving some techniques or procedures. Often, they are experiments done in order to allow the experi- ‘ments to progress toward some chosen goal. b) Explanatory or heuristic experiments are designed to expose relationships among variables. They provide the data on which to base explanation of phenomena and to generate law: 143,©) Comparison and Abstraction d) Generalization ©) Application To illustrate the steps of the inductive method, a specific lesson in social studies has been used: 1. Preparation, Let us close our eyes and make a mental excursion to each of the following places: Batanes, Baguio City, Ilocos region, and Central Plain of Luzon, As I des- cribe each place, imagine that you are right there in the place. Are you now ready to travel with me? (Note: The teacher describes the place and later the class identifies it. Ex., as we go up the winding roads, it becomes cooler and more pine trees are seen Where are we now?) 2. Presentation. We have a map of the Philippines, ean you locate each of these places on it? ‘The bulletin board shows us different crops, Can you match these crops with the places? (Note: The expected results of the activity is the cons- truction of a chart similar to this.) Place Crops Batanes root crops like camote Baguio City fresh fruits, flowers, and vegetables Tocos region tobacco Central Plain of Luzon | rice 3. Comparison and Abstraction. Analytical questions are raised at this point like “Can the Ilocos region raise as, much fresh fruits, flowers, and vegetables as Baguio City? Why not? Why does tobacco not grow well in Baguio City? Why do people in Batanes prefer root crops and not other crops like rice, tobacco, and even flowers and vegetable?” 80 4. Generalization. Why do these places grow different crops? The expected answer: They differ in prevailing weather conditions, It should be made clear to students that the Philippines has only one climate — tropical climate — but within that climate are found different weather types. It is this difference in weather types that explains the various prevailing weather conditions from one place to another. While Batanes has stormy weather, Hocos region has a long dry season, and the Central Plain of Luzon has long rainy season, 5. Application. Apple growing has been tried many times in our country and so far nobody has been successful in this undertaking. Similarly, the banana plant cannot grow in places where the climate is very cold. Can you explain these two situations? Is difference in weather type only manifested in difference in crops raised in certain places? What are the other effects of such difference? B. The Deductive Method ‘The deductive method begins with a generalization and subsequently all examples and specific situations to be given ‘are supportive of this generalization. ‘The deductive method is a process of starting with a gene- ralization and arriving at a specific statement, or,conclusion namely: one which is not applicable to a class of objets, situa- tions, or phenomena. We use a generalization or rule or principle to arrive at a specific statement, In a broad sense, when the pupil thinks in a logical sequence and arrives ata specific item, he is deducting. ‘One well-known example of a deductive scheme of a formal argument is syllogism. It usually consists of a major premise, a minor premise, and a conclusion. Steps of the Deductive Method a) Introduction b) Statement of a generality 81©) Explanation of a general idea e) IMlustration ) Evaluation ‘To illustrate the steps of the deductive method, the lesson in English found below has been prepared: 1. Introduction. How many of you have a best friend who lives far from your place, let us say abroad? I am sure the most common way of communicating with your friend is through letter-writing. 2, Statement of a generality. In writing a friendly letter, the parts are the heading, the salutation, the body af the letter, the complimentary close, and the signature. 3, Explanations of the general idea. The heading of a letter contains the address of the letter sender and the date the letter was made. ‘The salutation is the greeting found at the start of the letter. ‘The body of the letter is the most important part of the letter because it contains the message of the sender to the person to whom the letter is addressed. ‘The complimentary close is a word or a group of words used to end the letter. ‘The signature is the name of the person who writes the letter, +4. Illustration. On the board is written a sample friendly letter. See how each of the five parts is properly written. Read its part and let us give our observations on how * each part is correctly written, 5. Evaluation, Ihave prepared another friendly letter which is incorrectly written. I want you to rewrite this letter to correct the errors found in it, : Observations seem to show that students can better grasp the idea presented through the combination of the explana- 82 tion and citing examples rather than just mere explanation of the idea. Lastly, the evaluation phase usually in the form of oral, written, and performance tests is administered to find out how much the students have absorbed and to provide pertinent data which could be used later to improve instruction. Applicability of Inductive and Deductive Methods Almost all subject areas in all educational levels can uuse both methods. Whether it is the inductive or the deductive to be employed depends largely on the teacher's instructional objectives. ‘The inductive method is best for the following purposes: a) _ tomake the teaching-learning process more student- oriented; b) to develop the higher levels of thinking among the learners; and ©) to treat every topic in a more in-depth manner. The deductive method, on the other hand, is designed to facilitate the explanation of relatively difficult and abstract topics to our students, Integration is the process or practice of combining different lements and presenting them as one unifying whole. It has been used in several instances like combining two subjects in the curriculum like science and health, music and physical education, social studies and character education, Integration can also take place within 9 subject as in language teaching in which literature is Telated to grammar. In fact, the so-called integrated approach stemmed from using the literature as the springboard or the take-off point of the grammar lesson. ‘To illustrate, a poem expounding in the beauty of nature is initially taken up, Naturally, a lot of words that describe are found in the literary piece which are used as actual examples in developing the concept “adjectives” during the grammar 83portion. In this particular lesson, the literature topic is well- ‘chosen so the structure needed in the grammar partis contained in it. As a result, the grammar topic becomes more meaning- fal since actual examples are previously discussed. ‘The integrated method combines two given methods or two techniques in one given lesson. The combination aims at making learning a total process; what is learned in one method is further strengthened in the other method; or what one teach- ing method lacks is properly compensated by the other. Some of the teaching methods that are usually combined to form the so-called integrated method include: a) _ lecture-discussion; b) demonstration-lecture; ©) film showing-discussion; 4) reporting-discussion; and ) _ inductive-deductive, ‘The lecture method is a teaching procedure for explaining and clarifying a major idea. It makes use of exposition which may be a narration or a description. ‘The main aim of the lecture method is to serve as a guide. through a great mass of information characteristic of subject areas. The use of the lecture is justified therefore under the following condition 1, When the teacher can give affective information in one hour of lecture-demonstration what may be taken up by the class in two or three hours of laboratory work to reinforce learning. 2. When the teacher has available data that would be hard for the class to obtain. o 3. When a new topic is to be introduced so as: a) to show how the new topic fits the work; b) to give a bird’s eye view of the work to come; 84 ©) to arouse interest in the new work; and d) to give adequate explanation for students to begin new work. 4, When summaries are needed at the: a) close of the day's work; b) close of the topic; ©) end of the chapter; and d) end of a unit, At the beginning of the hours, to create proper mind set; to generate enthusiasm; or to arouse appreciation, 6. On occasions where problems arise or questions are asked that are valuable and pertinent. 7. When visual materials such as slides, pictures, graphs, films, and specimens need explanation, Garcia (1989) states that the lecture method is ‘pre- dominantly teacher-directed, aimed at providing needed information. It involves factual presentation and textual explanation of a particular topie or few selected topics. It is a factual presentation since salient and pertinent information are given out. Not only are these bits of information merely presented, but also meanings and insights are to be derived from them. Hence, there is the textual explanation whereby the lecturer interprets them so they could be better understood. This explanation, therefore, expands and advances the frontier of knowl. edge. Without this aspect, lecture becomes synonymous with the telling process. Lecturing goes beyond the level of telling since it makes points clearer and clarifies some ‘issues, and if successfully done, it should be able to erase ertan doubts in the minds of the learners. Steps of the Lecture Method 1. Preparation for the lecture. This encompasses salient points like theSaag >) appropriate language and manner of presenta: tion, that is, considering the kind and nature of the students; ©) selection of helpful audio-visual aids and instruct- ional materials; @) planning the motivational technique (recall of inte- ©) anticipating certain difficulties and probleme during the lecture; and finding suitable solutions and alternatives to these barriers to a successful lecture. ‘Significantly, such preparation should include some Psychological overtones like plans on doing away with the unwanted nervousness, wearing presentable but com. fortable attire, becoming more relaxed and rested, and increasing the feeling of self-confidence. Introduction to the lecture. It should be done briefly but effectively for if it were executed poorly, it could ini. tially kill off the enthusiasm of the students, The art of breaking the ice in a lecture should be mastered well by the teacher, Several techniques for an appropriate start are: making the students anticipate what they expect to learn from the lecture itself; making them aware of the im. portance of the topic for a given purpose (examination, interview, ete.) asking them what they know about the topic, making casual remarks about the topic (prevailing ‘weather condition, present controversy); and establishing Sood rapport with the class either by praising the students or by sharing an interesting joke or a puzzle. Giving the body of the lecture. The teacher shoul have @ given cognitive framework upon which he relies to achieve a more logical lecture presentation, Conclusion of the lecture. To wrap up the lecture, the teacher may resort to any of the following techniques: 86 a) summarizing major points presented; b) paraphrasing the key ideas shared; ©) forming generalizations; and 4) giving implications, Type-study Method It is an inductive procedure except that only one case is studied, For example, if one were to study the parts of a river system, it is not necessary to study many river systems. Just one river would be enough, but it must be representative of other rivers and must have all the parts, In studying the parts of a flower, one needs to study only one flower which has all the characteristics of most flowers. Steps of the Type-study Method a) Selection of the topic b) Apperception and motivation ©) Statement of a typical case 4) Study of details ©) Comparing details f) Generalization Ik may be used in two ways:4 aa Steps of the Problem Method ©) Recognition and statement of the problem origina- ting in a difficult or perplexing situation. GBD iatement of hypothesis — inspection and proposal of solution or solutions. EP Critical evaluation of suggested solution. GD Verification of accepted solutions In the classroom, the procedure is much more detailed, and the teacher has to guide the pupils’ learning. Puy will probably not be able to recognize the problem without the teacher's guidance. To raise the problem, the teacher must set the stage. The teacher should assist them by directing their observation to related data and recalling past experiences that have a bearing on the problem. ‘The next step is working on the problem. This involves organization of facts, principles, and ideas pertinent to the problem, selecting a hypothesis and trying it out, gathering data through reading, observing, etc., evaluating the solution, and forming a conclusion. The pupils do the work while the teacher directs ‘The last step is checking or verifying results and apply- ing these if necessary. The teacher also aids the pupils in learning how to check or verify and summarize results. Exer- cises or problems must be provided by the teacher for practical application of the understanding gained. If the teacher has. stimulated a desire on the part of the class to use the knowledge gained, the lesson is successful. project ificant, practical unit of activity of a problematic nature, planned and carried to completion by the student in a natural manner, and involving the use of physical materials to complete the unit of experience. ‘Types of Projects 1. Construction Project. The motive is to do something. Pupils have ideas that they want to put in concrete form. 88 2, Employment Project. The motive is participation in an activity that is accompanied by enjoyment or satisfaction, An example may be planning and taking part in a school program, GED: motive is to master some intel- lectual difficulties which come from the learner himself. Curiosity or interest in the subject may be the dominant factor. ‘a.skill or some knowledge. For example, a pupil may want to learn to swim or master certain combinations in arithmetic. Another classification of projects according to Risk (1965): 1. Physical or material project (making a table, digging a wall, making a school album, planning a garden plot, or fencing the garden). 2, Learning projects are study activities on the initiative of the individual, such as a project to speak English flu- ently, master Spanish conjugation, write a short story, ete. Intellectual or problem projects are intellectual questions that can be solved by induction or deduction, such as: a) to determine whether Maria Clara would survive in modern-day society or not. b) to determine how Spain lost her colonies. ¢) to determine if Romeo is worthy of the love of Juliet. Steps of the Project Method L, Purposing. It is important for the teacher to consider the pupils’ needs, abilities, and interests at this step of the lesson. Goals and activities can be decided upon coopera- tively by students and teachers. 2. Planning. No matter how young the pupils are, they can always offer very good suggestions, When activities are 89la iated by the pupils, they perform their parts willingly and enthusiastically, Executing. This means carrying out activities as planned and envisioned by the class, This may take one class period, ‘8 week, a month, or the whole semester depending on the Project being undertaken. Evaluating. The finished products are displayed and sudged by y both pupils and teacher. Here is an excellent ‘ance to help develop critical thinking among the pupils, ‘They should be trained to look for what is positive and not merely that which is negative. ‘The laboratory method is a teaching procedure dealing with firsthand experiences regarding materials or facts ob tained from investigation or experimentation. It is experi mentation, observation, or application by individuals or small groups dealing with actual materials. Essentially, it is the experimental method, enlarged and expounded. Types of Laboratory Method to train pupils in problem-solving with incidental acquisition of information and motor skill. The emphasis is on discovery, original procedure, analysis, and solution of problems, 2 acquisition of facts is the dominant aim of the method. Facts can be acquired through activi- ties such as visits to museum, exhibits, and art galleries Watching demonstration, listening to lectures, viewing films, and going on field trips. Steps of the Laboratory Method i. Introductory step for orientation and motivation. Includes the determination of work to be done. Motivation hy the teacher is very much needed, Work period. When all the pupils may be working on the 90 same problem or on different problems on their own, this becomes a supervised work period. No matter what they are working on, the students will gain experience in scientific procedure, handling raw materials, and using tools, 3, Culminating activities. After completion or near com- pletion of the work, the class may get together to discuss and organize their individual findings. They may also decide on how to present results of their individual work which may take any of the following forms: a) explaining the nature and importance of the prob- Jem the group had worked on; b) reporting data gathered on other findings; ¢) presenting illustrative materials or special contri- butions; @) special reporting and exhibition of work by those with individual projects; and ©) _ exhibiting various projects and explanations by their sponsors, ‘There are cases when it is better to use the demonstration method instead of the laboratory method, The chief difference between the two is that in the laboratory method, all the child- ren perform the experiment and “learn by doing.” In the de- monstration method, the teacher does not experiment before the class, ‘The demonstration method is sometimes called the imi- tative method (Garcia, 1989), Learning a skill is faster and more effective when the students are shown how the job is done by using the actual tools, machines, and materials they are ex- pected to work with on the job. All the steps involved in the project method are adopted in the demonstration method, although there is an addition of one very important step. 91Steps of the Demonstration Method 1. Purposing. The class decides on an activity which involves the process of demonstration. The teacher may suggest it but he should not impose it on them, he may encourage them to go through with it but he should not dictate it ‘on them, 2. Planning. This phase consists of the object of the demons- tration, the person or persons to conduct it, the materials to be needed, and the date, time, and place of the activity. If an outside resouree speaker will be invited, necessary arrangements like a letter or invitation should be made. 3. Demonstration proper. Before the demonstration is done, all the preliminaries should have been prepared — materials, procedure, and the physical arrangement of the classroom, 4. Executing. Students are expected to earry out or repeat the same performance shown during the activity. Dur- ing this phase, the teacher should keep a close watch of the students’ performance for they may likely need his assistance and further explanation, 5. Evaluation. This is done to assess how successful the students are in following certain instructions, in dupl cating an observed phenomenon, and in showing thei creativity, J. The Expository Method ‘The expository method is closely akin to the showing or telling method. It is used a great deal in the lower grades as there is much that needs explaining. However, it is also used in the upper grades, in the secondary school, and even in college when something difficult needs explanation by the teacher. Steps of the Expository Method 1. Approach. The proper mind set may be established by recalling past experiences related to the present lesson, ‘The points to be explained must be placed before the class. 92 Presentation. While explaining, it might be well for the teacher to make use of the following principles: a) relate the new experience to the previous exper- iences; b) teacher and class should have the same viewpoint regarding what is to be explained; ©) exposition means not only explaining but also inter- preting; 4) materials should be organized so as to permit think- ing; and ¢) to make the explanation clear and effective, devices may be used such 2) analogies and stories; 2) illustrations; 3) models; 4) diagrams; 5) demonstration; and 6) outlines and summaries to set facts in proper relationships, 3, Application. This step will show whether the pupils understood the explanation or not. It may be given in the form of a test, creative work, or another activity. K. The Morrisonian Technique or Unit Method (Garcia, 1989) Henry C. Morrison, former Superintendent of Schools in New Hampshire, is the proponent of the Unit Method. ‘The unit method is the process of taking the contents of fa particular subject as big blocks and not as isolated and fragmentary bits of information. The aim is to approach topics ‘as an organized and integrated body, showing relevance and cognitive relationship. Commonly, the teacher assigns every unit or every chapter as the subject of the class activity. The activity does not last in just one sitting; it may certainly take several days before one unit or chapter is completely taken by the class. 93Steps of the Unit Method 6 8) Exploration b) Presentation ©) Assimilation @ Organization e) Recitation Exploration. The teacher, through questions and tests or in discussion, discovers what previous knowledge or experience the pupils have about the unit to eliminate — repetitions of subject matter already learned and to de- ide on the apperceptive basis for the new unit, Presentation. The essential features of the unit are presented and important points emphasized. The aim to give the pupils a bird's-eye view of the entire unit, — lectures, demonstrations, maps, pictures, stories, outlines, models, blackboard exercises, ete. can be utilized tomake _ resentation successful, Assimilation. The child learns what has been presented _ by the teacher, absorbs it, and makes it part of himself, It is really a supervised study. The assimilation period Presents an excellent opportunity for the teacher to check up on the study habits of children, It is an opportunity q to develop valuable habits of study such as outlining, use of reference materials, getting the gist of paragraphs, etc. Organization. After assimilating the unit, the class is ready for the organization step. This should be done with- ‘out books, notes, charts, ete. In this step, cooperative out. lining is usually utilized and adopted in a final form. This is an opportunity for the teacher to train the pupils in outlining. With this help, the children gradually learn to organized their thoughts. Recitation. This step is the reverse of presentation where the teacher does most of the activity while the class listens. Now, the class performs while the teacher and _ the other pupils listen. ‘This should be the liveliest part of the lesson because the pupils prepare for and partici pate in many activities. 94 BIBLIOGRAPHY Aquino, Gaudencio V. Principles and Methods of Effective ‘Teaching. Manila: National Book Store, Inc., 1988. Garcia, Manuel Buenconsejo, Focus on Teaching. Quezon City: Rex Printing Company, Inc., 1989. Lardizabal, Amparo S. et al. Principles and Methods of Teach- ing. Quezon City: Phoenix Publishing House, Inc., 1991. Palma, Jesus C. Curriculum Development System. Manila: National Book Store, Inc., 1992, 95IMPROVED INSTRUCTIONAL PRACTICES Objectives 1. Enumerate and explain selected improved instructional Practices 2. Demonstrate each improved instructional practice Required Activities 1. Lecture-discussion ! 2. ‘Teacher-demonstration on the improved instructional Practices Introduction The different kinds of improved instructional practices are the following: discovery approach; conceptual approach; Process approach; inquiry approach; integrative approach; Programmed instruction; modular instruction; and team teaching. ‘The discovery approach refers to an inductive method of guiding pupils to discuss and organize ideas and processes by themselves. It means helping them use ideas already acquired as a means of discovering new ideas. According to Lardizabal, et al., the discovery approach is the process by which the children under subtle direction go through the logical process of observation, comparison, and abstraction, generalization, and application. Instead of “telling,” either by the teacher or a textbook explanation, self-discovery sets up learning situations whereby children are encouraged to explore a process or discover rules. The primary concern is with developing a pattern of thinking instead of merely arri- ving at an answer, 96 Definition Given by Other Authors 1. It stresses the learning of concepts, theories, principles, and content through discovery rather than rote memori- zation (Anderson, 1969). 2. It is not only the act of finding out something unknown before mankind but also includes all forms of obtaining knowledge for oneself by the use of one's own mind (Rowe, 1973), 8. Ibis the act of an individual using his mental processes (cognitive abilities) to derive a concept or principle. A dis- covery activity is a lesson designed to help students dis- cover concepts or principles for themselves. It is a matter of rearranging data internally so no concepts are formed. It involves finding the meaning, the organization, the structure of the ideas (Carin and Sund, 1971), 4. Iincorporates those views of teaching which place great- est emphasis on the self-directed activity of the student. It incorporates some of the present-day concern for crea- tivity, child development, and the terminology of cognitive psychology (Myron and Karplus, 1962). 5. Its main emphasis is on the teacher not telling the stu- dents the principle or generalization or rule when they are supposed to learn (Ausubel, 1961). 6. It is a matter of rearranging or transferring evidence, It is a type of thinking, This type of thinking occurs in such a way that the individual discovers what goes beyond the information given to new insights and generalizations (Bruner, 1965), 7. It allows the students to become “active in the learning process.” He must engage in doing, manipulating mater- ials, and interpreting results. As a result, he discovers something (Hendrix, 1961). ‘Types of Discovery Approach 1. Guided Discovery —The teacher tries to draw out from his pupils certain bits of information through properly 97organized questions and explanations leading them to the eventual discovery of particular concepts or prin- ciples. 2. Pure Discovery — The pupils are expected to arrive at certain concepts and principles completely by them- selves. Guidelines in the Use of the Discovery Approach 1. There should be a well-planned structured instructional strategy. The students should understand the problem very well. Data must be arranged systematically. 2. Teacher should not answer questions, although he can give clues and hints, ‘ 8. The teacher should not expect the students to find out for themselves all the concepts, ideas, and generalizations of. his course. B. Conceptual Approach r According to Dr. Liceria Soriano, the conceptual approach — is choosing and defining the content of a certain discipline to bbe taught through the use of big or pervasive ideas as against the traditional practice of determining content by isolated topics. ‘The emphasis is not on the content per se, but in the big ‘ideas that pervade the subject, It is using the content as a means of leading the students to discover the laws and principles or generalization that govern a particular subject or discipline. According to Garcia (1989), the conceptual approach, like other approaches, is not a particular teaching method with specific steps to follow. It is more of a viewpoint of how facts and topics under a discipline should be dealt with. As such, information processing becomes interestingly effective as the learners are guided toward organization of thoughts into meaningful, bigger ide ‘This approach, like discovery, stresses cognitive learning: the learning of content or the acquisition of knowledge. How- over, the conceptual] approach requires the categorization of content from simple tn complex level while discovery is generally concerned with the conscious effort of the learners to find out mere relationships between two given variables. The conceptual approach involves more data collection usually through research while the discovery approach act- ively involves students to undertake experimental and inves- tigative work. A teacher should never tell the students the principle or rule which they are supposed to state at the end of the lesson. ‘As much as possible, the teacher should help the students gather sufficient data to enable them to form the expected gen- eralization, Another equally important role of the teacher using the ‘conceptual approach is that he should be able to master the cognitive hierarchy of his discipline. He should be able to cate- gorize all knowledge pertinent to his area: from facts to con- cepts, from concepts to generalizations; from generalizations to principles; and all of these should be organized around con- ceptual schemes which are the pervasive ideas embodying the whole discipline, Hierarchy of Cognition ‘To explain the above hierarchy of cognition, each level is, properly defined and illustrated on the next page. 99organized questions and explanations leading them to the eventual discovery of particular concepts or prin- ciples. 2. Pure Discovery — The pupils are expected to arrive at certain concepts and principles completely by them- selves. Guidelines in the Use of the Discovery Approach 1. There should be a well-planned structured instructional strategy. The students should understand the problem very well. Data must be arranged systematically. 2. Teacher should not answer questions, although he can give clues and hints, ‘ 8. The teacher should not expect the students to find out for themselves all the concepts, ideas, and generalizations of. his course. B. Conceptual Approach r According to Dr. Liceria Soriano, the conceptual approach — is choosing and defining the content of a certain discipline to bbe taught through the use of big or pervasive ideas as against the traditional practice of determining content by isolated topics. ‘The emphasis is not on the content per se, but in the big ‘ideas that pervade the subject, It is using the content as a means of leading the students to discover the laws and principles or generalization that govern a particular subject or discipline. According to Garcia (1989), the conceptual approach, like other approaches, is not a particular teaching method with specific steps to follow. It is more of a viewpoint of how facts and topics under a discipline should be dealt with. As such, information processing becomes interestingly effective as the learners are guided toward organization of thoughts into meaningful, bigger ide ‘This approach, like discovery, stresses cognitive learning: the learning of content or the acquisition of knowledge. How- over, the conceptual] approach requires the categorization of content from simple tn complex level while discovery is generally concerned with the conscious effort of the learners to find out mere relationships between two given variables. The conceptual approach involves more data collection usually through research while the discovery approach act- ively involves students to undertake experimental and inves- tigative work. A teacher should never tell the students the principle or rule which they are supposed to state at the end of the lesson. ‘As much as possible, the teacher should help the students gather sufficient data to enable them to form the expected gen- eralization, Another equally important role of the teacher using the ‘conceptual approach is that he should be able to master the cognitive hierarchy of his discipline. He should be able to cate- gorize all knowledge pertinent to his area: from facts to con- cepts, from concepts to generalizations; from generalizations to principles; and all of these should be organized around con- ceptual schemes which are the pervasive ideas embodying the whole discipline, Hierarchy of Cognition ‘To explain the above hierarchy of cognition, each level is, properly defined and illustrated on the next page. 99Term Example/s Fact A simple statement of Ico melts. Water freezes, teuth ‘Wax liquid solidifies Water vapor condenses. ‘Mothballs sublimate, Concept Synthesis or constella- Tee, water, wax, water tion of related facts vapor, and mothballs are all matter, ‘Melting, freezing, solidi- fication, sublimation are all physical or phase change. Generalization General statement rela- By relating matter with ‘ing two or more concepts physical change, the general statement may likely be: “All matters ‘undergo physical change.” Principle Statement of fundamen- The principle involved tal processes, true with- in the physical change out exception within the of matter is conservation. stated limitations, capa- ble of demonstration or illustration Conceptual The main pervasive Understanding the envi- Scheme theme underlying a ronment through matter ‘major field of study and energy. EE Notice that the flow of ideas from facts up to'conceptual scheme is from simple to complex, allowing students to organize their thoughts from bits of information to larger cognitive level, Students should be given lots of opportunities to read, listen, and write to expose them to as many situations as possible and lead them to categorize’ information. >it . Process Approach + ‘The process approach may be defined as teaching in which knowledge is used as a means to develop students’ learning skills. Students are actively engaged in the activities so the com- 100 potencies needed in the subject could eventually be acquired by them. For instance, if they are to learn cooking, they should actually cook rather than devote a great: deal of their time on the theoretical aspects of cooking. ‘The essence of the process approsch lies on three major points: 1. Emphasis on process implies a corresponding deemphasis on the subject content (the concern is how to learn and not what to learn); 2. It centers upon the idea that what is taught to children should be functional and not theoretical (if you learn math, do what mathematicians do, if you learn science, do what scientists do, and if you learn music, do what musicians do); and 3. It introduces the consideration of human intellectual development. ‘The process approach originated from and used to be a monopoly of science instruction. But today, it is identified primarily with skill-oriented subjects like practical arts, home ‘economics, and even with knowledge-laden subjects like social studies, Leaming Skill in Selected Subjects I. Social Studies A, Thinking Skills. Observing, describing, developing concepts, differentiating, defining, hypothesizing, ‘comparing and contrasting, generalizing, predicting, ‘explaining, and offering alternatives. B. Academic Skills. Reading, viewing, listening, out- lining, note-taking, caption-writing, making charts, reading and interpreting maps, diagramming, tabu- lating, constructing timeliness, and asking relevant questions. €. Social Skills. Planning with others, participating, in research projects, participating productively in 10112, Teacher’s manual or guide. Every instructional ma- terial should be effectively used which means that the module can greatly benefit students if they are properly and competently guided by their teacher in going through it. Therefore, he needs a manual which will provide him with the necessary pointers, helpful alternatives, and even necessary background to strengthen his mastery of the topic. Such manual or guide can clarify things, provide cautions in the use of module, call the attention of the teacher to emphasize salient points, and suggest enrich- ment activities in order to maximize students’ learning. ‘According to Lardizabal, et al., team teaching is an ap- proach that involves two or more teachers who work coopera- tively with the same group of students for some period of time. Henee, many teachers and school administrators claim that teaching is nothing new. As a matter of fact, they claim they have been doing it for years. Teachers have been allowed to exchange classes or to exchange teaching tasks; they have combined their classes with those of others in specific subjects such as music, dramatic performances, athletics, and allied activities; the older teachers in a school voluntarily assist a new teacher or the latter requests assistance from the other. At best, three or more teachers should be involved in plan- ning actual work with children and in evaluation. All team members should participate in the formulation of objectives for the total program, in the planning of daily activities, in teaching functions, and in periodic evaluation of the entire Program. It is a novel way of organizing the teaching staff, curri ‘culum, and space. Instead of putting say 12 teachers in charge of from 30 to 40 students, the teachers can be regrouped into three teams. Each team pools its talents and resources toge- ‘ther to plan the curriculum, the lessons, and even evaluation procedures. Each team takes responsibility for 150 to 200 students. Each teacher teaches the subject in which he has specialized, thus giving the students the best possible instruction in all areas. No fixed pattern for teams has yet been evolved. nz ‘The discussion, planning, and blending of ideas can surely vitalize the instructional program and give the curriculum increased breadth and depth. There is team teaching in the school if the teachers are formally organized as a team which is duly recognized by the school system. Bach of these teachers has his own definite responsibilities and area of specialization. Rationale for Adopting Team Teaching 1. Itallows the more competent teachers to assume leader- ship in the team. Teachers are encouraged and stimulated to specialize in those aspects of a course for which they are best qualified. 2, ‘Teachers are stimulated to do better teaching through lose association with other members of the team, through discussion, and working out problems with their colleagues. 8. Students benefit from exposure to a variety of points of view and teacher personalities. 4, Teaching techniques that require more elaborate pre- paration and administration like films and transparen- cies can be utilized better because more time is given to the teachers in advance for preparation and planning. 5. ‘The teacher is freed from routine tasks, especially when non-professional assistants are employed to take care of roll eall, correction of papers, grading, ete. The teacher's time can be devoted to more productive pursuits like curriculum revision or planning for the day’s lesson. 6. Team teaching is applicable to every discipline. Tt is an excellent set-up for interdisciplinary combination, 7. Itis suitable to almost any kind of situation, whatever the school level, size of school, subject area, student ability, and type of teacher. Patterns and procedures of team teaching can be made successful at every school level — elementary, secondary, collegiate, and graduate. Several Limitations of Team Teaching 1, Time, Planning, recording, and evaluating need time, and teachers have to put in extra time for projects. 1132. Space and Facilities. ‘The program seeds # lecture room, overhead projectors, sound system, larger space for projects. 3. The young and inexperienced teacher may be given enough time to learn from his mistakes, to try out his own. ideas. Exponents of the approach however, believe that such staff to cooperate. Mature adults can organize and work together a team, Team teaching relieved the teacher of some teaching chores and gives him added responsibility and presti believed that when teachers work as a group, when their pro- fessional talents are utilized to the fullest extent toward the achievement of specific goals, the accomplishment of the group will be greater than the sum total of the individual talents of the teachers working with their own pupils in their self-con- tained classrooms in almost complete isolation from the rest of the teachers and pupils of the entire school. Whole Group Instruction is the most traditional and common form of classroom organization (Ornstein, 1992). ‘Teachers generally gear their teaching to the “mythical” average students on the assumption that this level of presentation will meet the needs of the greatest number of students. Behavior Modelling — Acting out a particular behavior the right way. GREED - 4 protiematic situation written or described in narrative form ranging from a paragraph to several paragraphs. Cross-impaet, Analysis - With the occurrence of one or more separate situations, the learners estimate possible lin- 14 ages or causal relationship be- tween or among these events and come up with action plan to deal with likely events. ~ A method for obtaining the con- sensus of opinion of a group of experts through questionnaires with controlled opinion feed- back. Delphi Procedure ving 0 arncrdow to per form a task/activity or how to operate an equipment. ~ Amethod of dealing with a com- plex problem or conflicting sit: uation in the context of opposi tion. Said conflicting views may stem from different goals, pers- pectives, and role requirement. ‘The “devil” serves as a critic- attacking idea presented and defended by learners. Drill, boardwork, writing exer- cises that require learner's ap- plication of the acquired know!- edge and skills. Force Field Analysis - A process of assessing a felt need or a performance problem hy identifying the strengths and weaknesses of an organization, including outside influence with the aim of effecting change through an action plan. Devil's Advocate Incident Process ~ A short (one-to-two sentence) description of a problematic situation, Lateral Thinking - ‘The use of techniques in deve- 115is MD — a tengthy talk detivered to train- GEG 1: is 0 desired educational goal GAD short informal practice sessions Morphological Analysis ~ A forced-relationship approach Role Play Scenario Analysis loping new attitudes and ideas in looking at problems or issues. mine the future effects of a pro- blem, issue, or trend. imilar to a lengthy role play involving several participants intended to represent a work, 2 problem situation, or 4 real-life situation, ‘Team World-Webbing/ - Students write simultaneously Mindmapping on a paper drawing to bridge the main concepts with their com- ponents, supporting elements in order to show multiple relations among ideas, or to differentiate concepts presented, GGREESESMED each student thinks about a topic provided by the teacher, they pair up with another stu- dent to discuss it until they ge- nerate a concept, a conclusion through inductive-deductive rea- soning, and an application of the concept developed. In the end, ees primarily designed to inform or impart knowledge, for all grade levels and subjects. ‘The teacher must adapt the in- struction to the student, rather than the student adapting to the instruction. The teacher must closely monitor each student's _ work, provide a tructional materials and acti- vities, determine what skills and tasks each student has mas tered, and provide immediate feedback. whereby learners perform a new task/activity under artificial conditions to help them develop i each pair shares their thoughts Mens od with the entire class. ‘Trips = Take learners to see something for themselves like visits to museums, historical spots, eon- gress. ete. According to Ornstein , dividing students into small groups seems to provide an opportunity for students to become more actively engaged in learning and for teachers to monitor student progress better. Between five to eight students ‘seem to be an optimal number to ensure successful small- group activity. GGA — Grouping tearners according to their ability and mental pre- that divides a problem into its ‘major dimensions to develop a matrix of solutions and effects to _ help the learners generate new ideas to deal with future prob- Jems before they occur. — A dramatic enactment between two or more people intended to represent a situation. - Building of hypothetical sequence of events (stories); answers the questions “If, then, ete.” to deter- né 17Brainwriting Group Debate Paredness, thus, reducing the problems of heterogeneity in the classroom, ; the process of getting as many ideas as there are learners in a span of time. Allowing free ox-_ pression of ideas without pre- Judice or criticism. ~ Writing down of ideas in slips of paper by a group of about six trainees regarding several pho- tographs or drawings related to a problem. ~ A small group (five or six) as. sembled to work on common problems or issues and work out solution and report such to a larger group. Students divide the work among ‘themselves by helping one an- other, praise, criticize one an- other's effort and contributions, and receive a group perform. ance score. 7 ~ A method by which learners are divided into two groups or panels to examine an issue from differ ent view points, after which syn- thesis, consensus or solution, and action plan are arrived at ~ Students are divided into pairs to share some personal information (such as hypothesis, reactions to alliterary piece, conclusions from @ unit, etc.) with one another. In the end, each will share with the whole class his learnings from the interviewing process. 118, ~ The whole class is divided into (cooperative teams or functional groups. Each instructions) _student in the team becomes an “expert” on one topic by working with members from the other teams who have been assigned the corresponding. similar topic. Upon returning to their teams, each one in turn teaches their respective group. Students are assessed on all aspects of the topic. ~ Assembling a small group of Knowledgeable people in a room to work alone to develop ideas and then share their list of ideas, one item at a time in round-robin fashion, : — A group of people assembled in front of trainees to discuss an issue or problem. = Also called pairing students, is the assignment of students to help one another on a one-to-one basis or in small groups in a variety of situations. Philipps 66 ~ Asking a small group to come up with short, single answers to a simple problem at the end of the agreed-on time limit. Individualized Instruction attempts to maximize individual learning by diagnosing the student’s entry achievement levels or learning deficiencies, providing a one-to-one, teacher-to-teacher, or machine-to-student relationship, introducing sequenced and structured in- struetional materials, frequently accompanied by prac- tice and drill and permitting students to proceed at their own rate, 119oe Adaptive Instruction ~ Sometimes called adaptive edu-_ cation, is @ program that occurs ‘on two levels: 1) developing the abilities and learning skills of ‘the student; and 2) altering the instructional environment to TECHNIQUES OF TEACHING correspond to the individual's Obeen ofstratagicataed bilities and learning skills, 1, Differentiate among approaches, m Reading intended to provide ‘techniques i i teachin; background information for 2. Cite and explain selected techniques of e training or to substitute for class- room-based instruction. Required Activities oe It involves work conducted by the + ne a og mache sepevert tess student on a topic using school o methods/strategies and techni ; 3 non-school resources under the 2. Lecture, demonstration of each technique of teaching direction of the teacher. Introduction ie is eubject matter; Itis not enough that a teacher knows his subje. ‘what is important is that he must be able to impart it properly and effectively to the students, ‘teachers Garcia (1989) states that a common error among: is to use interchangeably torms like approach, method, and technique, Such pedagogical weakness may be considered as forgivable. Itis a fact that the three foregoing concepts closely identified with the procedural aspects Sensing a they are basically different and distinct although rel the student to facilitate learn- ing. This involves tutoring and Practice and drill programs. It is the use of the computer by the teacher and school for the systematic control and organi- zation of aspects of instruction including testing, diagnostic data, learning prescriptions, and ~ It is the use of the computer by record-keeping. another. The diagram below is an attempt to distinguish them. ‘Approach BIBLIOGRAPHY es Aquino, Gaudencio V. Principles and Methods of Effective _ Teaching, Manila: National Book Store, Inc., 1988, Garcia, Manuel Buenconsejo, Focus on Teaching. Quezon City: Rex Printing Company, Inc,, 1989. Lardizabal, Amparo S. et al. Principles and Methods of Teach- ‘ing. Quezon City: Phoenix Publishing House, Inc., 1991, Palma, Jesus C. Curriculum Development System. Manila: National Book Store, Inc., 1992. “The “How” Dimension of Teaching Source: Garcia's Focus on Teaching 120 121DIFFERENCES AMONG APPROACH, METHODS/ STRATEGIES, AND TECHNIQUES Based on the above diagram, a technique is part of method and, likewise, a method is a component of an approach. This makes approach the broadest of the three. Technique, the most. i specific, and method, intermediate between the two, ; —— Approach . ' ie — an enlightened viewpoint of teaching. — provides sound philosophy and orientation to the i /hole process of teaching in which the selection of an 4 instructional method is part and parcel of. .— embraces the entire spectrum of the process such that: a) it specifies the major goal of teaching; b) the given priorities among the three domains, cognitive, psychomotor, and affective; ©) the role of the teacher; d) the expectations from students; ) the nature of the teaching-learning process; and ) the kind of evaluative techniques and suitable teaching mothods/strategies to be employed. ‘There are two salient points to remember: First, all approaches of teaching are viewpoints of teach- ing, but not all viewpoints of teaching are considered approaches of teaching, ‘Second, the selection of an instructional method is based on a given approach. It may be any of the following: — ® set of correlative assumptions dealing with the Process of teaching. — an axiom that describes the nature of the subject matter to be taught. 122, point of view, a philosophy, an article of faith, some- thing which one believes but cannot necessarily be proven. It consists of stops which are logically arranged aimed at achieving the specific aims of Organization of materials can be categorized into two: 1. Logical organization aims to facilitate the recall or loca- tion and use of facts, ideas, materials, procedures, ete; and 2. Psychological organization is designed to facilitate learning of new things. ‘The logical organization is achieved by any of the follow- ing: a) association of one’s ideas and arranging known ma- terials like books, letters, and the like systematically; ) organizing ideas of a similarnature under an appro- priate heading; ©) using suitable headings for the major divisions; and 4) grouping the related sub-points. ‘The psychological organization is realized through: a) understanding how pupils learn things normally; b) selecting those that seem to have a definite bearing on the given task; and ©) making free and controlled associations needed in developing the work. Strategy in the beginning is a monopoly of other discip- lines like military, science, politics, economics, and even psy- 123,me chology. Later, it has been adopted in the field of education since it connotes the same idea, Strategy and methodology are now used interchangeably. ‘kis a particular trick, or contrivance, used to accomplish an immediate objective, It is usually con: sistent with a method, and, therefore, in harmony with an approach as well. It depends on the teacher, his individual artistry, and on the composition of the class, A technique is also defined as a procedural variation of | given method. It involves a highly personalized style of carry- ing out a particular step of a given method. ‘Variation in technique calls for alternatives which can be in the form of small group discussion, panel discussion, debate, brainstorming, resource speakers, and others. Although there can be no specific technique for any given situation, the dis- cussions at the later part of this chapter will present suggested techniques under the categories of teaching methods. Classification of Teaching Methods Criteria: 1, whether methods are addressed to: a) whole class ~ lecture method b) group of students — group discussion ©) individual students — modular learning 2, whether methods are: a) highly cognitive — reporting/unit method b) highly psychomotor ~ project method ©) highly affective - role-playing, simulation, sensitivity training, organic technique, cross-age tutor- ing, and affective exercises, 124 Note: ‘There are methods, however, like the laboratory method that gives almost equal importance to both the acquisi- tion of knowledge and the development of skills. whether methods are: a) teacher monopolized = pure lecture b) student monopolized = field trip ©) teacher-student collaborated — socialized classroom. discussion 4. Kilgore (1982) categorized teaching styles into two major areas: a) direct teaching ~ teacher provides new or addi- tional information to students through: lecturing 2) - film showing 3) field trip b) indirect teaching ~ teacher structure activities in which the learner is active, such as D)_ playing games 2) group role playing 3) inquiry training 4) laboratory work 5. whether methods are: 8) convergent ~ this mode of teaching makes stu- dents come together to a point which means they are expected to accept an idea or set of ideas like what is being done in the process of generalizing or jotting down the teacher's lecture notes, b) divergent — permits students to branch out to dif- ferent ideas allowing them to share 125diverse opinions about a certain top ee 2 > = 6. The classification of teaching methods is based primarily on the nature of the teaching-learning activity. q 4 For instance, on the basis of teacher-student involve- ment, the socialized classroom discussion, the small group: discussion, and panel discussion are three different teaching — cial Oy Present three varying degrocs of teacher. student ion, ) Outlining technique 4 4 ©) Simulation technique 7 0) tenpeoate asks oP? © Brainstorming technique 4) Relevance technique ©) Transitional technique a) ») Socialized classroom discussion technique ©) Direct instruction or classroom teaching technique _ a €) Recitation technique © Interview technique 4. Reporting Method ’ 4) Unit or Morrisonian technique & }) Individual and group techniques a ') Demonstration lecture ©) Reading and story-telling techniques 4) Schematic technique © Symposium Self-Pacing Mgthod a) Programmed instruction, modules, kits, correspon- dence course b) Mastery learning technique 126‘a 10. Traditional Method a) ‘Textbook technique ») Rote-learning technique ¢) ‘Teacher's full-directed technique d) Memorization technique e) The 2x4 x 8 technique of teaching, QTR crs eccnted rom gene jatter is presented from gene- ral to specific (from a broad topic to sub-topic, from the sub-topics to sub-sub-topics). This requires the lecturer to present a ready outline in the beginning — an outline which will guide him in his actual task of lecturing. In ‘a way, it is similar to the process of analysis which is the breaking up of the whole into its parts. In the outlining technique, there is hierarchy of ideas developed from big to small, from complex to simple, and from general to specific. 2 SASTRY! rovers of tho outlining: que. This time instead of breaking up the whole into parts, the lecturer should organize his ideas from small to large. Hence, the process of synthesis is involved. As the lecture proceeds, more pertinent data are presented, resulting to the crystallization of one perva- sive idea. For instance, in a sociology class, the instructor provides the following information about progress. © A great pool of knowledge | * Social disintegration ma- traditional practices ‘© Physical and material woll- | © Weakening social inclina- being tions: 128 nifested by the erosion of * Longer and healthier life + Opportunities to acquire skills and to develop talents Disruption of social order Increasing gaps between the developed and the un- derdeveloped societies * Greater job and leisure op- | * Obsolescence portunities + Incredible human achieve- Ill effects of urbanization ments and industrialization Naturally, as soon as the instructor has presented both faces of progress, the general idea arrived at is that progress is both good and bad. He may ask his students to state the expected generalization and for emphasis he ‘could restate it in a more sophisticated manner by utter- ing this statement: “So class, I have shown you that pro- gress is both a boon and a bane.” 5 CGTATEERRIE prodes oe most ecsve, cognitive framework around which the whole lecturg a) the chronological arrangement of events in history; b) the stages in the cycle of communications; @)_ the development of a story plot or a novel; and ) the operation of the law of supply and demand. 4, The relevance technique consists of four main steps, namely: a) Presentation of a central thought or the singular idea; b) Giving all impressions about this idea; ©) Separating the correct impressions from the incor- rect ones; and 4) Concentrating the lecture on the explanation of the correct impressions. 129In a psychology class, a diagram is drawn on the board presenting the different, perceptions made on the term motive. Such a diagram is as follows: urge nod want drive eae ee pleasure MOTIVE choice etteeagy pene ce “Hee desire wish force ‘As soon as the diagram is completed, the teacher starts his lecture on what motive actually is. As he pro- ceeds, he checks on a correct perception as he gives more substance on its veracity. Conversely, too, he erases the wrong pereeption and explains why such perce to be discarded. ‘ ey 5. The transitional technique presents an in-depth treat- ‘ment of a particular topic. It aims to expand and provide different but acceptable perspectin bout the i of the lecture. ree pe In philosophy of education, for example, the aims of education are many and varied depending on several schools of thought, namely: idealism, realism, naturalism, Pragmatism, and existentialism. Bach philosophy views educational goals and priorities distinctively, __ Likewise, in a classification lesson in elementary science, pupils are asked to group rocks, ‘There is not only. one way of categorizing them; there are several ways of doing it. * According to color, some rocks are brown, others are gray. * According to shape, some rocks are round, others are oblong, etc. * According to size, some rocks are big, others are small. 130 Techniques in the RGUSnMeneD down the whole class into small groups in order to en- courage and maximize free exchange of ideas about a familiar topic. This technique is more student-directed but it does not mean the teacher leaves the classroom while it is being done nor he just sits down in front and assumes the ‘I don’t care attitude.” He can go from one group to another to find out the progress of the discus- sion, Sometimes, students may ask questions which are indispensable to the smooth exchange of ideas. At times, he can act as a temporary group moderator if the group has difficulty of “taking-off.” At other times, teacher can ‘add supplements and necessary information which the panelists fail to include in the discussion. Ideally, each group should be composed of five to six students in order to ensure their equal participation. More than six members may likely decrease the amount of students’ participation because the time inay not be suf- ficient for a prolonged discussion. | § the teacher. The teacher acts as a moderator, guiding and directing the class discussion. He does not put a period for every idea presented but rather provides perplexing situations and good items for inquiry so as to stimulate his students’ minds. ‘At the start of the activity, the students should have ‘a feeling that the teacher is depending on their answers and ideas, and not the other way round. They should not regard the teacher as the only fountainhead of knowledge but a co-partner in the teaching-learning situation. QQ most closely the lecture method. It i ination of teacher's exposition and follow-up discussion on the part of the students. In this technique, the teacher initially provides an information which will 13THESIS be adopted, supported, and affirmed by the students, The _ students are expected to participate during the activity. The teacher should: 9) explain further the initial exposition; ») provide more and different but pertinent examples; ©) make another interpretation; 4) re-state the teacher's point; ©) substantiate and support the ideas presented; and #) “summarize the lesson as presented by him. of experts or well-informed persons (Lardizabal, et al} The members of the panel should be well-selected, Talk shows aired over television stations which employ oo Sai could attest that the invited panelists are all knowledgeable of the topic and most of the authorities in their respective fields, ‘cussion, after all the life of the discussion lies in the ability of the moderator to make follow-up questions or be assigned as panelists but proper orientation a uate preparation should be done, a r technique (graded or ungraded) is hight cognitive, highly teacher-directed, highly strastarey, fiudent-dominated, and aimed at developing the study ‘The recitation type of activity is normally planned ahead. The teacher gives a bird's-eye view of a nee 132 . : “The panel diocuson technique is « direct, conversa al, and intera iscussion among a small group to students, presents several specific questions to be an- swered, and assigns them the sources from which to get the needed information. During the activity proper, the