ae Mie ee Coa Site RADDING The Oxford Handbook ofOXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS (Oxford University Press is a department ofthe University of Orford. It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, andl education by publishing wouldwide. Oxford isa registered trade mack of Oxford University Press inthe UK and certain other countries, Published n the United States of America by Orford University Press 198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 19016, United States of Ameria, © Oxford University Pres ad the Americus Research Neswark 2019 llrightsreserved. No part ofthis publicatian may be repradced stored én a retrieval system, o transmitted, in-any form or by any means, without the prior permission in vniting of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted by-laws by license, or under terms agreed with the appropriate repraduction tights organization, Inquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the above should be sent tathe Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the aaddreve abone You must not ctculate this work in any other form and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer. Library of Congress Contra Number: 2019950993 ISBN: 478-0-19-934177-1 ras79B642 Printed by Sheridan Books, Inc, United States of AmericaTABLE OF CONTENTS Acknowledgments Contributors Abbreviations Introduction: Borderlands, A Working Definition Danna A. Levin Rojo anv Cyntnia Rappinc PART I INDIGENOUS BORDERLANDS, CULTURAL LANDSCAPES, AND SPHERES OF POWER IN THE AMERICAS . Patterns of Food Security in the Pre-Hispanic Americas Amy TURNER BUSHNELL vp . Crafting Landscapes in the Iberian Borderlands of the Americas CynTna RappIne . Fluctuating Frontiers in the Borderlands of Mesoamerica FERNANDO BERROJALBIZ AND MARIE-ARETI HERS e . Population and Epidemics North of Zacatecas CHANTAL CRAMAUSSEL - ;» “Indian Friends and Allies” in the Spanish Imperial Borderlands of North America Dawxa A. Levin Rojo s . ‘The Indian Garrison Colonies of New Spain and Central America SEAN F, MCENROE Inter-Ethnic War in Sonora: Indigenous Captains General and Cultural Change, 1740-1832 José MARCOS MEDINA BUSTOS AND IGNACIO ALMADA BAY ” 57 83 107 13h 163 183vi TABLE OF CONTENTS 8, Native Informants and the Limits of Portuguese Dominion in Late-Colonial Brazil Hat Lanerur PART II TRANSCONTINENTAL BORDERLANDS IN IBERO-AMERICA Internal Trade Networks: Commercial and Migratory Labor Circuits 9. Indigenous Trade in Caribbean Central America, 1700s-18008 ALEJANDRA BOZA AND JUAN CARLOS SOLOR2ZANO FONSECA 19, Connections and Circulation in the Southern Andes From Colony to Republic Viviana E. Conrt ui, The Royal Road of the Interior in New Spain: Indigenous Commerce and Political Action TATIANA SENAS Shifting Identities in Relation to Gender, Demography, Ethnicity, and Mestizaje 12, Indigenous autonomy and the Blurring of Spanish Sovereignty in the Calchaqui Valley, Sixteenth to Seventeenth Century (CHRISTOPHE GIUDIC! 15, Labyrinths of Mestizaje; Understanding Cultural Persistence and Transformation in Nueva Vizcaya Susan M. DEEDS 14. Borderlands in the Silver Mines of New Spain, 1540-1660 Dana Vetasco MURILLO 15, Indigenous Histories in Colonial Brazil: Between Ethnocide and Ethnogenesis Jomn M. Montero 16. Colonization, Mediation, and Mestizaje in the Borderlands of Ninetcenth-Century Minas Gerais, Brazil Tzanet. Missacia bE Mattos 209 239 267 295 37 343 37t 307 413‘The Production of Knowledge: Science and Cartography, Art, Religion, TABLE OF CONTENTS and Music 7 18. 19. 20. a. 22. Borderlands of Knowledge in the Estado da India (Sixteenth-Eighteenth Centuries) Ines G, 2upanov Tierra Incognita: Cartography and Projects of Territorial Expansion in Sonora and Arizona, Seventeenth and Fighteenth Centuries José Rerveto pr LA Torre CuRIEL ‘The Virgin of El Zape and Jesuit Missions in Nueva Vizcaya CLARA BARGELLINI Franciscan Mysticism on the Northern Frontier of New Spain (CECILIA SHERIDAN PRIETO Musical Cultures of the [bero-American Borderlands Kristin DuTcHER MANN AND Drew Epwarp DaviEs Frontier Missions in South America: Impositions, Adaptations, and Appropriations Gutttermo Witpe Shifting Territories and Enduring Peoples in the Iberian American Borderlands 23. 24, 25. 26, Borderlands of Bondage Anores Rest LDEZ, Riverine Borderlands and Multicultural Contacts in Central Brazil, 1775-1835, May KaRASCH Conflict, Alliance, Mobility, and Place in the Evolution of Identity in Portuguese Amazonia BARBARA A. SOMMER Autonomous Indian Nations and Peacemaking in Colonial Brazil HEATHER F, ROLLER vii 443 463 489 509 525 545 s7t 591 613 641viii TABLE OF CONTENTS PART II IMPERIAL BORDERLANDS AND TRANS-OCEANIC EXCHANGES: SOME PERSPECTIVES 27. Trans-Imperial Interaction and the Rio de la Plata as an Atlantic Borderland 669 Fanricio PRADO 28, The Construction of a Frontier Space: Inter-Ethnic Relations in Northern Bolivia 691 PILAR GARCIA JORDAN AND ANNA GUITERAS MOMBIOLA 29, The Spanish Empire's Southernmost Frontiers: From Arauco to the Strait of Magellan v7 ELIZABETH MONTANEZ-SANABRIA AND MARIA XIMENA URBINA CARRASCO 30. Shaping an Inter-Imperial Exchange Zone: Smugglers, Runaway Slaves, and Itinerant Priests in the Southern Caribbean 74L Lipa M. RUPERT 31. The Pacific Borderlands of the Spanish Empire 765 CATHERINE TRACY GOODE 32. Converting the Pacific: Jesuit Networks Between New Spain and Asia 789 Branpon Bayne 33. Indigenous Diaspora, Bondage, and Freedom in Colonial Cuba 817 Jason M. YAREMKO- 34, Impact on the Spanish Empire of the Russian Incursion into the North Pacific, 1741-1821 8q1 MARTHA ORTEGA SOTO Glossary 865 Index 867ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ‘Ihe editors of The Oxford Handbook of Borderlands of the therian World gratefully express our appreciation to the institutions and colleagues whose support has made possible the publication of this deeply satisfying collective work. The coordination of ideas, themes, and research that went into each chapter was achieved through two International Authors’ Colloquia, organized as a series of workshops to discuss chapter drafts capped by plenary sessions for the full group of participants and the public, in Mexico City (2014) and Chapel Hill, North Carolina (2015). These colloquia proved to be essential for integrating the chapters into a unified volume and for building commu- nity among the forty authors, who come from different nationalities, languages, and academic traditions, Their realization was made possible through the institutional support of the Universidad Auténoma Metropolitana, Azcapotzalco, the Centro de Investigaciones y Estudios Superiores en Antropologia Social, the University of North ‘Carolina, Chapel Hill, the Consulado General de México in Raleigh, North Car the Council of American Overseas Research Centers, and the Americas Research Network, which also contributed resources for chapter translations from the generous donation of the Betty Meggers Fund. We are particularly grateful to the staff and student support of the host institutions who helped us coordinate these events: Greta de Ledn, Beatriz Riefkohl, the late Shelley Clarke, Hannah Gil, Justin Blanton, Angélica Castillo, ‘Marissa Garcia, Michael Williams, Joyce Loftin, Armando Egido, and Julio César Villar Segura, We also want to thank Romualdo L6pe# Zérate, Dean of UAM Azcapotzalco for his enthusiastic support and the address he pronounced in the opening of the collo- quium held in Mexico City; and the people who took part in the Forum on Migration and Cultural Re-Creation across Borders organized to open the second Colloquium: in Chapel Hill: Honorable Javier Diaz de Leén from the Mexican Consulate delivered the main address of the Inauguration. Fabricio Prado moderated the forum and Linda M. Rupert, Danna A, Levin Rojo, and Altha Cravey made scholarly presentations ‘of relevant topics relating to barderlands, community, and migration. Chapter 15, “Indigenous Histories in Colonial Brazil: Between Ethnocide and Ethnogenesis” is authored by the late John M, Monteira (1956-2013), John hae accepted ‘our invitation to participate in the handbook with enthusiasm, but his untimely death in April 2013 precluded the completion of the chapter that he had proposed for our book. ‘The chapter here included fits our thematic emphasis; it is previously inedited, but por- tions of the text bad been published in his essay, “Rethinking Amerindian Resistance and Persistence in Colonial Portuguese America.” in New Approaches to Resistance in Brazil ancl Mexico, edited by John Gledhill and Patience A. Schell (Durham, NC: DukeX ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ‘University Press, 2012, 25-43). We thank Duke University Press for allowing us to publish “Indigenous Histories in Colonial Brazil” in this volume and we are especially grateful to John’ literary executors Maria Helena Machado and Thomas Monteiro for graciously permitting us to publish this chapter, We are equally indebted to Hal Langfur, who first brought this text to our attention and assisted Cynthia Radding in the work of editing and adapting the essay for publication. is an honor to include it in this book en borderlands. The volume came together over a four-year period through different stages of research, writing, and rewriting, thanks to the hard work of all the authors. In the Full process of editing and formatting the texts and preparing the front and back matter, we ‘were assisted in very important ways by Michelle Aguilar Vera, Catherine Tracy Gaode, and José Manuel Moreno Vega in addition to the translators for eleven of the individual chapters, who are named together with the authors at the beginning of their respective chapters. We gratefully acknowledge the professional assistance we received from ‘Naney Toff and the editorial staff of the Oxford University Press, Finally, we express our deep appreciation to the authors, our colleagues and friends, whe agreed to join us in this adventure of thinking about borderlands in ways that connect different imperial spheresand eross national and disciplinary borders,CONTRIBUTORS Ignacio Almada Bay, Research Professor at the Colegio de Sonora and member of the ‘Mexican Sistema Nacional de Investigadores and of the Academia Mexicana de la Historia, His research areas include historiography and the political, social, and cultural history of Sonora, Almada Bay's recent publications include: with Amparo Angélica Reyes Gutiérrez and David Contreras Ténari, “Medidas ofensivas y defensivas de los vecinos de Sonoraen respuesta a lasincursiones apaches, 1854-1890," Historia Mexicana {2016}, and with Norma de Ledn Figueroa, “Las gratificaciones por cabelleras. Una tictica del gobierno del Estado de Sonora en el combate a los apaches, 1830-1880," Intersticios Sociales. Revista Semestral de Ciencias Sociales y Humanidades (2016). He vedited with José Marcos Medina Bustos the book De los margenes al centra, Sonava en Ja independencia y la revolucién: cambios y continuidades (2010). ‘Clara Bargellini received her PhD in Art History from Harvard University. She is Senior Research Fellow and Professor at the Instituto de Investigaciones Estéticas (UNAM). She has taught at the Universities of Chicago and Pennsylvania, the Institute of Fine Arts of New York University, and various Mexican and South American universities, She received the 2005 UNAM prize for Research in the Arts. Her publications include numerous articles on Jesuit and Franciscan missions, painting and sculpture in New Spain, as well as the books La arquitectura de la plata: iglestas monumentales del centro- norte de México, 1640-1750 (1991), and La catedral de Saltillo y sus imagenes (2005). Bargellini has collaborated with local communities and helped to found the Laboratorio de Diagnéstico de Obras de Arte at the Instituto de Investigaciones Estéticas. Brandon Bayne, Associate Professor of Religious Studies at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, where he teaches courses an Religion in the Americas, Borderlands, Indigenous Christianities, and Religion and Violence, His forthcoming book, Missions Begin with Blood: Salvation and Suffering in Northern New Spain, unpacks the rhetoric and rituals that helped Jesuits and indigenous communities make sense of suffering in the frontier missions of New Spain. He has published on the twentieth-century borderlands healer Teresa Urrea as well as trans-national efforts to memorialize and mobilize the legacy of Jesuit missionary Francisco Eusebio Kino in ‘Mexico, the United States, and Europe. Fernando Berrojalbiz, Researcher at the Instituto de Investigaciones Estéticas (UNAM) in Oaxaca City. His research centers on cultural landscapes, pre-contact and colonial rock art of the north of Mexico (with emphasis on Durango and the Isthmus ofxii CONTRIBUTORS ‘Tehuantepec}, and processes of decolonization. His recent publications include: the edited volume a vitalidad de las voces indigenas: arte rapestre del contacto yen soiedadles coloniales (2015), the book Paisajes y fronteras de Durango Preitispanica (2012), and “The Impact af a Colonial Road on the Rock Art of Northern Mexico” article published in the Australian journal Reck Art Research (2014), Alejandra Boza, Associate Professor of history at the Universidad de Costa Rica. Her field of research is the political, cultural, and socioeconomic interaction between states, Catholic missionaries, and indigenous communities in Costa Rica and Colombia, She holds BA and MA degrees from the Universidad de Costa Rica, and a PhD from the University of Pittsburgh, Her book La frontera indigena de la Gram Talamanca, 1840-1930 (2014) was awarded with the Premio Ancora en Historia 2013-2014 in Costa Rica, Her recent article, “Indigenous Citizenship Between Borderlands and Enelaves. Elections in Talamanca, Casta Rica, 1880-1913" was published in the Hispanic American Historical Review (2016). Amy Turner Bushnell, now retired, enjoys courtesy appointments as Adjunct Associate Professor of History at Brown University and Researcher in Residence at the John Carter Brown Library. Best known as a historian of the Iberian Borderlands, her books include The King’s Coffer: Proprictors of the Spanish Florida Treasury, 1565-1702 (a981), and Situade and Sabana: Spair's Support System for the Presidio and Mission Provinces of ‘Florida (1995). Her most-cited shorter piece is the chapter “Indigenous America and the Limits of the Atlantic World, 1493-1825," in Atlantic History: A Critical Appraisal, ed, Jack P, Greene and Philip Morgan (2009). Her current projects include a collection of her essays on comparative colonization, a new edition of God3 Protecting Providence: Janathan Dickinson’ Journal, and a book with the working title of “The Indomitable ‘Nations: Patterns of Security, Autonomy, and Domain in the Indian Americas” dana E, Conti, Researcher with the Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Cientificas y Técnicas (CONICET) in Argentina and the Unidad de Investigacion en Historia Regional is also:a Senior Professor at the Facultad de Flumanidades y Ciencias Sociales ‘af the Universidad Nacional de Jujuy, Argentina, She received her doctorate in history from the Universidad Nacional de La Plata. Her research deals with the economic and social history of the south Andean space, Her recent publications include El éxodo de 1812 (2012); Jujuy de la Revolucion de Mayo a nuestros dias. 1810-1910-2010 (2010); and the article “El puerto de La Mar en el Pacifico Sur. Vinculaciones con el interior del espacio surandino, Flujos y redes mercantiles 1827-1850," Anwario de Estudios Bolivianos, Archivisticos y Bibliograficos (2014) ‘Chantal Cramaussel, Research Professor at the Colegio de Michoacin, Mexico and ‘member of the Mexican Sistema Nacional de Investigadores, She is a founding member ‘of the Red de Historia Demografica (Mexico). Her research focuses on the settlement of the city of Chihuahua (709-1851) and the history and anthropology of the Sierra ‘Tepehuana. She is the author of Poblar la frontera. Lat provincia de Sartta Bdrbara durante [os siglos XVI. y XVHI (2006) and has published many articles on the settlementCONTRIBUTORS: of the north of New Spain. Recently, she co-edited a book about smallpox epidemics (2010) and another about measles epidemics (2017). She has been guest researcherat the ‘Clements Center of the Southern Methodist University (2007), the University of Bremen, ‘Germany (2012), and the Institut National de Démographic Historique, France (2014). Drew Edward Davies, a music historian specializing in the Spanish world of the sixteenth through early nineteenth centuries, is Associate Professor of Musicology and Director of Graduate Music Studies at Northwestern University’s Bienen School ‘of Music, as well as Academie Coordinator of the Seminario de Masica en la Nueva Espaia y el México Independiente in Mexico City. Among his publications are Santiaga Billoné: Complete Works (201), Catdlogo de la Coleceién de Miisica del Archive Historica de la Arguidiécesis de Durango (2013). articles in Music and Urban Society in Colonial Latin America (2011), and Catdlogo de las obras de miisica det Archivo del Cabildo Catedral Metropolitano de México, co-authored with Lucero Enriquez and Analia Cheritavsky (2014). Susan M, Deeds, Professor Emeritus, Northern Arizona University, received her PhD in history from the University of Arizona, She is the author of Defiasice aaid Deference in Colonial Mexico: Indians under Spanish Rule in Nueva Vizcaya (2003),and co-author with Michael C, Meyer and William L, Sherman of The Course af Mexican History, ‘6th-uith editions (1998-2018). She has published aver 3o articles in professional journals and scholarly anthologies on the colonial history and ethnohistory of northern ‘Mexico in the thematic areas of ethnic, gender, socioeconomic, and cultural history. Her current boak project is entitled "No Fear of Flying: Mischief, Gender, and Interethnic Relations in a Northern Frontier Community of New Spain. José Refugio de la Torre Curiel, Professor in the Department of History at the ‘Universidad de Guadalajara, Mexico received his PhD in History from the University of California, Berkeley. His research focuses on interethnic contacts in northwest New ‘Spain, the Franciscan order in colonial Mexico, and the connections between male religious orders and the history of cartography. He has published articles in academic journals and chapters in collective volumes. He is the author of Vicarios en entredicho. (Crisis y desestructuracién de la provincia franciscana de Santiago de Xalisco, 1749-1860 (2001); Twilight of the Mission Frontier: Shifting Intereihnic Alliances and Social ‘Organization in Sonara, 1768-1855 (2012); and editor of Expansi6n territorial y formacién de espacios de poder en la Nueva Espafia (2016). Pilar Garcia Jordin, Professor of History of the Americas at the Universidad de Bareclona isthe director of the Tallerde Estudiose Investigaciones Andino-Amazénicos (TEIAA). She has also served as a visiting professor in various European and Latin American Universities. Her research focuses on the construction of the Latin American nation-state, nationalization policies in the lowlands of Pera and Bolivia, the Functions played by Catholic missions (in particular in Guarayos), and representations of the eastefn regions of Bolivia. Among other monographs, she is the author of 7 Estado propane, los carai disponen y los guarayos devienen ciudadanos, 1939-1953. El impacto dexiv CONTRIBUTORS Ja secttlarizacién en Guarayos (2015); "Yo soy libre y no indio: soy guarayo:” Para una historia de Guarayos, 1790-1948 (2006), and Cruz y arado, fusiles y discursos, La construcetén de los Orientes en ef Pert y Bolivia, 1820-1940 (2001). ‘Christophe Giudicelli studied at the Ecole Normale Supérieure (Paris), Once amember of the CEMCA (Mexico) and the Casa de Velazquez (Madrid), he is now Researcher at the CNRS and Professor af the Rennes 2 University (France). He is Director of the Nueva Mundo. Mundos Nuevos journal and specializes on the Hispanic American colonial frontiers, particularly Tucumdn and Nueva Vircaya. His research deals with warfare, indigenous autonomy and colonial classifications. Author of Pour une géopolitique de la guerre cles Tepehtecies (1616-1619) (2003), he edited Fronteras movedizas. Clasificactones coloniales y dindmicas socioculturales en las fronteras americanas (2010) and coedited (with Gilles Havard and Salvador Bernabéu) La indiantzaciéin, Cautivos, renegados, misioneros y chommes librese en los confines americanos (Sigles XVI-XVILD) (2012), and (with Paula Lépez Caballero} Régimes nationanx daltérité. Etats-nation et altérités autochtones en Amérique latine, 1810-1950 (2016). Catherine Tracy Goode graduated from the University of Arizona with a dissertation ‘on the central role of New Spain (Mexico) in the world economy of the early modern period, Her “Merchant-Bureaucrats, Unwritten Contracts, and Fraud in the Manila Galleon Trade,” was published by the University of New Mexico Press in the volume Greedy Officials, Whiny Subjects, and Atlantic Networks. Currently she is preparing the manuscript “Family, Frand, and Fortunes: Extended Family Networks in the Eighteenth- Century Global Economy.” As an independent consultant and research advisor with archival experience in Spain, Mexico, the United States, and the Philippines, she works in libraries and manuscript collections dating from the sixteenth to twentieth centuries. Anna Guiteras Mombiola is currently a postdoctoral researcher at Universitat Pompeu Fabra. She holds a PhD in History from Universitat de Barcelona, and in 2014-2016 she was a postdoctoral fellow at Universitat zu Kéln, Her research focuses on the colonization of the Bolivian Amazon, the changes that occurred in native societies perceived as civilized due to their insertion inte the new liberal and republican order, and educational projects designed to promote the incorporation of certain ethnic ‘groups into national society. Author of the book De los Hanas de Mojos a las cachuelas del Beni, 1842-1938. Canflictos locales, recursos naturales y participacién indigena en la Amazonia boliviana (2012), she has also published articles in specialized journals and chapters in collective works, Marie-Areti Hers received a PhD in Archaeology and Art History from the Université Libre de Bruxelles, Belgium. She is Researcher at the Instituto de Investigaciones Estéticas (UNAM) and Professor at the Pasgrado en Historia del Arte (UNAM), specialized on the north of Mesoamerica. She has contributed research on archaeology and rock art to several interdisciplinary projects, Currently she coordinates the project Arte rupestve y la voz de las comunidades. Among her most recent publications are “De perros pelones, buzos y Spondylus. Una historia continental” (20x6), and “DeCONTRIBUTORS xv ‘Teotihuacan al cafién de Chac : nueva perspectiva sobre las relaciones entre ‘Mesoamérica y el suraeste de los Estados Unidas” (2011), both in Anales del Instituto de Investigaciones Estéticas, She also co-edited with José Luis Punzo Historia de Durango, vol. 1: Epoca antigua (2010), ‘Mary Karasch, Professor of History emerita at Qakland University in Rochester, Michigan where she taught until 2010, received her doctorate from the University of Wisconsin. She also taught at Catholic University, Washington, DC (1981-1983), Universidade de Brasilia (1977-1978), and Universidade Federal de Gots (1993, 1996). Her principal publication is Slave Life in Ria de Janeiro, 1808-1850 (A vide das escravos no Rio de Janeiro, 4808-1850) (1987). Her new book, Before Brasilia: Frontier Life in Central Brazil (2016), traces the social evolution of the states.of Goias and Tocantins from a colonial society characterized by enslavement and conquest to one integrated by a predominantly free population of calor alang with autonomous indigenous nations ‘Hal Langfur, Associate Professor of history at the University at Buffalo (SUNY), completed his PhD at the University of Texas at Austin. He is the author of The Forbidden Lands: Colonial Identity, Frontier Violence, and the Persistence of Brazifs Eastern Indians, 41750-1830 (2006) and the editor of Native Brazil: Beyorid the Convert and the Cannibal, 41500-1900 (2014). His current research focuses on wilderness expeditions and the projection of Portuguese power in the Brazilian interior during the late colonial period, Danna A. Levin Rojo, Research Professor at the Universidad Auténama Metropolitana, ‘Campus Azcapotzalco, México, received a BA degree in history from the Universidad Nacional Auténoma de México and a PhD in social anthropology from the Londen School of Economics and Political Science, United Kingdom. Her research interests include transculturation in the Spanish American colonial borderlands and interethnic relations in the United States Southwest, with emphasis on contemporary New Mexico. She is the author of Return to Aztlan: ladiaus, Spaniards, and the Iwveution of Nueva México (2014) and coeditor, among other books, of Las vias def noroeste Ill: genealogias, transversalidades y convergencias (2012) and Los grupos nativas del septentridn novohispana nite la independencia de México, 1810-1847 (2010). Kristin Dutcher Mann, Professor of History and Social Studies Education Coordinator at the University of Arkansas at Little Rock, is the author of The Power of Song: Music and Dance in the Mission Communities of Northern New Spain, 1590-1810 (2010), She has also published articles on music and teaching, colonial celebrations for Easter and ‘Christmas, and music in the Franciscan and Jesuit orders. Sean F, McEnroe, Associate Professor at Southern Oregon history of religion, ideology, and state formation in the Atlantic world. He is the author ‘of From Colony to Nationhood in Mexico: Laying the Foundations, 1560-1840 (2012), a work which describes the gradual integration of European and indigenous governance, and the origins of Mexican citizenship. His publications have explored the culture and politics of violence in the frontier spaces of Mexico, the United States, and thexvi CONTRIBUTORS Philippines. He is currently writing a comparative history of indigenous leadership thin Europe's multi-ethnic American empires. José Marcos Medina Bustos, Research Professor at the Colegio de Sonora is a member of the Red Nacional de Historia Demogrifica, the Red de Estudios Historicos del Noroeste, and the Sistema Nacional de Investigadores, México. His research interests include historiography and the political, social, and demographic history of Sonora from. 1750 to 1850. Editor of the book Vielencia interétaica en la frontera norte novohispana y mexicana. Sighs XVII-XIX (2015). he recently published “De las elecciones ala rebelién. Respuestas de los indigenas de Sonora al liberalismo, 1812-1836," in Pueblos indigenas de Latinoamérica. Incorporacién, conflicto, ciudadania y representacidn, Siglo XIX (2015), and “Entre el informe moderno y el discurso tradicional. Representaciones sobre la poblacién en la intendencia de Ariape, 1792" in Expansién territorial y formacién de espacias de poder en la Nueva Espafia (2016). Izabel Missagia de Mattos, Associate Professor of Anthropology at the Universidade Federal Rural do Rio de Janeiro, teaches graduate and postgraduate courses in the fields of History and Social Sciences. She has authored a book titled Civilizagdo ¢ Revolta: Os Botocudos e a Catequese na Provincia de Minas (2004). This work, awarded by the National Association of Past-graduation and Research in Social Sciences (ANPOCS, 2003), is the fruit of her dactoral researeh at the Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Brazil. She is presently investigating, with a grant from the Rio de Janeiro Foundation for Research Support (Fundagio de Apoio a Pesquisa do Rio de Janeiro}, processes related to social memory, cultural heritage and landscapes of the indigenous peoples of ‘Minas Gerais, Elizabeth Montanez-Sanabria is a historian by the Pontificia Universidad Catélica del Peri, also holding an MA and PhD in history by the University of California, D: She specializes in colonial Latin American history, transatlantic networks and empires in early modern times. She was recipient of several fellowships, including the University ‘of California Pacific Rim Research Program, the Grant for Research in Atlantic History from Harvard University, and the Reed-Smith Dissertation Year Fellowship to the most promising dissertation at UC Davis History Department. She was Ahmanson- Getty Postdoctoral Fellow at the UCLA Center for 17th & 18th Century Studies and was postdoctoral researcher at the Instituta de Historia of the Pontificia Universidad Catélica de Valparaiso, Chile John M, Monteiro was, until his untimely death in 2013, Professor of Anthropology at the Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Brazil. He authored Negros da Tern: Indios ¢ Bandeirantes nas Origens de Sto Paulo (1994), « seminal contribution to Brazilian indigenous history, and Guia de Fontes para a Histéricr Indigena e do Indigenisrio em Arquivos Brasileiros: Acervos das Capitais (1994). A leading authority on the lowland Indians of South America, he published dozens of articles and chapters in Brazilian, Portuguese, US. and British journals and edited collections. Generous in his service to the field and his mentoring of students, he directed his university's Instituto de FilosofiaCONTRIBUTORS — xvii Cigncias Humanas and chaired its Anthropology Department while supervising more than two dozen doctoral dissertations and masters’ theses. Martha Ortega Soto received her PhD in Humanities-History from Universidad Auténoma Metropolitana, Campus [ztapalapa, México, Since 1989 she is Research Professor at the same University. Ortega has researched the colonization of Northwestern America and the frontiers of the Spanish and Russian empires in that region. From 2000 she has conducted research in the history of science and technology, having participated in the organization of Manuel Sandoval Vallarte's personal archive housed at the campus of UAM-Letapalapa. Her scholarship is ariented to world history, over long time periods and in extended regions. Her published books and articles cover Spanish and Russian colonization in northwestern America and the history of physics Fabricio Prado, Associate Professor of History at the College of William and Mary, teaches classes on Colonial Latin America and the Atlantic World, His research focuses ‘on cross-border dynamics, social networks, commerée, contraband trade, and corruption in the South American Cono Sur, He isthe author of Colonia do Sacramento: o extrema sul da América portuguese (2002), and Edge of Empire: Atlantic Netwarks and Revolution in Bourbon Rio de Ja Plaia (2015). Prado has been a research fellow at the Instituto de Historia Nacional y Americana Emilio Ravignani, Buenos Aires, Argentina; a member of the International Seminar for the History ofthe Atlantic World at Harvard University, and has held fellowships at the Schoo! of History of the University of Saint Andrews, Seotland; the Lilly Library, and the John Carter Brown Library. Cynthia Radding is the Gussenhoven Distinguished Professor of Latin American Studies and History at the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill. Her research and teaching on Iberoamerican frontiers during the colonial and early national perinds focus on the intersection of environmental and social history through interdisciplinary methodologies. Her publications include Landscapes of Powerand Identity: Comparative Histories in the Sonoran Desert and the Forests of Amazonia from Colony to Republic (2005); she is co-editor with Paul Readman and Chad Bryant of Borderlaads irr World History (Palgrave, 2014). Radding has published articles in Hispanic American Historical Review, The Americas, Boletin Americanista, and Latin American Research Review as well as numerous chapters in collaborative publications in Mexico, Bolivia, the US., and Europe, Andrés Reséndez, Professor of History at the University of California, Davis earned his BA in International Relations at El Colegio de México in Mexico City and his MA and PD in History at the University of Chicago. His books include Cianging National Identities at the Frontier (2005), A Land So Strange (2007), and most recently The Other Slavery: The Uncovered Stary of Indian Enslavement its America (2016), Heather F Roller, Associate Professor of History at Colgate University is currently writing a book on the political choices and motivations of independent Indians in the interior of Brazil during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Her first book,xviii CONTRIBUTORS Amazonian Routes: lndigenous Mobility and Colonial Communities in Northern Brazil (2014), won the Howard F Cline Memorial Prize from the Conference on Latin American History and the Roberto Reis Book Award from the Brazilian Studies Association, Linda M, Rupert, Associate Professor of History at the University of North Carolina, Greensboro, teaches courses on the Atlantic World and Caribbean history. She is the author of Creolization and Contraband: Curagao in the Early Modern Atlantic World (2012), and has published articles in, among others, Itinerario, Slavery and Abolition, and numerous edited volumes. She is the recipient of fellowships at the John Carter Brown Library and the National Humanities Center. Tatiana Seijas, Associate Professor of History at Rutgers University received her PhD from Yale University. Her first monograph, Asian Slaves in Colanial Mexico: From Chinos ta Indians (2014) won the Berkshire Conference Book Prize for 2014. She is currently working on a baok project about indigenous trade routes in early North America, Her specializations include: Mexican history, early modern economics, global Spanish empire, seventeenth-century Philippine Islands, slavery, borderlands, and nineteenth- century US Mexico relations. Cecilia Sheridan Prieto, Senior Researcher at the Centro de Investigaciones y Estudios Superiores en Antropolagia Social, Northeast Region, Mexico received her doctorate in history from the Colegio de México. Her research focus is on colonization and indigenous territorialities in the northeast of New Spain, She has published numerous articles and chapters in edited volumes as well as two books: Andmimos y desterrados. La contienda por el “sitio que llaman de Quauyta” (2000), and Fronterizacién del espacia hacia el norte de la Nueva Espasa (2015). She is a member of the Academia Mexicana de Ciencias and the Mexican Sistema Nacional de Investigadores. In 2016 she received the Premio Atanasio G, Sarabia, granted by the Fundacién Cultural Banamex for the best professional research on regional history. Juan Carlos Salérzano Fonseca, Research Professor retired fram the Escuela de Historia and the Centro de Investigaciones Histéricas de América Central, Universidad de Costa Rica, is a member af the Academia de Geografia ¢ Historia de Costa Riea. He received his doctorate from the Ecole des Hautes Etudes en Sciences Sociales, ‘Université de Paris and was later a Fulbright scholar at Tulane University. His research interests include the economic history of Costa Rica (1570-1821), indigenous populations of the Casta Rican borderlands, and the borderlands of Central America, The following books are among his most recent publications: Los indigenas en ia frontera de la colonizacidn; Costa Rica 1502-1930(2013), and América Antigua: los pueblos precolombinos desde cf pablamiento original hasta las inicios de la conguista espartola (2010). Barbara A. Sommer, Professor of History and Johnson Distinguished Professor in the Humanities at Gettysburg College, has published on Amazonian history in the following journals: Slavery & Abolition; The Americas: A Quarterly Review of LatinCONTRIBUTORS — xix American History; Journal of Latin American Studies, and Colonial Latin American Historical Review: Her essays in edited collections include “The Amazonian Native Nobility in Late-Colonial Para.” in Native Brazil: Beyond the Convert and the Cannibal (2014),and "Wigs, Weapons, Tattoos, and Shoes: Getting Dressed in Colonial Amazonia and Brazil’ in The Politics of Dress in Asia and the Americas (2007). She received a PhD in History with an Anthropology minor from the University of New Mexico and has been awarded research fellowships by the Fundagie Luso- Americana, the John Carter Brown Library, and the Fulbright Commission Maria Ximena Urbina Carrasco received her doctorate from the Universidad de Sevilla and is now Professor at the Institute de Historia of the Pontificia Universidad Catélica de Valparaiso, Chile. She conducts research on the southern borderlands of Chile in ‘the colonial period, Besides her more than 30 articles and chapters in edited volumes, she has published La frontera ‘de arriba” en Chile Colonial, intecaccién hispano-indligena en el territorio entre Valdivia y Chiloé, ¢ imaginario de sus bordes geogrificas, 1600-1800 (2009), and Fuentes para la Historia de la Patagonia Occidental, siglos XVI-y XVI (2014). She has received the Miguel Cruchaga Tocornal Prize, from the Academia Chilena de la Historia, and the Historia Colonial Silvio Zavala Prize, from the Instituto Panamericano de Geografia ¢ Historia, Dana Velasco Murillo, Associate Professor of History at the University of California, San Diego focuses her research on recovering the voices of native peoples and women in colonial northern Mexica, She is the author of Urban Indians in a Silver City: Zacatecas, Mexico, 1s46-1810 (2016), and the co-editor of City Indians in Spain’ American Empire: Urban Indigenous Society in Colonial Mesoamerica and Andean South Amerie, 1530-1810 (ao14). Velasco Murillo’ published work also appears in the Hispanic American Historical Review and Ethnohistory, Her current research project considers New Spain’ sixteenth century frontier wars and peacemaking campaigns from the perspectives of nansedentary native peoples, Guillermo Wilde, researcher of the Consejo Nacional de Investigacion Cientifica (CONICET), Argentina, is Associate Professor at the Universidad Nacional de San ‘Martin, Buenos Aires. He obtained his PhD in Anthropology from the Universidad de Buenos Aires. His book Religién y poder en las misiones guaranies (2009) garnered the Latin American Association Studies Premio Iberoamericano Book Award (2010). Wilde edited Saberes de la conversién. jesuitas, indigenas e imperios coloniales en las fronteras de la cristiandad (201), and has published articles on indigenous history, colonial art and music, and Jesuit missions in South America. He has received fellowships from the Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research, the National Museum of Rio de Janeiro (Brazil), the Alexander von Humbaldt Foundation (Germany), and the National Museum of Ethnology (Japan). Jason M, Yaremko, professar of history who teaches in the Department of History and in the Faculty of Education Access program: at the University of Winnipeg. His scholarship focuses on ethnohistory with a strong interest in comparative colonization, borderlands,XX CONTRIBUTORS and indigenous and cultural history in the Americas. His current work engages several lines of research including indigenaus diaspora and transculturation, extinetion tropes, and indigenous identity, sovereignty, and cultural persistence. He is author of Indigenous Passages fo Cuba, 1515-1900 (2016) and a number of publications on colonization and indigenous peoples in North America, Cuba, and the Circum-Caribbean, Ines G. Zupanoy, Senior Research Fellow at the Centre National de la Recherche ‘Scientifique in Paris is the current director of the Centre détudes de l’Inde/TAsie du Sud (CNRS-EHESS). She és a social/cultural historian of Catholic missions in South Asia and hasalso worked on other topics related to Portuguese empire. Her latest monograph co-written with Angela Barreto Xavier is Catholic Orientalism; Portuguese Empire, Indian Knowledge, 16"-18" Centuries (2015). She has coedited six books and her articles in various languages are published in edited books and journals like Indian Economic and Social History Review, Archives de sciences sociales des religions, Journal of Early Modern History, or RES: Anthropology and Esthetics. Editorial assistant: Michelle Aguilar Vera, independent photographer and researcher. She recently eo- authored with Danna Levin Rojo "El registro audiovisual del Poema terbano de Grupo Margo: las posibilidades de la practica estética como micropolitica y etnagrafia,” in Variaciones sobre cine etnografica: entre la dacumertacién antropoldgica y la experimentacién estética (2017).AHILA, AMS ANH ANPOCS, ANPUH-SP APCOB ASUR BUAP CBC CEADUC CEDEAM ‘CEDEFES ‘CEGRAF-UFG CEH-Colmex ABBREVIATIONS Archivo y Biblioteca Nacionales de Bolivia, Sucre (Bolivia) Agencia de Espafiola de Cooperacin Internacional, Madrid (Spain) Archivo General de la Naciin, Mexico City (Mexico) Archive General de la Nacién, Buenos Aires (Argentina) American Historical Association, Washington (United States) Asociaciéa de Historiadores Latinoamericanistas Europeos (Spain) Archive Municipal de Saltillo, Saltillo (Mexico) Academia Nacional de la Historia de la Republica Argentina, Buenos Aires (Argentina) Associagao Nacional de Pés-Graduagao e Pesquisa em Ciancias Saciais, S80 Paulo (Brazil) Associagao Nacional de Historia Segdo $40 Paulo, $40 Paulo (Brazil) Apoya para el Campesino Indigena de Oriente, Santa Cruz de la Sierra (Bolivia) Fundacién para la Investigacin Antropoldgica y el Etnodesarrollo “Antropélogos del Sur Andino” Sucre (Bolivia) Benemérita Universidad Autonoma de Puebla, Puebla (Mexico) Centro de Estudios Regionales Andinos “Bartolomé de Las Casas" Cuzce (Peru) Ceniro de Estudios Antropoldgicos de la Universidad Catdlica, Asuncién (Paraguay) Comissio de Documentagao e Estudos da Amazénia (Brazil) Ceniro de documentagio Eloy Ferreira da Silva, Belo Horizonte (Brazil) Centro Editorial e Grifico-Universidade Federal de Gots, Godinia (Brazil) Centro de Estudios Historicos del Colegio de México, Mexica City (Mexico)xxii ABBREVIATIONS CEIC CEMCA CEPAG ‘CEPG CIDDEBENI ‘CIESAS ‘CIPCA ‘CIRMA ‘CISINAH ‘CMIN Chile ‘CNCDP ‘CONACULTA ‘CONARTE ‘CONICET CRAEG GC DESCO, DIBAM EDUFPA EDUFRN EDUSC EDUSP EEHA Centro de Estudios Indigenas y Coloniales, Jujuy (Argentina) Centro de Estudios Mexicanos y Centroamericanos, Mexico City (Mexica} Centro de Estudins Paraguayos Antonia Guasch, Asuncién (Paraguay) Centro de Estudias Politicos y Constitucionales, Madrid (Spain) Centro de Investigacién y Documentacién para el Desarrollo del Beni, Trinidad (Bolivia) Centro de Investigacién y Estudios Superiores en Antropologia Social (Mexico) Centro de Investigacién y Promocién del Campesinado, La Paz, (Bolivia) Centro de Investigaciones Regionales de Mesoamérica, Antigua (Guatemala) Centro de Investigaciones Superiores del Instituto Nacional de Antrapologia ¢ Historia, Mexico City (Mexico) Consejo de Monumentos Nacionales de Chile, Santiago (Chile) Comissio Nacional para as Comemoragoes dos Descobrimentos Partugueses, Lisbon (Portugal) Consejo Nacional para la Cultura y las Artes, Mexico City (Mexico) Consejo para la Cultura y las Artes de Nuevo: Leén, Monterrey (Mexico) Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Cientificas y Técnicas (Argentina) Centre de Recherche sur’ Amérique Espagnole Coloniale, Paris (France) Consejo Superior de Investig. ones Cientificas, Seville (Spain) Centro de Estudios y Promacidn del Desarrollo, Arequipa (Peru) Direccién de Bibliotecas, Archivos y Museos de Chile, Santiago (Chile) Editora da Universidade Federal do Pari, Pard (Brazil) Editora da Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte, Nata (Brazil) Episcopal Diocese of Upper South Carolina, South Carolina (United States) Editora da Universidade de Sie Paulo, Sio Paulo (Brazil) Escuela de Estudios Hispanoamericanos, Seville (Spain)EHESS EUG EUCR EUNA, EUNED FAPESP: FUNAL 1A-UNAM EHC TEHS TEP IFCH-UNICAMP IFEA THGB THGES THGMS, THGU THSI IAP TIA-UNAM qIcT HE-UNAM IIGHI-CONICET ABBREVIATIONS — xxiii Ecole des Hautes Etudes en Sciences Sociales, Paris (France) Ediciones Universidad Catélica de Chile, Santiago (Chile) Editorial de la Universidad de Casta Rica, San José (Costa Rica) Editora Universidad Estatal, Heredia (Costa Rica) Editorial de la Universidad Estatal a Distancia, San José (Costa Rica) Fundagao de Amparo a Pesquisa do Estado de So Paulo, Sao Paulo (Brazil) Fundagio Nacional de Indio, Brasilia (Brazil) Instituto de Astronomia de la Universidad Nacional Autonoma de México, Mexico City (Mexico) Instituto de Estudios Hispanicos de Canarias, Tenerife (Spain) Instituto de Estudios Histérice Sociales de la Universidad, Nacional del Centro de la Provincia de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Tandil (Argentina) Instituto de Estudios Peruanos, Lima (Peru) Instituto de Filosofia ¢ Ciéncias Humanas da Universidade Estadual de Campinas (Brazil) Instituto Francés de Estudios Andinos, Lima (Peru) Brazilian Geographical and Historical Institute, Rio de Janeiro (Brazil) Instituto Historico © Geografico do Espi Santo (Brazil) Instituto Histérico © Geogrifico do Mato Grosso de Sul Santo, Espirito (Brazil) Instituto Histérico y Geogrdfico del Uruguay, Montevideo (Uruguay) Institutum F wicum Societ lesu, Rome (Italy) Instituto de Investigaciones de la Amazonia Peruana, Tquitos (Peru) Instituto de Investigaciones Antropolagicas de la Universidad Nacional Aut6noma de México, Mexico City (Mexico) Instituto de Investigagio Cientifica Tropical, Lisbon (Portugal) Instituto de Investigaciones Estéticas de la Universidad Nacional Autonoma de México, Mexico City (Mexico) Instituto de Investigaciones Geohistéricas del Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Cientificas y Téer (Argentina)xxiv ABBREVIATIONS UH-UMSNH_ IH-UJED IH-UNAM, IIS-UNAM AH ILAM IMSS INAH INBA INT 1OMP IPHG IRD ITESM TUNA IWGIA JHU LACED LSU MI MIT MSH MUNAL. NHIL OECD PIEB Instituto de Investigaciones Historicas de Ia Universidad Michoacana de San Nicolas de Hidalgo, Morelia (Mexico) Instituto de Investigaciones Histéricas de Ia Universidad Juarez del Estado de Durango, Durango (Mexico) Instituto de Investigaciones Historicas de la Universidad Nacional Autonoma de México, Mexico City (Mexico) Instituto de Investigaciones Sociales de la Universidad Nacional Autonoma de México, Mexico City (Mexico) Instituto Jaliciense de Antropologia ¢ Historia, Guadalajara (Mexico) Instituto Latinoamericano de Muscos y Parques, San José (Costa Rica) Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social, Mexico City (Mexico) Instituto Nacional de Antropologis ¢ Historia (Mexico) Instituto Nacional de Bellas Artes, Mexice City (Mexico) Instituto Nacional Indigenista, Mexico City (Mexico) Imprensa Oficial do Estado de Minas Gerais, Minas Gerais (Brazil) Instituto Panamericano de Geografia ¢ Historia, Mexi City (Mexico) Instituto de Investigacion para ef Desarrollo (France) Instituto Tecnoldgico de Estudios Superiores de Monterrey, Monterrey (Mexico) Instituto Universitario Nacional de Artes, Buenos Aires (Argentina), International Work Group for Indigeno pus Affairs ‘The Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore (United States) Laboratdrio de Pesquisas em Etnicidade, Cultura ¢ Desenvolvimento (Brazil) Louisiana State University, Louisiana (United States) Museo do Indio, Rie de Janeiro (Brazil) Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press, Cambridge (United States) Editions de la Maison des Sciences de Homme, Paris (France) ‘Museo Nacional de Arte, Mexico City (Mexico) Nicleo de Hist6ria Indigena e do Indigenismo- Universidade de Sao Paulo (Brazil) Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development Programa de Investigacién Estratégica én Bolivia (Bolivia)PUC PUCP PUCY PUMS PUPS PUR SAR ‘SBH SEP SGAE SMGE, SRE SUNY TEIAA UABC ‘UABCS UAC] UAEM UAGRM UAM UAT UAZ UBA UCA UCE UeG UCG UCN UdG ‘UERI ABBREVIATIONS — XxV Pontificia Universidad Catélica de Chile, Santiago (Chile) Pontificia Universidad Catélica del Perti, Lima (Peru) Pontificia Universidad Catélica de Valparaiso, Valparaiso (Chile) Presses Universitaires de Marne-la-Vallée (France) Presses de l'université Paris-Sorbonne, Paris (France) Presses Universitaires de Rennes (France) School of American Research (now School for Advanced Research), Santa Fe (United States) Sociedad Boliviana de Historia (Bolivia) Seeretaria de Educacién Publica, Mexico City (Mexico) Sociedad General de Autores y Editores, Madrid (Spain) Sociedad Mexicana de Geografia y Estadistica, Mexico City (Mexico) Secretaria de Relaciones Exteriares, Mexico City (Mexico) State University of New York, New York (United States} Taller de Estudios e Investigaciones Andine-Amazénicos (Spain) Universidad Auténoma de Baja California, Baja California (Mexico) Universidad Autonoma de Baja California Sur, La Paz (Mexico) Universidad Auténoma de Ciudad Juarez, Ciudad Juarez (Mexico) Universidad Auténoma del Estado de México, Toluca (Mexico) Universidad Auténoma Gabriel René Moreno, Santa Cruz de la Sierra (Bolivia) Universidad Autonoma Metropolitana, Mexico City (Mexico) Universidad Autonoma de Tlaxcala, Tlaxcala (Mexico) Universidad Auténoma de Zacatecas, Zacatecas (Mexico) Universidad de Buenos Aites, Buenos Aires (Argentina) Universidad Catélica Nuestra Sefiora de la Asuncién, Asuncion (Paraguay) Universidade Catdlica Editora, Lisbon (Portugal) Unidade Central Gestora, Brasilia (Brazil) Universidade Catolica de Goiis, Goidnia (Brazil) Universidad Catélica del Norte, Antofagasta (Chile) Universidad de Guadalajara, Guadalajara (Mexico) Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro (Brazil)xxvi ABBREVIATIONS ‘UEBA UFG UEMG UEMT ‘UEPB ‘UFRO UGA ‘UJED UMSA, ‘UMSNH UNAM, ‘UnB UNG ‘UNCPBA UNCUYO ‘UNESP UNICAMP UNICEN UNISINOS UNIVALE, UNM UNNE uNQ UNS UPB use. Salvador (Brazil) Universidade Federal de Goids, Goiania (Brazil). Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Minas Gerais (Brazil) Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso, Culaba (Brazil) Universidade Federal da Paraiba, Paraiba (Brazil) Universidad de La Frontera, Temuco (Chile) University of Georgia Press, Athens (United States) Universidad Juarez del Estado de Durango, Durango (Mexico) Universidad del Museo Social Argentino, Buenos Aires (Argentina) Universidad Michoacana de San Nicolas de Hidalgo, (Mexico) ad Nacional Auténoma de México, Mexico City (Mexico) Editora Universidade de Brasilia, Brasilia (Brazil) University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill (United States) Universidad Nacional del Centro de la Provincia de Buenos Aires, Tandil (Argentina) Universidad Nacional de Cuyo, Mendoza (Argentina) Uni jade Estadual Paulista “Jilie de Mesquita Filho!’ Sio Paulo (Brazil) Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Campinas (Brazil) Universidad Nacional del Centro de la Provincia de Buenos Aires, Tandil (Argentina) Universidade Vale do Rio dos Si an Leopoldo/Rs (Brazil) Uni jade Vale do Rio Dace (Brazil) University of New Mexica Press, Albuquerque (United States) Universidad Nacional del Nordeste, Corrientes (Argentina) Universidad Nacional de Quilmes, Quilmes (Argentina) Universidad Nacional del Sur, Bahia Blanca (Argentina) Editorial Universidad Pontificia Bolivariana, Bogota (Colombia) Universidade de Sao Paulo, S40 Paulo (Brazil)aap 1 Rival imperial claimsin the Americas, 16th to 18th centuriesean 2. Native tho groups North America, 1h oa coturies Copyrighted materialMAW 8, Navth Amerie: es, apes elements oad, ew th cence Copyrighted materialMAP 4. Native ethnic groups of South America, 16th to 18th centuriesPACIEIC oceax Map 5. South America: cities, villages, settlements and trade routes, 16th to 18th centuriesaw 6. Comel America and the Caribbean Copyrighted materialINTRODUCTION Borderlands, A Working Definition DANNA A. LEVIN ROJO AND CYNTHIA RADDING ‘Tue field of study known commonly as borderlands has developed over a century with a wide range of meanings applied to cultural and societal differences as well as to the political economy of empires, Innovative work on borderlands in different geographical regions in recent decades conceives of borderlandsas lived spaces rather than boundaries dividing social, economic, or political entities. This concept of borderlands transcends the notion of demarcation lines between territories that are subjected to particular political sovereignties and, therefore, primarily defined in regard to “issues of access, mobility and belonging,” as framed by Alexander C. Diener and Joshua Hagen. Borderlands have been historically unstable and indeterminate zones where no clear dlemarcations exist, not simply areas adjacent to frontiers that signpost clear-cut juris- dictional limits, which are often thought of in terms of the eflects af border-crossing regulations or fixed rights and identities within the framework of modernity and the state.” In this sense, borderlandsare best understood as diffuse spaces produced through historical processes of contestation, adaptation and admixture among different peoples, within specific temporal and geographical frameworks. ‘These spaces become borderfands in three important ways; where two or more spheres of hegemony, claiming rights to the resources available and the control af people, limit each other and frequently overlap; where two or more groups of peaple with different cultures and modes of life intermingles and where the prevailing ecological conditions represent a challenge to particular forms of human habitetion thereby conditioning the way in which people organize their livelihood, or where the natural environments are undergoing modifications resulting from the productive and settle- ment practices of the peoples who inhabit them, as with the introduction of animals and plants in many regions in the Americas bath before and after European intrusion, Such a perspective allows far a broad approach to borderlands as it can be applied to time2 BORDERLANDS OF THE IBERIAN WORLD periods predating the modern nation-state as well as to areas not standing at the limits between two political states or imperial spheres. It is therefore better fitted tw the Amerindian world and to the era and character of dynastic realms and early Iberian ‘empires than the concept of national boundaries or limits, with all their implications,” Drawing on theorists from historical sociology, cultural geography, and anthropology, the vision of borderlands offered here is fundamentally grounded in the rich and grow- ing body of historical and cross-disciplinary studies for the Americas. Historians ‘working in both North and South America provide important insights forthe definition cf Iberian borderlands and the analysis of the social and economic phenomena that characterize them, such as weak law enforcement, widespread contraband, enslavement and other forms of forced labor, ambivalent and negotiated political loyalties, and the emergence of new identities among both indigenous and European subjects as well as, the persistence of ethnic enclaves within or on the peripheries of colonial societies.* As a recognized field in North American scholarship, borderlands has its origin in Herbert F, Bolton's 1921 work on the United States frontier region with Mexico that ‘was once Spanish: mainly New Mexico, Texas, Arizona, California, and Florida. Other contemporaries of Bolton and historians of later generations followed this line; like Hubert H, Bancroft at the end of the nineteenth century, they all stressed the character ‘of this region asa fringe area close to the extreme limit of the Spanish empire in North America." They saw this asa peripheral territory over which the hold of imperial economic and political control advanced from the late sixteenth ta the early nineteenth century yet it was always weak and constantly contested as it was far remaved geographically from cosmopolitan seats of viceregal power. Among Hispanophone scholars in Latin America, historian Silvio Zavala and sociologist Hebe Clementi developed the concept ‘of borderlands as frontera, a frontier that transcended the modern nation-state.” ‘Current scholarship on borderlands history has evolved for areas elsewhere in the continent, encompassing what Pekka Hamilainen and Benjamin H, Johnson have fined as the subject matter of North American borderlands history: zones of everyday “interaction between different peoples, empires and nations.” ‘Thus, border- Jands studies do not focus on discrete nations, ethnic groups or peaple, but on places of encounter “that exist in between colonial empires and indigenous territories, literate and non-literate societies, nation-statesand non-state societies” From this abundant literature oul can be concluded that borderlands arise historically with a strong environmental component, as in the arctic tundra, the arid lands of the North American Great Plains and deserts, the tropical lowlands of Amazonia, of the grasslands of the South American pampas and Patagonia, Natural conditions of climate, topography, and hydrology are integral components of borderlands, but they do not create borderlands in and of themselves. Like any other space, understood not enly in the physical level as the empirical disposition of things and human relations within a certain area, but also in the abstract level of discursive representation about people's placement in the world, borderlands are socially produced.” They emerge and take shape with historical variability, both through the strategies devised by discrete human societies for their cultural and physical survival or for their economic and territorialINTRODUCTION 3 aggrandizement, and through the representations constructed by the different ethnic groups that come into contactas a result of such processes. In 1976, the anthropologist Roberto Cardoso de Oliveira coined the term “contact culture" for this kind of ideological construct, in terms of which peoples immersed in a contact situation classify themselves and the others, and act accordingly.'° Cardoso studied this phenomenon for late modern times, in ways that are not exclusive to the borderlands since inter-ethnic contact occurs in other contexts such as diasporas or even in contiguous spaces like urban settlements, Nevertheless, the concepts of contact culture and borderlands fiteach other, because contact culture did evalve among actors from different ethnic groups that first encountered one another at the geographical ‘ed ges of early colonial empiresin the Americas. Moreover, it regularly far making with legitimizing arguments, planning assumptions, and guiding pri both for the borderlands themselves and for regions not yet subdued that stood as colonizing targets in the horizon ahead, In a dramatic but widespread example, as Andrés Reséndez and Tzabel Missagia de Mattos have shown, Indian slavery was predicated on the alleged cannibalism of whole native peoples, contacted but mostly unknown in scarcely explored or sparsely settled areas." If a borderland is frequently understood as the region in one nation significantly affected by an international border—whether the atea at one or both sides of the demar- cation line is taken as the object of study—for the lengthy period predating the birth of independent nations in the Americas, unbounded regions where the claims to exclusive power of competing imperial states met have been perceived as borderlands par excellence, In both instances, power relations between regional elites, local peoples, and the state, or cross-border economic activities and the familial and political networks ‘that sustained them are privileged subjects. Two cases in point are the north and south bank of the Rio de la Plata (River Plate area) and the southern Caribbeans as Fabricio Prado and Linda Rupert have demonstrated, these regions illustrate in powerful ways trans-boundary legal and illegal transactions and social formations in very different geographical contexts." The southern Andean trade routes provide another clear example ‘of how borderlands are historically produced. Research by Brick Langer, as well as that represented by brief studies compiled in 2002 by Viviana Conti and Marcelo Lagos show that entire regions once within the core of colonial Iberian societies, featuring intense commercial activities through overlapping economic and social networks, became borderlands through the territorial demarcation of modern states, a process that started in Europe and nurtured Latin American independence movements in the early nineteenth century.!? Historical narratives of borderlands before the consolidation of the modern nation- slate convey a sense of peripheral marginality and remoteness in relation to a normative center of power. Therefore, they are associated with notions of autonomy, liberty, unruliness, violence, and cultural imposition or incorporation. Sociologist Edward Shils provided a useful theoretical tool for establishing how these elements relate to one another regardless of the geographic position of a fixed frontier, in hisseminal 961 essay ‘on centers and peripheries, masterfully appropriated by Jack P. Greene and Amy Turner4 BORDERLANDS OF THE IBERIAN WORLD Bushnell in their introduction to Negotiated Empires.'* In Shils's formulation neither centrality nor peripherality—or theie mutual relationship—have an intrinsic geographical character implying long distances, although the whole complex may have a spatial translation, In his treatment centrality refers to settings where a certain order of symbols and beliefs structures the activities and interrelations of a large proportion of the population of a society through the radiation of their authority by means of institutional networks, while peripheries are social areas over which centers exercise authority through a symbiotic but uneasy relationship. Thus, at an abstract level, peripheri have a “vertical (sociostructural)” as well as a “horizontal (geographical) dimension” and may coexist with centers in the same space.'* Adapting this theoretical framework to understand spaces in the Americas “that Europeans represented as under their jurisdiction” throughout the early modern era, Amy Turner Bushnell proposed a territorial model of concentric zones: “The immediate area over which an urban settlement of European origin asserted political and economic control” she called an ecuanene or zone of mastery that, in Spanish America, usually comprised a hinterland of native provinces and farmed a colonial core region when grouped with other settled areas in supporting a colonial center. Beyond this core stood the colonial periphery or zone of marginality, “the most remote area where the authori ‘of a particular colonial center was recognized.” Colonial peripheries, she contends, were frontiers only when characterized by “cultural interaction or interpenetration among previously distinct societies.” Further beyond the periphery Bushnell identified the “sphere of influence;" an intermediate zone of exchange dissolving into what she called pure “claim’s that is, the “cartographic expanse to which an early modern monarch held title under European international Inw” Based on these considerations and “using nation in the old sense af a group sharing a language and customs,” she advanced an ethnically neutral definition of the early modern frontier that aptly describes the meaning of borderlands: “A geographic area contested by two or more nations, each of which is engaged in a process of polity formation in which control is tenuous and continuously nege to include the other: The concept of borderlands, like Bushnell’s formulation, exceeds the legal meanings normally attached to the term frontier as related to the exercise of sovereignty over a given territory by a constituted polity, It emphasizes processes of cultural adaptation ted, and each af which tries to extend its negotiating mechanisms and appropriation of mores and symbols across cultures, as in Mary Louise Pratt’s open ended and heterogeneous contact zones.’ These may be better understood in terms of Fernando Ortiz’: concept of transculturation,'* However, borderlands are historically related, indeed, to territorial claims and effective territorial occupation, particularly when their production, as in the case of the Americas, is contingent on processes of imperial expansion. ‘To address the major issues that are intrinsic to these territorial and cultural processes one can fruitfully apply the interrelated notions of successive frontiers 1 As the Spanish and Portuguese incorporated new lands and peaples into their domains, successive frontiers emerged as contact zones or and internal borderlands,INTRODUCTION 5 borderlands, “social spaces where cultures meet, clash, and grapple with each other, often in contexts of highly asymmetrical relations of power?" In such spaces new meth- ‘ods for the acquisition of knowledge, new institutions, and new strategies of political and economic control were devised and put to the test. European systems of law, pat- terns of land occupation, and cultural practices were molded according to local circum- stances, as historians have shown for the key roles of Indian allies in the formation of successive frontiers in northern New Spain or to explain the parallel processes of cul- tural impositions, adaptations, and appropriations in the South American frontier missions." Unlike Frederick Jackson Turner’ frontier thesis, so deeply seated on the European settler perspective, this idea af successive frontiers appeals to the imperial subject's point of view, but it takes into account the concentric webs of contesting agencies, As Guy and Sheridan note in their introduction to Contested Ground, the geographical landscape of the Americas had been occupied by human societies for thousands of years, such that by the time of European arrival “American Indians had. contended for and laid claim to both North and South America?** Spaces where successive Spanish and Portuguese frontiers were established, like the Gran Chichimeca of North America ‘or the savannas and pampas east of the South American Andean cordillera, frequently overlapped with areas previously constituting mutually understood but unstable litnits between native societies and, in turn, they often represented zones of ecological transition or environmental contrast, This phenomenon has been well documented for the territory extending north of Mesoamerica, where the arid lands of the Chichimeca, gradually engulfed in the processes of colonial expansion, had sustained corridors of cross-cultural contact and social entanglement long before the European arrival.”* As such these spaces may be treated as internal borderlands in relation to the spheres of ‘Iberian imperial control. Borderlands, in accordance with Guy and Sheridan’ notion of frontier, should not be understood as peripheries of empires or nation-states, neither as areas where civilization—as in Frederick Jackson Turner's fror thesis—faces wilderness or barbarism; these are notions that reflect the “value judgements of the conquerors”” Rather, they are zones of socio-historical interface where people with different cultural backgrounds, economic and political interests interact thereby creating new forms of resource appropriation, production, and distribution as well as new ways of under- standing and representing the world and new modalities af inter-subjective relations, while reproducing and imposing at the same time elements of their own worldview and structures of power. As Renato Rosaldo and Nestor Garcia Canclini have shown, this understanding of borderlands turns away from the objectivist representation of culture posed in classical ethnography prior to the late 19608, which followed the romantic ‘German tradition that views cultures as self-contained, organic, and coherent wholes. ‘Culture is always under construction through confrontation, adaptation, and appropri- ation among subjects immersed in different societies with different rules, power structures, material cultures, and routine practices. Although developed from the@ BORDERLANDS OF THE IBERIAN WORLD ‘examination of contemporary contexts, Rosaldo’s view of culture as a “porous array of intersections” is instructive for the present discussion.** Garefa Canelini’s notion of hybridity as a social phenomenon characterized by the simultaneity of diverse cul- tural traditions and practices acting upon one another, even frequently involving coercion, helps us to understand the historical circumstances from which border- Jands emerge." ‘The phease “Iberian World” in relation to early modern borderlands establishes a capacious framework for the historical themesand geographical regions comprehended ithin the Portuguese and Spanish imperial spheres that initiated transoceanic expedi- tions ta the Atlantic islands, the western coast of Africa, and the Americas in the late fifteenth century. Although Iberian in its etymological origins refers to a specific stratum of population in the Iberian Peninsula (inhabitants of the lands watered by the Ebro River), the generally accepted usage of the word in the contexts of early modern imperialism and world history, means broadly the continents and peoples that were touched and connected through the colonial projects emanating from the Iberian peninsula, At the same time, Iberian comprehends much more than “Spanish,” “Galician? *Catakin? “Basque? or “Portuguese,” because it evokes the complex mixtures and interweaving of languages, religions, and cultures that had gestated in the different provinces south of the Pyrenees for centuries before the Portuguese, Castilian, and Aragonese undertook the transoceanic voyages that would bring them to portions of Africa and Asia and to the hitherto unknown peoples and continents af the Americas, ‘As an integeal part of this process, and notwithstanding the violence of conquest encounters, through the resilience of the African, Asian, and Amerindian peoples wha confronted the Iberian invaders, and their intermingling, new societies and cultures were born, thus creating the Iberian borderlands of the early modern world. The literature on Iberian borderlands in the Americas generally focuses in the first instance on the terrestrial borderlands of the northern and southern continents of the Americas, including the connecting geographies and peoples of Central America, This spatial framework, broadened by innovative research on indigenous trade networks and colonial commercial circuits, extends to the maritime spaces that surround the tierra firme; that is, the Caribbean basin, the Gulf ef Mexico, the Gulf of California, and the fluvial inlets such as Nootka Sound that became the scene of Russian, Spanish, and indigenous encounters in the North Pacific.” Similar transoceanic networks linked the central and southern Pacific ports of Spanish America, including Callaoand Acapulco, through the commercial routes of the Manila galleon, Even further south, at the tip of South Ametica, the Magellan Strait became a waterway over which Spanish hegemony was challenged by British, Dutch, and other European powers as well as by privateers who sought maritime passage through the continent.”* Together with the riverine networks that flow through the American continents—the Mississippi and Colorado drainages, the greater Amazon, and the Rio de la Plata with their multiple tributaries— hese watery spaces functioned as borderlands in much the same way that Fernand Braudel demonstrated that the Mediterranean Sea defined the cultural and economic borderlands of southern Europe and northern Africa for centuries. The Caribbean withINTRODUCTION 7 its island archipelagoes became a borderland traversed by sailors, privateers, and enslaved peoples secking freedom, who crossed the imperial boundaries of Spanish, French, English, and Dutch port cities and colonies” Furthermore, recently published works by Mary Karasch, Barbara Sommer, Hal Langfur, and Heather Roller on the vast river systems of the interior of South America have shown their importance for the histories of inter-ethnic frontiers and colonial settlement.”* ‘Transoceanic trade networks developed historically from antiquity to the modern era, encompassing areas as diverse as the Indian Ocean that linked South Asia and eastern Africa, the Straits of Melaka that communicated portions of India and China with the island polities of Sumatra, or Oceania and the island archipelago af Indonesia. ‘These networks developed through overlapping or concentric circuits of interregional and long-distance migration and exchange across the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, thereby connecting the hemispheric barderlands of the Americas to spheres of political power, nodes of cultural influence, and foci of economic production and exchange in portions of Europe, Asia and Africa, For this reason, they may also be conceived as borderlands that brought imperial spheres closer to one another through the assertion of territorial claims to dominion over peoples, lands, waterways, and resources af particular areas of the glabe, Scholars working in different disciplines and intellectual traditions have demonstrated the complex webs of commercial and religious relation ships that brought the Philippines, South Asia, and East Asia under the aegis of the Iberian world and pointed to the histories of armed conflicts and negotiated boundaries at the frontiers of imperial domains.** These contested spaces became borderlands that imperfectly delineated rival colonial projects. More profoundly, however, they emerged and took shape through the actions taken by indigenous peoples and transported smigrants—indentured and enslaved laborers—to challenge the power of their imperial administrators and overlords. ‘The expanded view of borderlands herein proposed requires a brief discussion of the polysemic character of the Spanish and Portuguese terms frontera/fronteira, usually translated into English as frontier and borderland. Besides connoting border, boundary, and limit as discussed for contemporary borderlands by A. Diener and J. Hagen, are used in historical records produced in colonial Latin America when referring to unpopulated lands, uncultivated wilderness in both temperate and tropical climates, and colonial peripheries. Other terms in these languages were also applied to such spaces, like despoblado and tierra incégnita (unpopulated or deserted, and unexplored lands respectively) in Spanish, or campanha (thinly populated rural areas) and sertdes (backlands) in Portuguese. Eighteenth to twentieth century Spanish and Portuguese dictionaries provide definitions of frontera/fronteira as the geopolitical nation of the Limit between territorial states, a region where different ethnic groups interact, or the most distant dominions of the kingdom.** These understandings of “frontera/fronteira” complement Amy Turner Bushnell’s distinction between ecumene and sphere of influence, bringing the concept closer to modern definitions of frontier in English. “These linguistic palimpsests enrich the cultural meanings of borderlands for historians and scholars fromsister disciplines.§ BORDERLANDS OF THE IBERIAN WORLD HISTORIOGRAPHY: FRONTIERS TO BORDERLANDS ‘The field of borderlands studies has opened new dimensions of interdisciplinary research in the last quarter century at the same time that ethnohistorical approaches to sm and colonialism have produced critical analyses of European imperial spheres in several world regions. Comparative research on areas affected by early European expansionism has enriched the conceptual frameworks that define border- lands, expanding its theoretical significance since its inception in geopolitical imperial histories. The field of borderlands history showeases a wide range of themes like envi- ronmental change; ethnogenesis and the formation of powerful indigenous federations in the Americas; gendered histories in the mixed and volatile social fabrics of frontier regions; enslavement, captivity, and the complex degrees of difference between freedom and bondage across ethnic lines; Afro-descendant populations in the Spanish and Portuguese domains; the role of different religions in the creation of spiritual barder- lands and the production of knowledge thraugh the sciences and the arts ‘The innovative contributions of borderlands studies have emerged from research in archaeology, history, and cultural geagraphy as well as new currents in literature, Native “American studies, the African diaspora, and gender and sexuality studies. Histories of isplacements and migrations have shown the complexity in defining the identities of peoples as diverse as the Latino/a communities of North America, the mixed popula- tions of the Caribbean basin, and the cultural mosaics of highland and lowland South America. The chronological depth and spatial breadth of the imperial spheres forged by Portuguese and Spanish ambitions created transcontinental borderlands of vast geographical and temporal proportions, These hegemonic networks and the heteroge- neous populations they gradually engulfed provide a fecund and ereative field for further reflection on the historical significance of the concept Several major turning points in the literatures and scholarly traditions of Latin America, North America, and Europe underscore the shifts in focus from frontiers to borderlands and from European views of expanding frontiers to wider perspectives on the formation of maritime and continental “contact zones” by indigenous and diasporic populations through trade, labor, and migration, This broad field of study has evolved into three major lines of inguiry: the narrative traditions of discovery, encounter, and imperial expansion; the social and cultural processes of confrontation, adaptation, and ‘commingling among different societies and peoples; and the transformation of know edge that revolutionized early modern technologies in navigation, cartography, medicine, botany, agriculture, and livestock domestication."* No less importantly, it -gave rise to aesthetic innovations in music, literature, and the visual arts.” The sixteenth century produced a series of richly textured epic narratives that traced ‘the outlines of the borderlands in the Americas. Their content, thick with ethnographic descriptions, identified topographical features and reported encounters with myriadINTRODUCTION 9 groups of indigenous peoples, thus creating the conceptual basis on which the diverse cultural geographies of bath Narth and South America have been conceived therealter. Four classic sources for this period of contact serve to highlight how those discursive representations were built and how their constructed memories shaped historical concepts of borderlands: Alvar Niifiez Cabeza de Vaca describing explorations and encounters in northern Mexico and the Paraguay River basin; Jean de Léry, survivor of a Huguenot colony in the Guanabara province of Brazil; Alonso de Ercilla in the Araucania of southern Chile; and Gaspar Pérez de Villagrd, early seventeenth-century chronicler of Spanish entradas in New Mexico. ‘Their writings illustrate the production cof intersecting ethnic and imperial frontiers through narratives that describe violent encounters, cultural commingling, and spatial orientations for diverse regions of the Americas distant from major European settlements. Six years after Hernan Cortés’s brazen invasion of the Mexica tributary empire, one of Cortés’ bitter rivals, Panfilo de Narvaez, led an ill-starred expedition of six hundred men te La Flori 7. Their ambition was to conquer new lands and peoples for the Spanish monarch and, at the same time, build their own fortunes and regional bases of power, The expedition met with disaster shortly after its first landing, due to tropical storms, shipwreck, and staunch resistance from the powerful chiefdoms of Florida, As the adventurers scattered, many of them died and others were taken captive. Only four knownsurvivors—one of theman African—managed to reunite and begin a slow journey westward across the rim of the Gulf of Mexico, seeking “Christians.” Their survival depended on foraging with the indigenous peoplesamong whom they traveled, starving along with them in seasons of scarcity, From enslaved captives they became peddlers and healers, evincing-a source of spiritual power that enabled them to move from one group to another, Eventually they turned southwestward through the Sierra Madre ‘Occidental, where they found agricultural villages and an abundance af maize. In 1536 they emerged in the Villa de Culiacin (in present-day Sinaloa), where they encountered Spaniards and witnessed the destructive consequences af Nuiio de Guzmin’s wars and slaving expeditions. Alvar Niifiez Cabeza de Vaca became the narrator of their remark- able odyssey, through report authored by himself and the other Spanish survivors and delivered to the newly appointed Viceroy Antonia de Mendoza in Mexico City, and his ‘Relacién (1542), presented to King Charles I in Spain to support his petition to lead his ‘own expedition and obiain.a governorship in the Americas.” Armed with a royal appointment as adelantado (captain charged with advancing the imperial frontier} and governor of the pravinee of Rio de la Plata, Cabeza de Vaca arrived in the river port of Asuncién de Paraguay in 1542 with several hundred crew members, after his ocean voyage and an overland journey from the island of Santa ‘Catalina, off the Brazilian Atlantic coast. In Asuncién, previously established Spanish colonists acknowledged his governorship, but over the next two years Spanish officials and soldiers challenged his authority. Rivalries among different groups of aspiring conquistadores—who guarded jealously the trading privileges, grants of Indian labor, and “gifts” of indigenous wives and concubines—became all the more acute because of the precarious situation they faced in this struggling outpost amidst a sea of different10 BORDERLANDS OF THE IBERIAN WORLD indigenous chiefdoms loosely grouped among the Guarani and Guaycuri ethnic and linguistic families.” Alvar Niifez Cabeza de Vaca led two expeditions northward along the river's course, following his mandate to consolidate Asuncidn and found new settlements upstream in the Paraguayan basin, He explored as far as the Chaco Boreal and the wetlands of the pantanal, which today constitutes a vast ecological borderland between Bolivia and Brazil. His progress inland was thwarted when the rivulets and lagoons of the upper Paraguay river were no longer navigable, and the alliances he had attempted to form with different indigenous groups faltered, depriving the expedition of food and guides. The adelantado was forced ta retreat to Puerto de los Reyes, where he faced an indigenous insurrection, and downstream to Asuncién, where he was confronted with a mutiny and arrested by royal olficials, held prisoner, He was then sent to Spain, where he pled his case as a prisoner of the royal court. In 1547 he successfully appealed to the Council of ‘the Indies and secured his release. For his defense, Alvar Niifiez Cabeza de Vaca praduced his own account of his tran- cated governorship in Rio dela Plata, the Comentarias, which were either dictated to or written with the aid of his secretary, Pero [Pedro] de Hernindez.” In this account ‘Cabeza de Vaca provided detailed geographic and ethnographic observations and presented himself as a scrupulous governor who sought, above all else, to fulfill the ‘king's directive for an orderly conquest and toassure the proper treatmentof indigenous peoples, In the eyes of his accusers, however, Cabeza de Vaca’s measures to restrict commerce between the Spaniards and the Indians, even forbidding the men under his command to take indigenous wives, together with his failure to forge alliances with natives living beyond the Guarani sphere of influence, spelled the adelantado’s undoing and curtailed his attempt to consolidate Spanish imperial rule in the Rio dela Plata, The Relacién and the Comentarios each reflect the author's reconstruction of critical epi- sodes in his own military career; together they narrate a vision of peaceful engagement in the enlerprise of conquest, and they provide verbal portraits of borderlands- in-formation in twovery different geographic settings."* Yet, did Cabeza de Vaca's narratives of the arid steppes of northern Mexico (and the future southwestern United States) and the meandering streams of the Paraguayan River basin constitute a coherent vision of borderlands and, if'so, in relation to what? ‘There were no imperial centers against which to measure the disparate lands and peoples through which Cabeza de Vaca and his three companions passed in North ‘America, The Mesoamerican city states and political domains were far distant, and when Cabeza de Vaca observed Mesoamerican influences along the “trail of maiz among the agricultural villages of northwestern Mexico, he could not relate what he saw to the centuries of cultural appropriations and exchanges between the ‘Mesoamerican core and its successive northern peripheries. Spanish presence in these northern regions at the time was tenuous, not yet capable of exercising institutional control over the region. Turning to the Ria de la Plata, the Guarani clusters of villages and their prowess in fishing and navigating the lower streams of the Paraguay River could be considered aINTRODUCTION LL settled cultural region that exercised influence for a considerable distance northward along this basin. The complex mosaic of tribal groups that Cabeza de Vaca encountered — offen at war with one another and with the Guarani—did not, however, constitute a clearly defined periphery, Furthermore, the fractious divisions among the Spanish settlers and officials of Asuncién, made evident in their opposition to Cabeza de Vaca, revealed that the port was an outpost ofempire only in name, lacking the economic and political resources to govern effectively orto expand the colonial enterprise, ‘These same questions arise for a discussion of borderlands turning westward, ‘crossing the Andean cordillera to the southernmost Spanish frontier in South America. In Alonso de Ercillas chronicle entitled La Araucana, epic poetry and historical narrative intersect to produce a sixteenth-century account of military encounters, imperial ambitions, and indigenous spaces. Alonso de Ercilla (1533-1594) was both protagonist and observer of the events that he recorded in verse and published in three volumes (1569, 1578, 1589) under a simple but encompassing title that seemed to impart a single ethnonym—Araucanéa—to the entire region that covers portions of central and southern Chile and southwestern Argentina. Yet, the indigenous peoples who mounted determined resistance to Spanish imperial inroads into their territories spoke a variety of languages and formed effective but shifting alliances among different groups and chiefdoms, including the Picunches, Mapuches (Moluches, Nguluches), and ‘Huilliches.”’ Spanish attempts to found settlements, discover riches, and open ariverine ‘or land route between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans south of the Bio-Bio river pro- duced a fraught and ill-defined borderland that became known as la frontera de arviba— the “frontier above.” Alonso de Ercillals epic account was devoted principally to the Arauco, the peoples and lands generally associated with the Reche or Mapuche between the Tata and Toltén rivers. Ercilla’s career followed the major themes of his extended epic drama. His verses extolled the Hapsburg Empire and the Spanish monarchy even as they described the potential mineral wealth and fertile lands of Chile, yet they acknowledged the bravery and prowess of indigenous defenses in the successive frontiers that defied Spanish colonization, Ercilla first traveled to South America in 1554, at age twenty-one, entering Peru through Panama and arriving in Chile with Governor Garcia Hurtado de Mendoza im 1556—the same year that Philip ascended to the throne of Spain, following his father, Charles I. Ercilla participated in several battles in which Araucano forces were defeated, and he witnessed the torture and execution of the indigenous leader Toqui Caupolican, He was briefly imprisoned and exiled to Lima, Peru (1958), experiencing firsthand the factionalism among Spaniards who vied for power and wealth in these southern border- lands, Although he was offered a repartimiento (forced recruitment of indigenous peoples to labor in haciendas and mines), he turned it down and returned to Spain in 1562. During the following two decades Ercilla dedicated himself to commerce and ‘oversaw the three editions of La Araucana, He traveled to Portugal and participated in the conquest of the Azores islands in 1582, soon after the unification of the Spanish and Portuguese Crowns under King Philip I. Twelve years later, in 1594, Ercilla died in ‘Madrid, the city ofhis birth.12 BORDERLANDS OF THE IBERIAN WORLD Pedro de Valdivia began the conquest of Chile in 1540, two years before the appointment of the first viceroy of Peru, He founded the colonial outposts of Santiago de Ja Nueva Extremadura and La Serena, in northern Chile, during the years that a faction ‘of entcomenderos led by Gonzalo Pizarro rebelled in Peru against the New Laws govern- ing the use of Indian labor and the inheritance of encomsiendas, a grant of Indian towns for tribute or service with the requirement of Christianizing them. Valdivia became governorof Chile in 1548,and led military expeditions southward to found Concepcion, La Imperial, Valdivia, and a series of forts in the heart of Mapuche territory. In 1553 he ‘was killed in the Battle of Tucapel, where the Spaniards suffered a decisive defeat that Ercilla and other contemporary chroniclers attributed to Valdivia greed for gold.” The destruction of Concepeién by indigenous forces in 1534 truncated the Spanish frontier and reasserted the autonomy of Araucan space. Even though Concepcién was refounded four years later and Spaniards reached the Chiloé archipelago in the follow- ing decade, Iberian settlements south of the Itata River remained precarious in these largely indigenous borderlands. Ercilla commented thus an Valdi But he left the advantageous road, J carelessly, took a turn in the route, Placing himself on another road of avarice, where there was a gold mine; And on seeing the tribute and beautiful gift / its rich veins offered, Full of greed he stopped, / cutting the prosperous thread of destiny. The city of fertile gold is lost /it was where more population inhabited, ‘Where more wealth and treasures / are enclosed within its houndaries.“* ‘The theme of frontier pervaded Excilla’s poetic narrative, presented in terms of Chile's perceived distance from the Peruvian viceroyalty, centered in Lima, the landscapes of the Araucania, and the moral qualities that heascribed to the peoples of these southern continental borderlands. In a memorable stanza Ereilla brought together Chile's natural fertility and the pi ofthe Araucanos. Chile, fertile and eminent province / in the famous Antarctic region, By remote mations respected f as strong, principal and powerful; ‘The people it produces are so great, / so arrogant, gallant, and warlike, ‘They have never been ruled by a king / nor submitted to the reign of a foreigner. “The juxtaposition of imperial ambition, indomitable native polities, and the landscapes of southern Chile—stretching to the “famous Antarctic region” —projected the physical and moral qualities of the Araucana frontier. Through his powerful descriptions interwoven with Renaissance tropes, Ercilla’s poem created a structure for epic narratives of Iberian borderlands in different regions of the Americas. During the same year that Alonso de Ercilla entered Chile, Jean de Léry (1534-1611) encountered the Tupi peoples of the Atlantic coast of Brazil under very different cireum- stances." In Léry’s Histoire the theme of empire is muted, in contrast to Ercilla’s epic narrative, because he arrived in the Guanabara Bay in 1556.as part af a colony of French Huguenots secking refuge from the religious wars that wracked their country, not toINTRODUCTION 13 advance the dominions of the Portuguese crown or to rule peoples and territories. Léry described in admirable detail the landscapes and material cultures of the Tupi villages that surrounded his fledgling colony in Brazil. His narrative was rooted in his experi- ences of living among the Tupi for nearly two years but reconstructed and written in biographical form more than two decadesafter the events, For this reason, Léry’s history recalls Alvar Nuiiez Cabeza de Vaca’s Relacién. Both accounts reveal the rigors of survival that their authors endured and the political skills they needed to negotiate across different linguistic and ethnic boundaries. Léry placed the Tupi cultural practices at the center of his narrative and served as inspiration for modern scholars, in particular anthropologist Claude Lévi-Strauss and historian Warren Dean.” Léry's narrative was not unique, and it is commonly paired with the written testimonies of Germans Hans Staden and Ulrich Schmid] as well as his countryman André Thevet."® At the same time Léry’s Histoire introduced the themes of m and barbarity—le sarrvage—that have complicated borderlands studies for generations, Léry’s reflections on the anthropophagy and warfare of the Tupinamba ‘were tempered by his deeply personal story and the tragedy that awaited him upon his return to France. In 1573, he witnessed the savagery of European religious wars, when the siege of Sancerre took the lives af his kinsmen and he emerged as one of barely five hundred survivors, some of whom had eaten human flesh. Léry’s bitter meditation on the futility of European wars, contrasted with Tupi practices of ritual cannibalism, was reworked by Michel de Montaigne in his political essays.” Alonso de Ercilla’s poetic rendering of the Araucanian borderlands inspired some of ‘the chronicles devoted to Spanish entradas in the frontier regions of North America. Gaspar Pérez de Villagra (1555-1620) in his Historia de la Nueva México, first published in 1610 in Alcalé de Henares, Spain, rendered in verse the spatial landscapes of ‘New Mexico, indigenous legendary migrations that linked this northern borderland to Mesoamerica, and the encounters—both violent and negotiated—between the native peoples known today as Pueblos and Spanish expeditions." This epic poem takes into account various entradas that followed Francisco Vazquez de Coronado’s first foray into New Mexico in 1540-1542, but it highlights the expedition led by Juan de Ofiate (c.1550-1626) at the end of the century, in which Villagra participated as Procurador general (paymaster) and a member of the adelantado’s war council. Both Oaate and Pérez de Villagra were born in Mexico, members of a self-conscious Spanish-American elite whose ambitions were rooted in the colony. Juan de Onate, son of Cristébal de ‘fate, one of the founders of the great mining real of Zacatecas, sought the governorship ‘of New Mexico based on the wealth his family had garnered in northern New Spain. Villagra was born in Puebla delos Angeles, a Spanish town in the heart of Mesoamerica; he was educated at the University of Salamanca in Spain, returning to New Spain in 1576. By 1595, when Juan de Ofate received his appointment as adelantado of New Me: Villagra lived in the mining district of Sombrerete and joined Ofiate’s mixed Spanish and Indian forces in Santa Barbara, Nueva Vizeaya, in the spring of 1598." Villageé reported with admiration the geographical knowledge that the Indians of ‘New Mexico had demonstrated to the Oate expedition. One of their guides, whom14 BORDERLANDS OF THE IBERIAN WORLD Village’ called Mémpil, drew a map on the ground, identifying the Rio del Norte that would lead them to the walled settlements of the Pueblos, He painted for us the neighboring lands? And the location of the mighty steam For which so many toils were borne, / And all the water holes and day's marches ‘That one must needs make on the way /To have their turbid waters to drink in. ‘There he drew, too, the villages / Of our New Mexico, its lands, Making us understand it all / As he were a most learned guide? Villagrits Historia culminated in the dramatic confrontation between Spanish forces and the Keresan Pueblo of Acoma, beginning in January 1599. Villagra participated in ‘the assault on the mesa—peiién soberbio—from where the pueblo overlooked the plains west of the Rio: Grande, led by Sergeant Vicente de Zaldivar to avenge the deaths of his brother, Juan de Zaldivar and twelve other members of the expedition. Taaccentuate the danger of this mission, Villagra described the terrain in ways that augmented the challenges that Spaniards faced, ‘Thus, marching in order, we did arrive / Before the mighty fort, which consisted Of two great, lofty rocks upraised, / The terrible, unconquered sites Divided by more than three hundred feet, / And from one to the other was a neck Of rocks so lofty they equaled / ‘The outsized peaks, such as were never seen.*? After the pueblo of Acoma was defeated, Ofiate ordered the mutilation and enslave- ment of scores af prisoners, both men and women, This cruelty was compounded only months later when Zaldivar and Ofate attacked the Jumano pueblos east of the Rio Grande for refusing the Spaniards’ demand for maize. Over the next five years Ofiate led expeditions northward to the bison plains and westward in an attempt to find the “southern sea” and navigable ports. In 1606, however, King Philip III recalled Ofate and converted the proprietary colony of New Mexico into a royal governorship with the appointment of Pedro de Peralta as governor in Gog. Juan de Oiiate faced criminal charges that implicated Pérez de Villagré stemming from the violent retaliation at Acama; both men were convicted in 1614, after the publication of the Historia. They sue- cessfully appealed their sentences but died without returning ta the northern border- Jands they had once claimed as “our new Mexico"** Modern narratives of the Iberian borderlands in the Americas have echoed the major ‘themes that flow through these four representative examples of primary-source chroni- cles, but they have applied analytical approaches to the institutional and social histories ‘of the peoples who shaped these imperial frontiers. At mid-twentieth century Philip ‘Wayne Powell upheld the narrative tradition for the Spanish borderlands of North America with pioneering archival research and a flair for writing broadly based histaries and focused biographies. In a series of well-placed journal articles and two major book-length studies Powell explored the successive frontiers of Spanish si iver prospect- ing and mining north of Zacatecas and the complex issues surrounding indigenous enslavement and the sixteenth-century Chichimec wars.” For South America, theINTRODUCTION 15 Chilean bibliographer and historian José Toribio Medina (1852-1930) contributed thematic narratives and the publication of primary sources to different currents af institutional and regional history. His monograph Los aborigenes de Chile—among many other titles is especially relevant to the historiagraphy of the barderlands."* ‘The transition to historical treatments of the borderlands within the framework of social and cultural processes of encounter and change began with institutional histories informed by sensitive readings of primary sources. Building on the work of the early generations of borderlands scholars, the shift to reworking the histories of missions and presidios replaced such notions as the “rim of Christendom, coined by Berkeley historian Herbert E. Bolton, and binary divisions between “Indians” and “Spaniards" with a recognition of multi ions and shifting alliances among different groups of Native Americans, Europeans, and mixed populations of African, Asian, and ‘Indo-European descent. Informed by the anthropological concepts of contact cultures and ethnogenesis and by the methodologies for reconstructing “histories from below:" ‘the contributors to these new currents of horderlands studies have combed local and regional archives as well as the better known national and imperial repositories to bring tolight new documents and demonstrate new ways of reading them for ethno- historical, environmental, and gendered content. In Seville, the Escuela de Estudios ‘Hispanoamericanos with its proximity to the Archivo General de Indias has contributed to the narrative and institutional histories of the borderlands with the work of Luis ‘Navarro Garcia on northern New Spain, followed by the historiographical and editorial leadership of Salvador Bernabéu Albert.” ‘The Documentary Relations of the Southwest, an innovative program based at the Arizona State Museum (University of Arizona, Tucson) beginning in 1974, and subse- quently renamed the Office of Ethnohistorical Research, has contributed in important ways to archival preservation, research, and primary source publication as well as to ethnohistorical and interdisciplinary approaches to borderlands and colonial frontiers. Employing the technologies of microfilming and digitalization, the DRSW and OHR established collaborativeagreements with a number of key archivesin Spain and Mexico to reproduce documentary collections and create detailed precis of their content that serve as important guides for research on a wide range of topics. The team assembled under the leadership of Charles W. Polzer, Thomas Sheridan, Diane Hadley, and Dale Brenneman has published numerous volumes in thematic sequences of transcribed and translated documents with meticulously researched annotations, Over the last decade their work has emphasized collaboration with Hopi and Oladham elders and cultural specialists to produce culturally sensitive renderings of historical materials.** Mexican scholars turned their attention te the north during this same period. The Instituto de Investigaciones Histéricas of the Universidad Nacional Auténoma de ‘México (IIH-UNAM) established a permanent graduate seminar dedicated to the colo- nial history of northern Mexicoin the early 1970s, Collaborating with state universities and research centers in the region, the Institute trained several generations of graduate students and produced original works focused on social and economic history and on the enduring presence of indigenous peoples.” ‘The foundations for borderlands16 BORDERLANDS OF THE IBERIAN WORLD. research that were created by these efforts-at the DRSW-OHR in the United States and UNAM-IIH in Mexico helped to support doctoral dissertations and published monographs that reoriented the institutional histories of the colonial missions in the direction of ethnohistorical studies, informed by historical methods of research and anthropological frameworks for understanding processes af transculturation over time and space.*® ‘The fluvial environments of South America provide a fecund instance of internal borderlands, as exemplified by the lowlands of Chiquitos, the Gran Chaco of eastern Bolivia and northern Paraguay, and the savannas of Mato Grosso in western Brazil Fthnohistorical approaches to the shifting contours and identities of these overlapping frontiers have grown out of institutional histories focused on the Jesuit missions to illustrate the economic, aesthetic, and religious dimensions af the reducciones (mission towns), The rich archival sources compiled and catalogued in Bolivia, Argentina, and Brazil for the greater Paraguayan basin are further augmented by critical editions of detailed nineteenth-century scientific pul ons and travelers’ reports, in particular, the four-volume Viaje a la América meridional (“Voyage to South America’), first published in 1835 by the French naturalist Alcides d'Orbigny."" Working out of the linguistic and cultural traditions of mission studies for this region, Roberta Tomicha ‘Charupa, OFMConw., has published a deeply researched and anthropologically sensitive history of the Chiquitos province. He has continued to produce scholarly publications of primary documents that contribute new empirical content and inter- pretive insights for the region and its diverse indigenous and mixed cultures."* ‘Anthropologist Isabelle Combés has published thoroughly researched historical and ethnographic work on the [soso of the Chaco Boreal and coordinated a number of multi-authored volumes on the Bolivian and Paraguayan lowlands.” Closely related to ‘the ethnohistorical contributions of Tomicha and Combés, Pilar Garcia Jordin has explored the lowland peoples of the piedmont slopes and forested valleys east of the Andes in the Peruvian selva and in the Guarayo corridor extending between Chiquitos and Mojos (the Department of Beni) in Bolivia, bringing the Guaraya missions into the modern period as inter-ethnic spaces. ‘The greater Rio de la Plata and lower Paraguayan River basins—where Alvar Nuftez ‘Cabeza de Vaca first approached his governorship in 1541—sustained dense popu of riverine and agricultural peoples known as the Guarani, whose villages and hunting, farming, and fishing practices, in turn, shaped these borderlands, Jesuit missionsamong the Guarani were populous and economically productive, and native leaders famously defied imperial orders to transfer their pueblos to Portuguese rule following the Treaty ‘of Madrid of 1750, thus generating substantial interest among historians, anthropologists, and scholars of built space and visual culture, Among scholars who have published recently on the region, Barbara Ganson and Julia Sarreal have analyzed Guarani economy and political culture in the missions; Ramén Gutiérrez has studied the urban architecture of the Guarani reducciones; and Guillermo Wilde has demonstrated the ‘multivalent meanings to be found in the aesthetic and religious qualities of cultural adaptation in the missions.“INTRODUCTION 17 Each of these histories tells its own story, and many of them follow regional patterns cof inquiry as they are shaped by geography, indigenous cultures, and the circumstances of colonial encounters. Taken together, however, the historiographical developments for borderlands studies in recent decades have shown that the indigenous cultures and political formations in the different frontiers of North and South America were widely varied, evolving historically both before and after European encounters, Revisionist currents in borderlands studies have revealed that imperial institutions, in. particular, ‘the missions and the frontier presidios, were not blueprints impased on the indigenous peoples, rather they were shaped by the contested claims to power, labor, and livelihood asserted by colonial authorities, civil colonists, and indigenous leaders. Two recent studies that illustrate these points powerfully are Brian DeLay’s War of a Thousand Deserts and Pekka Himélainen’s The Comanche Enpire.° ‘The fruits of innovative research on the borderlands have been gathered into a num- ber of collective publications; among the many works that could be cited, the following haveserved asbenchmarks for the field. The New Latin American Mission History (1995) ‘opened a critical vision of the role of religious missions in ethnohistorical encounters in both North and South America,and it brought mission history into the national period. Contested Ground. Comparative Frontiers on the Northern and Souther Edges of the Spanish Enipire (1998) presaged the innovative and comparative work on borderlands ‘that has shaped the field over the last two decades with broad regional views of Spanish, Portuguese, and indigenous frontiers, Choice, Persuasion, and Coercion, Social Control ‘on Spain’: North Americart Frontiers (2005), presented broad comparative views of the northern Mexican borderlands, extending from California to Florida that were inte- grated by the central theme of social control. Contested Spaces in the Early Americas (2013), dedicated to the memory of David J. Weber, brought together a diverse group of authors from the Americas and Europe specialized in different regional barderlands who focused on the nation of native American autonomy and the ways in which colo- nial territories remained contested spacesamong different groups of historical actors.” “These syntheses produced under the auspices af North American institutions mirror ‘equally important interdisciplinary developments in borderlands research published in ‘Spanish and Portuguese, The serninal collective works cited in the bibliography stand out especially for their interdisciplinary quality, combining insights fram archaeology, cul- turalanthropology and history. Némadas y sedentarias (2000) brings togetherarchaeolo- gists, anthropologists, linguists, and historians to explore the widely varied cultural patterns of settled and nomadic peoples across northern Mexico. Las vias del noroeste (2906-201), in three volumes, integrates anthropological conceptual frameworks with specific ethnographic and historical studies to illustrate the complex relations between ‘Mesoamerica and the northern borderlands. For South America Colanizacién, resisten- cia y mestizaje en las Américas (2002), and Fronteras movedizas (2010), overturn tradi- tional views of European colonization and indigenous nomadism to show the interdependent and contingent quality of Iberian colonization. Innovative studies for Portuguese America are represented by Estudos sobre os Chiquitanos no Brazil ¢ na Bolivia (2008), and Native Brasil. Beyone the Convert and the Cannibal (2004).°*Nate: Tables and figures are indicated by an italic number. A Abberille, Claude d? 397, 405, 406 ABCislands 741=743, 745 See also Aruba, Bonaire, and Curagao Acapulco 6, 299, 766-777, 7t4n59, 785n62, 795.803 Acaxee, Indians 89, 90. 97. 103n46, m3. 116, 346, 347,348, 349.350. 379 Acazitli, Francisco Sandaval 144-145 ace gM 69, 474, 477 Acosta, Jose de $10, 792, 795, 784, 795s Bognag action-network theory So8m8 Actopan 824-825 Acurtiaa, Jose Gregorio 699 Africans 6, 95,163, 209, 241, 373 384 38% 400, 492, 745, 749-750, 817 bondage and 19 Cuban culture and 20mi8, 183 diaspora 8,431 fugitives 599, 604, 615 miscenegation and 242-243, 344, 35903, 614-615, musical tradition and culture 527,616 settlers 252, 593, 619, 822 slaves and free laborers 62, 63, 67.242, 252, 299, 375, 378, 383, 384, 387, 420, 424, 571, 579, $82, 591, $93, 597-599, 614-615, 619-620, 622, 746, 818,820, 822-826, 828-831 See alsa labor agaves 36,38, 43. 59, 67 864 Agreda, Maria de Jestis de 511, 513, 515-519. ‘Agreda, Spain 533,53. 516 agro-pastoral economy 398 and 'f) respectively, following the page Aguascalientes, Mexican state of 88, 142, 15438 Ahumada, Pedro de 1 Aimoré, Indians 402 ‘Akbar, Mughal Emperor 443 Akroi, Indians 592, 594-595, 597, 599, 602 Alaska. 41, 805,845, 846 Albuquerque, Alfonso de 445 Aledntara, Juana 828 alcohol 221, 386.654, 704 aguardente 220, 420, 436154, 598, 646, 652-653, drunkenness 186.354 aldeias 214, 217, 597, 604 See also Brazil Aleutian Islands 32, 841, 844-846 Aletits 34, 843, 849-850. 852-895 alliances among Native American groups 1.15, 97, 246, 248, 325-226, 329, 332, 33865, 415.423, 658, 705 between Native Americans and Europeans, see Indian allies between Spainand France 252, 841, 847 between Spaniards and Russians 847 between Spaniards in Chile and Dutch 728-729, 730 interethnic 15,133, 254 Alta Vista, archaeological site 89-90 Alvarado, Jorge 134 Alvarado, José Manuel de 280, 2g0n69 Alvarado, Pedra de 133,236, 140, 143,155053, 157074, 15880, 164-165, 175, 179734 Alvarez, Phelipe de Jess 188,199, 200 Alvarez, Nicalis Marfa. 188, 96, 200$68 INDEX Alzaybar, Prancisce:de 682 Aliola, Domingo de, Bishop 309 amaranthus 38,59. 67 Amazonia 34~35, 3% 42, 269, 405, 992, 597% 618-628, 653, 691-604, 700-701, 79% Amazon basin 61, 67, 70,72, 209,296, 613, 621, 624 Amazon river 6, 33, 40, 41, $93, 600, 613-615, 626, 625, 624, 647 Amazonian ethnography 415, 638902 Andean Amazonia 691 Bolivian Amazonia 692-656, 703 central Amazon 626, 644-648 Portuguese Amazonia 613-628, 648 ‘tropical lowlands and rain forest af 2, 60-61, 62, 614 Americas: 1-9,.12.14, 7-19.31, 35 35-4 46, 57-58, 62, 64, 68, 73, 210, 242-243, 240; 249, 375, 397-398, 400, 406-408, sio- 1 587 $19, 526-527, 529, 547.571.574, 578-581, 614, 623, 6459-673, 681, 683, 692, 744, 748, 752-753, 765-767, 769-770, 778, 789-791, 793-795, 797, 799-Boo, 817-818, 827, 830-831 “Analeo, neighborhood in the city of Durango 494-495. 535 Anchieta, José de 400 Andes! Andean region 33,63. 68, 73,268, 269, 380, 285, 310. 321-822, 324, 345, 615 agriculture in. 38, 40, 42, 39, 60, 68 cordillera 5, 11, 60, 72, 269, 271, 282-284 environmental history of $9, 60, 271 high inter-Andean valleys 521-322, 328 highlands 39, 42, 60,72, 267-269, 271-272, 284. 695 pune 32-33, 44 South Andean space 19, 267-284, 333 trade outes andl marketplaces in 3, 269, 272 See also Camitro Real (eapacam) Andonaegui, Joseph 680, 685 Angeles, Francisca de Jos 511, 513, 518-519 Anson, George 724.726, 732 Apaches, Indians 123, 125, 165, 186, 199 map, 355, 464, 469-470. 474 map, 476, 529.576 Apache frontier 170, 194, 358, 359 5th 51 Apache threat 351. 478, 485049 Apacheeia 477-478 captives 356, 576, Bq deported to Cuba 819, 824-827; 831 raids by 189, 198, 348, a85n46 and 49 Spanish compacts (alliances with 142, 195 war / defense against 174,187,290, 196 Apinaje, Indians 593-595, 596, 600, 602 Aquaviva, Claudio 792 Aquibuamea, Luis 188 Araguaia River, Brazil 593-595, 599, 601 Aran’, Indians 415, 423 Arana, Catalina de 513 Araucania. 9, 1-12, 13.735. 728, 733 Arauicanos 12,718, 729,720, 733 Arauco 21, 717, 7185719-722.723) 733 See also Frontier of Aranco Arawaks, Indians sang, 56317, 619, 819, 621-822, 830 Argentina a1, 6, 267-268, 283-28, 417-418 Arica 280, 290072, 727, 732 Arinona 2,5, 43,92, 92.94. 96-98, 463, 474 ‘map, 803 Arlegui, Joseph de 523 armed forces and militias 18, 42, 19, 141=144, 164-65, 172174, 185, 213-214,.273-274, 278, 351, 550, 560, 598-599, 674, 704. 719-720, 728, 749, 800, 825 See also warfare Articivita, Iuan Domingo 517-518 Arrillaga, José Joaquin de 852.853 Arteaga, Ignacio, icutenant 842 Arua (Aruans}, Indians 619, 622 Aruba. 741,743 Asceneia, Alonso $36 Ascensién, mission among the Guarayos 701, 702 Asia 67.15, 19, 46, 108, 299, 387, 400, 445-448, 450-4554 457 513, 582, 598, 728, 730, 765-778, 773-778 782035, 784n50, 789-808, 843-347 See also South Asia Aslenso, 682, 885, 744, 748 Aslento de negroes. 744, 748 Asuncién, Maria Clara dela. 528 Atacama 268, 271, 283, 291ngo, ag2m100, 727 Athabaskan, Indians 32, 41 7aAtlantic Ocean 7.1, 28, 353, 615.669 and transatlantic economy 374, 599.776 and transatlantic empires 168. 445, 449. 671, 672 Atlantic port 2#0, 669, 670 Atlantic warld 210, 377, 579% 588, 669-670, 673-674, 686,750, 752-755. 765-766.777 Dutch Atlantic 743-744 islands 6, 674 transatlantic commerce 669, 747-748, 766 transatlantic eclesiastic networks 534,746 transatlantic slave wade 44, 579-560. 744 ‘See also transoceanie and riverine networks Augustinian, friars and missions 247,509, 693, 696,746, 767 autonomy, of indigenous peoples 3.12.17 31 46,61, 136, 166-167, 170, 173, 184, 186, 193, 249, 252, 319s 321-325, 331-333, 47-348, 387. 414-415, 548, 550, 552, 556-557, 60, 600, 616, 623, 641, 648, 650, 655, 671-672, 699, 742, 744 Avi-Canoeiro, see Canoeiro Artatlan, archaeological cultural complex 88-90, 92 Artecs 35, 42-43, 819 Aztlan 90,99 B Bacerac, Sonora 187-189, 192-193. 194.195. 198, 99 map Baegert, Jacob 799, 81ns8 Baheca, Hipdlito 188, 200 Bahia, Brazil 209, 284.2302, 400, 414, 42%. 425.449, 593 Salvador da Bahia $98, 671, 672, 737n70 aj, region in Mexico 87,119, 124 138 139 141,376 Ballividin, José 694 ‘Bananal Island, Brazil 593,594 map, 595, 602 bandeiras and bandeérantes 213,215,318, 424, 43873, 592-593, 595-599, 61, 603-64 baptism 141, 380, 42, 512, 513,515, 518, S5RINLL, 548, 551,552, 556, 649, 748 Baranov, Aleksander 849-850, 952, 854-855 Barbosa, Duarte 448 Barcelos, town in Brazil 6 20 INDEX 869 Barrios, Juan Evangelista 196. 199f Bautista de la Crux, Juan Valerio 139-142, 1gi-agg, 155, 19653 beatas / beaterio su, 517-519 Beauichéne, Jacques de 731 Belém, city and captaincy af Para, Brazil 401, 474 map, 593,595, 597; 613-615, 617-616, 621-622, 625, 627-628 Belize adits 249, 250 bells 533-534, 537 archaeological copper bells 91-92 linurgical bell ringing 528-529, 533, 551 Benavente, Toribio de (Motolinia) 45, 512 Benavides, Alonso de 511,513, 515-516, 525,533 Bengal, Bay of 443-445. 447 Beni, Department of, Boliv 700-704 Benianos 697 700, 705 Berger, Luis 554-555 Bering, Vitus 843-844 Beringia 32 Billoni, Santiago 535 10, 70, 696-698, Bio Bio River, Chile 11,319, 718, 719, 720. 738, Black River, Honduras-Nicaragus 240, 243, 249, 251 Bodega Bay 842-843. 848, 852-854 Bodega y Quadra, Juan Francisco de la licutenant 842, 846- body paint 62 Bohorquez, Pedro 326,332 boiling stones 36, 863 Bolivia x0, 16.17, 70, 267, 279, 283-284, 350, 534, 695, 703 highlands of 281, 291n79 interethnic relations in 691-692, 696 lowlands.of 60, 68 mining centers in. 275-281, 576 nation-state and citizenship in 697. y1-703, 705, 713079 port of 2gins9 Bolton, Herbert E. 2,15, 299,344,545 Bonaire 741,743 Borderlands as contact zones 3-4 as contested spaces 17-18 as interaction zones 308n7. 348, 383,537 641, 686, 752870 INDEX Borderlands (Continued) ccaninibalisns and barbarity related to 12-13, 437, 691.700 concepts of 1-4, 100n1, 753, 761m01 and mo4, 762-763, 751, Ba8M5, 817 confrontations in 333 contrasted with frontiers 4, 670-671 economies af 18-19, 240-241, 25514, 267, jong, $83n3, 658M14, 672, 73409, 765, 778, 787097 gender and. 354, 366168, and n69, 384-385, 5dans5, 582m, 659n22, 665, B36n51 historiography of 2, 8-18, 59, 105n64, 133, 334M3, 360N9, 36444, 370, 373, 38805, PS1-P52, 787-720, 778 imperial borderlands ©, 31, 57. 03-05, SUBMAB, 442-443, 446, 449, 4544 456-457, 483, 485, 488, 479-480, 489, 519, 525-526, $35, 561n7, 6282, 64.4, 654, 657n9, 6O3N6S, 671-673, 679, 683, 68714, 725, 754, 770-772, S1amss, 831 digenous borderlands 32, 97, 240-241, 245.297, 38, s30n68, 36275, 366N67, 375, 411027, 616, 642, 650, 656, 7061, 733 ermal borderlands 4~5, 26-17, 60, 67, 671 narratives of 3-4, 22, 14-16.64, 463. 659m18, 718, Boroa, Diego 555 Boruca, reduevién and indigenous group in Panama 243, 245.248 517 Borum, Botocudo Indians-self designation 425. 452m14 Botelho de Lacerda, Manuel 684-685 Botocudas / Batoculo, Indians 214 415-417, 419-421, 423, 425-430 Bourbon reforms 167-173. 772 bowand arraw 41, 86,148, 145, 148, 216, 3044 404, 600, 626, 643 Brahmans 453-455 Brazil 16, 38, 67,72,209-235, 244, 397-408, 433-430, 591-605, 613-628, 649-656 and Portugal’s European rivals 402-403, 015-020, 622 ‘Atlantic coast of 9, 12, 5, 402, 633, 614. 637, 619,624 Brazilian Atlantic rain-forest. 33,39, 61, 62,67 colanial horderlands of 209, 21, 234, S341, 34. 503, 647, 663n71 independence of 424, 428 intertribal relations in 214, 399, 599-604, 653 Laiso- Brailians 415, 591.585, 596,.600-6er4, 617, 643, 635,.666, 674, 676, 678-680, 682 ‘mestizaje as national pacification policy in 418-0, 422,430 mining im 215, 213, 219, 220-225, 416, 615, S24, 645 missions in 213,217,247, 409, 404~405, 422, 597-598, 614-618, 620-621, 623-624, 628, 643-644, 648, 666 Portuguese court in. 417 Spanish-Portuguese borders 60, 613, 617, 619, 620, 627, 642 See also bandeiras and bandeirantes Bribri, Indians 243 Brouwer, Hendrick 722, 728-729 Bueno da Silva, Bartolomen (father and san) 596 Buenos Aires, Argentina 171-274, 277, 280-281, 286n31, 670, 672-677, 679-686 Buitimea, Juan 196, 200 Burgos, Juan de 494-496 burial practices 36. 41, 95, 98. 110,117, 553.556 Burriel, Andrés Marcos, 5.1. <8inzo, 803-806, Bigng0 Bustamante, N.Ls Mexico 163-264, 17608 Cc Cabécar, Indians 243, 246-247, 251 Cabeza de Vaca, Alvar Niifez 911,13, 16, 22M39, $4, 46, 142-143 cabildo (town council) in Guarani reductions 550: in Mojos and Chiquitas 698-700 in La Frontera de San Sebastin, Zacatecas 303-304 of Buenos Aires 679 of Cuencamé, Durango 305 of Guatemala 573 of Havana 820, 82, 825 of Matanzas, Cuba 824 of Montevideo 674, 675 of Tlaxcala 135,165of Valladolid Comayagua, Honduras 172 of Zacatecas 380, 385 cacao 36, 246, 250, 252-253, 614, 618-619, 621, 626, 747 ‘Cachoeias de Macacu, RJ., Brazil 215, 216, aay, 228 cacicazge / caciques 550, 830 in Brazil 646, 652 in Chile 722, 729~ in Mojos and Chiquitos 699 in Northern New Spain 193,346,349, 491 Calchaqui 323, 330 Guarani 550 Otomi 138-141, 148,185 ‘Tule a52 ‘Cihita, language family 97, 10346 Cahokia 41.44 Caicedo, Augustin Beltnin 750 Calchagut, Juan 322, 327 Calchagui Valleys and river 319, 321-323, 5-329, 33-383 Calchagui, Indians 322-329, 332-338, 33865 Caldera de Quifiones, Nicolis 746 California 2,17, 32, 36,37, 41, 19, 196, map, 486m54, $28, 531, 572, 800, 802-806, 841-842, 850 ‘Alta California 65,108, 15, 517, 326-527, 534, 537, 540n22, 766, 784N53, 842-B.ia, 846, 848-849, 851-835 Baja California 108-109, 113, 190. 897. 475. 529, Bog, S51 passage by land to. 471-472, 476-477. 481020, 48656 Peninsula of 119, 13, 467. 469, 799. 81379 Callao, Peew 6, 672, 725, 727.732 ‘Camaro family 402-403, 407 Cameté, Brazil 614, 618 ‘Caminos camino de China 299 Camilo Nove 219 ‘Camino Real (capaciiam), in Andean region 268-269, 272, 273, 281-282, 2515, 286n31 Camino Real de Tierra Adentro 19, 62, 7%, 132: map, 295-296, 298-302, 304-307, yo7n4, 3iona8, 31137, 354, 381, 518 ‘Camino Real of Soconusco 299 2473 INDEX = 871 caminos reales 298, 30702 See also roads Campeche, neighborhood in Havana 821, 830, S34n23 canoes, see watercraft Canotiro f Avi-Canoeira 592-593, 594 map, 596, 642-604 canonization 517, 798, 8iond7 Cantagalo, Brazil 220-224, 23022 capaciar, see Camino Real Cape Gracias a Dios 242-243, 249, 251 Cape Horn 735, 731-732.851 captivity / captives, see enslavement and captivity ‘Capuchin order, friars, and missionaries 247, 397-399, 405-406, 419, 427-430, 52014, 597, 68, 746 Caguetios, Indians 742-743, 745-746, 748 Caracas, archdiocese of 742, 745-747 Caracas Company (Real Compaiia Guipuzcoana de Caracas} 748, 751 Cardiel, José 354, 563022 Cardim, Fernio 404-405 Cardoso de Oliveira, Roberto 3. 433n2t carey 246, 250-252 Caribbean 6, 8,33, 38, 50n64, 59. 6. 365n51, 528, $72, 575-576. 58, 615, 672-673, 722, 72H, 731, 742, 744, 748, 750-753 817-820, 823, 827, Bat busin 6.8 Central America’s Caribbean lands 239, Bah 244-245,247, 249 islands 249, 741, 820 southern Caribbean 672, 741-746, 755 Carmelite, friars, convents, and missions 217, 231 513, 622 Cartagena (current Colombia) 252, 670, 672, 743 cartography / maps 230122, 299, 446, 448, 463-468, 470-475, 477-479, aBin20, 482026, 483038, 484042, 558-560, 586163, 675, 718, 721, 728-729, 74%, 803-808, 814n8# and ngo, 842 Carvalho ¢ Melo, Sebastiio José de, Marques de Pombal 613 Casa da india 446 Casas. Grandes (Paquimé}, archaeological site 41, 43,93, 473-474 maps$72 INDEX ‘Casas, Bartolomé delas 510. 579.7376 ‘Caste War (Guernst de Castas) 827, 830 castellano and atcalde mayor, position of 771-775, 785n62, 786084 ‘Castelo-(gold bearing area), Brazil 215, 230n22 Castro, Chile 718, 722 724, 728-729 ‘Castro, Martinha Melo © 21,238, 2275 ‘Catechism 452, 455, 470, 514-515, 521021, 528, 533, 548s 55 ‘Catechesis 421-428, 450, 435039 and civilization 421-422 ‘Law of, Brazil (2845) 414, 435040, Provincial Gatechesis Service, Brazil 418, 43sngo éatsina dance 532 ‘Caupolican, region of 694-696 Cayenne 618,622 ‘Central America 6, 18,19, 59. 88 133, 183, 168, AGB, 170"171, 239°247, 249-254 57 579-581, 719, 731 777 820 conquest of 164-166 highlands of 242, 246,247, 251 ‘New Spainis borderlands in. 784053 See also Caribbean errade 60, 68, 593 Cerrito, El, archaeological site 87-88 ‘Chaco Canyon, archaeological site 92-93 ‘Chaco, Bolivia 10, 16, 33, 36-37. 60, 644-646, 691,694 ‘Chalebihuites archaeological culture 88-93, 95-97, ro1nag, 10446 as Mesoamerican frontier 59, 111 mines of 147, 372 map, 377 ‘Chaleo, Mexicn 42, 144-145 ‘Chamacnco, Indians 646, 663n62 ‘Changuina, Indians 243, 246-247 ‘Charcas, Audiencia of 320, 322, 330, 527-528, 692-694, 7ar ‘Charcas, San Luis Potost 372 map, 385 founding of 376 population of 380, 383, 386 ‘Charles 111, King of Spain 173, 523943, 7o8m4, ‘Charodos (caste in India} 455 ‘Chaupai, Diego 555 Chichas, province of 271, 273,277 279-280 Chichimeca concept f term 85-87, a5 Indians 5, 85, 88, 131, 135, 138-141, 145, 147. 15770, 185, 304, 512, 520n1, 823 Chichimeca Wars 139. 143.146 See also Gran Chichimeca Chicomoztoc legendary place 85-87, 90, 99 Chihuahua, Mexico 43, 65, 69, 96, 98, 109, 13,117,119, 120-121, 123-125, 196, 345-347, 349-356, 580, 776 Chihuahan Desert 65,72 Chile 9, 11-12, 32, 3%, 267-268, 279, 320-322, (332, $28, $73-S74, 580, 17-733 770 ioe 12, 718-719, 721-725, 728, 733 China 7.445. 448, 731, 751, 766-69, 77916, 789-806, B44, 846 ing plans for (Manila Proposal) 791-794, 813n69 China road, see camino de China chinampaJ chinampas 42,59,76 Chinapa, Sonora 198-199 Chiquitania, province 60, 68, 7st9 Chiquitos, region 16, 2562, 68. Chiquitanos, people 17, 26n68 missions of J reducciones 526-528, 534, 537 S39ML1, 541N4O, $43, 548-549, 556-557, 56qn39, 565153, 567, 693-604, 698, 701, 703. 7aany See also music and dance Chirikov, Aleksei 845 Choctaws, Indians 44-45 Christ 165, 404. 448) 497. 493. 496, 500-501, 505, 510, 514, 516-517, 519, 556, 702, 791-792, Boo Corpus Christi 533, 554-555, 558 Chuquisaca (La Plata / Sucre), Bolivia 273-274, 280-281 Cibola / Seven Cities 151,133, 135.143, 145-146, 157166, 299, 310731 inti, Peru 273, 280° citizenship / citizens 169, 171, 196, 418, (695-700, 702, 705, 714N94, 826 City of Caesars 725 Clastres, Piette 37, 46, 692 Clovis, New Mextco- 32 Clavis-type projectile 32 Coahuila, Mexican state of 65, 109, 113, 115, 165, 187, 348, 398, 360m Cobija, Peru 281, 283, 29189Cochabamba, Bolivia (Alto Peru} 272-274, 28, 694 ‘Cocumba, Indians 149 ‘Céidice de ilatepec 139-141, 148-149, 1550145 Ciadice de Tlateloleo 145-146, 148 cafradias (eonfraternities) 354. 382, 530. 352, 596,557,560, 750 ‘Coimbra, Manoel Soares 211-225 ‘Colegio de Propaganda Fide de la Santa Cite 518 ‘See alsa Franciscans colleras 826, 963 Colon, Diego 743 Coldnia do Sacramento, 665-686 ccolonos (settlers), in Cuba 67,704, 828-829 ‘Comanche, Indians 142,165,174, 650 ‘Comayagua, Honduras 164-165, 169, 171-172 COMMEFCE 10-11, 59, 68, 165, 169,246, 249% 254.280, 283, 295-208, 301, 303, O9MIG, 350, 352, 41ON2}, 424, 430, 444, 446, 598, 601, 615, 720, 731, 749, 7fong and nn, 830 indigenous 297, 308n9 commercial circuits 6, 79, 297, 351.744. mara commercial networks 240, 271-272, 281, 297 353: 671, 685, 772, 799, 851 merchants 85, 91, 99, 269, 271-274. 277 279-283, 288n43, 290n72, 299, 351-352.374, 379, 409M, 447-451, 61 537 58H 595: 598-399, 644, 666, 669-674, 677. 679, 680-68, 685-685, 687n2, 693, 695, 702-703, FSM, TI3NB3, 720. 74s 74-745, 747-P49, 751: 769, 774-776, 778, 845s 848-850, 852, 858-859r40 trans-imperial 670-672, 680-681, 683-684, 686, 743-744, 748 ‘See also contraband trade ‘See also Manila Galleon ‘See also transoceanic and riverine networks ‘Compagnie Royale de la Mer du Sud 732 ‘Compostela (current Tepic}, Nayarit 142-144, 3o7m4 Concepcisin, Chile 22, 556, 672, 718-720, 722-723, 732 Conceptionist Convent 513 ‘Conchos, Indians 187, 348-350, 353, INDEX 873 confraternities, see cofradias congregation policy 115, 190, 141, 158882, 185, BING, 354-355. 460N39, 476. 4BENGE, zim, 529, 536, 616 See also reduecetin F reduceiones Goisag, Fernando (also Ferdinand) 482020, 805 contact culture 3.15 Contraband. 2,169, 20 and cattle 675 trade and goods 249, 249-251, 253-254, 262187, 598, 624, 670, 680, 682-686, 686m, 6BAMI5, 743-745, 748-752 766-767, 772-774, 7HONB and HI, 822, 830 See also gold, and contraband See also smuggling Cook, James 732, 842, 846 Cora, Indians 89-90,97.473 Cordes, Simon de 722, 728-729, 737068 Cérdoba, Argentina 269-270, 280, 321,322, 333,337 Core-periphery model 3-4. 753-754.794 Coro, town of in Paraguana, Venezuela 688, 742, FAS-743 Coraado, Indians 210, 214=215. 219, 225, aa8in4, 429 Coronel y Arana, Maria 513 Corapé, Indians 210, 214-215, 219, 225 corregidar 550-551, $6314, 699, 705, 722 ors, José 701, 712077 Cortés, Hernan 9, 134, 135-137. 139-140, 155053, 164,175 cosmopolitics 415-416, 425-426, 432012 Couto, Diogo do 445 Coxi 187 Coymans House 746 creoles, Russian 845, 849-850 Graz, Juan deta 139, 141155845 Cuba 183, 578, 817-831 Cuauhnochtli, Alonso 145 Cuervo, Francisco Javier 187, 199° Chiabé, Mato Grosso, city and captainey 596, 599, 604 Culhuacan, legendary place 6, 99,145 Cliaciin, Sinalaa 9, 88,242,143, 144,145,185, 345-346 Cunha Matos, Raimundo José da 603 213-214, 216, 22706874 INDEX ‘Cunha, Dona Damiana da (Kayapd Indian} 603-604 ‘cunhamenas {mixed-race traders in Portuguese Amazonia) 619-620 Curagad 240, 244, 674-673, 732 and contraband 747 748.730-754 and Roman Catholic Church 743-750 and slave trade 746, 749 Dutch colony 249, 741, 743-745 free port 744.750 Spanish possession 742~743 curanderisnro é curanderas 356,358 See also shamanism ‘Curiepe, Venezuela 749 ‘Cusihuiriachi (also Custhuiriachie), Chihuahua 124, 353, 358 ‘Cuzco, Peru 269, 272,273, 274 277 280 D dance 92, 163, 356, 49%, $26-528, 538-532: 5375 353, 564¢m36, 7o7n20 guancasca 63,1766 smeatachines 532, 537 moras y cristianos 532 Danesi, Pedro 553 Darién 239-254 Davalos, Diego 397,399. 4ogn2 debt peonage, see labor Delarov 842, 847 Delegacién Nacional de Guarayos 703-704 See alsa Guarayos deforestation 44, 62, 71, 72.73, 377.387 demography §7.108-100, 445, 648 historical demography 65,72, 107.109, 112 population contral 36 Devil 357-358. 404, 46034, 493, 512.516. 519, 552, 792, 806 Diaguitas, Indians 319-322, 324-326, 332-333 diplomacy 164, 355, 388n1, 601-602, 605, 792.818 See also peacemaking Directorate (Diret6rie) 417-418, 422, 424-425, 428, 597, 620-627, 648 disease 1 45, 63, 71,164, 346-347; 3495 352, 356, 387, 615~616, 321 cholera 207,12, 128n30, 129045 climate-related 592 cocalitli 112, 16 dysentery 112, 732 epidemic 70, 107-1 3.115, 217-119, 121, wa2-135, 204, 345, 348-349, 400-40, 491, 596-597, 619 lewashiarkor 34 matlecdhuatl 112-115,116, 438 measles 12-113, 115,116, 119, 121-122, 124-125, 214, 348, 614, 619 pellagra 40 quarantine (cordon sanitaire) am smallpox 110, 11 13,115, 116,119, 121-125, 128N30, 12950, 214, 348, 400, 572, 614, 619, 622, syphilis 12, 128n29 typhus 110, 13, 116, 732 Doce, river 416-417, 419-423, 425-427, 430, agin Dom Manuel, King of Portugal 449 Dominicans 353.528, 8i2n63 as authorized missionary order 5204 in Mosquitia 247 in Sou on Curagio 746 missionary methods s2ina1 Dérame, Juan Ignacio, indigenous leader 196 See also Opatas Dorasque, Indians 243, 246, 248 Drake, Erancis 723-724, 736-727, dry farming 42 43 Durango, Mexican state of 59, 65.69, 88-90, 92, 95-97, 109,115, 17, 119-135, 132, Maps 141-142s 1735 300, 303-305, 345-3464 349, 358,379, 489-492, 4944-496, 498, 503-504, 535-337 Cathedral of 348, 496, 526, 530, 535-537 121-122, pasnad E ast India Company (VOC) 738 encomienda / ercomenderas 12, 117, 134.149, 143,148, 1645 167-168, 171-173, 75-1765, 178, 186, 421-324, 329-333, 336n30, 337n53 and 154, 346, 350, 378, 511, 549, 575-579, 580-582, 718, 723; 7426785, 829 Enriquez, Nicolis 503-504enslavement and captivity 244-245. 253. 36350, 417, 427.571, 580, 589, 690, 739, B17-Beg, 826-829, B51, 8336, 838-839 emancipados 831 piezas $26 See also slave trade environment 2, 57, 60.64, 68, 71-73, 240, 36214, 376, 39031 Calusas and non-agricultural subsistence 68 fallow, shortand long 38-39, 41 fencerows 43, 5297, 8ons7, 864 flooding 42, 69-70 Little Tee Age 44 raised fields 42, 44, 59, 70, 614, 865 shell middens 34-35. 544, 621 terracing 42, 59-60, 63, 866 See also deforestation, landscape, kelp high- way, swidden agriculture, and varzeet epidemics, ee disease Ercilla, Alonso de 9, 1-23, 2344 and 45, 728 Escandell Bonet, Bartolomé 510 Eskimo-Aleuts 32, 91 Fspinareda, Pedro de 510 Espinosa, Isidro Felis (Felix) de 517 Espirito Santo, province and mission, Brazil a30m22, 4o4, 414..427-428 Ethnicity 136,185, 2014, 255n5, 349. 354-3595, 384.625, 625, 744, 799 and gender 354-355, 957, 391854, 304, ethnic group 2-3. 7.19; 60. 87, 94, 140m, 296, 344. 348, 350-351, 381-383, 387 399, 402, 408, 415, 438070, 528, $6317, 619, 622, 624, 656, 65719, BFA, 692-695, 697, 742 ethnocide 399-401, 430 ethnogenesis 15,19, 185,198, 237n8, 241-243, 319, 343, 348, 361113, 397-399, 401-402, 418, 424, 43540, 546-147 615 923, 626,-629n11, 697, 7lom42 as concept 546-547 Exaltacién, Bolivia 699 expedticiones de altera 842 E famine 43, 46,122, 278, 400 famine foods 45 INDEX 875 Ferreira, Miguel Antunes 216-217 Ferreria, La, archaeological site 90 Florencia, Francisco de 495-496 Flores de Cierra, Antor 404 flute-player, glyph p1-03 Fonseca, Manuel Freitas. da 674 Font, Juan 491-492, Food security 1, 31, 8563 enamel hypoplasia 41 Liebig’s Law 36 marine resources 32, 34-35. 37; 845; 864 road food 40 secondary subsistence system 31 subsistence calendar 35 theorem of met energy 34 farts 12,187, 324, 351, 402, 613-614, 617-619, 620, 628, 642, 644, 646-647, 653, 674,695, 71% 720, 722-724, 729, 743-744, sua Fort of Coimbra 646-647, 651-655 Fort Ress 842, 853-855 Francis Xavier, Saint 454. 457. 496, 795-797, 802, 808 Franciscans 45,108, 135, 143, 247,318, 351 360, 452, 457, 463-464, 476-477, 515, 577. 597, 617-618, G91, 693-696, 722, 746. 795.799 missions of 115, 117, 124, 313751, 345-347, 354. 451, 466-467, 478-479, 510. 512, §26-$20, $4022, 695. 712, 71$, 773 missionaries 99, 165, 192: 304. 402-403, 488, 511, 514, 516, 518, 524-525, 532. 534-535, 695-696. 701-703, #12068, 8s and cartography 471 and Colegio de Propaganda Fide de Querétare 518, 523039. and Friar Felipe de Jess, Mexican martyr and beato 795-798, Sunsi and m53 and mysticism 509-515, 517-519, 522023, 525,528, 53.4, 70, 716, 81 See also Fray Antonio Margil de Jestis, and Sor Maria de Jestis de Agreda Francisco Coremnel 513 Franks 443 Fresnille, Zacatecas 372 map, 375-376, 385, 386INDEX 876 ters 1,8, 915-18, 58, 60, 66, 165, 160-17, 173, 183, 209-21, 235, 283, 296, 298-2099, 344.351, 414, £46, 450, 472, 620, 623, 672, 690, 694, 717, 751-752, 843, 846, B55 contasted with borderlands 4, 7,.670-671 inter-ethnic frontiers. % 864 mining frontiers 62, 67 mission frontiers 451-453, 456, 467 of Arauco 719-721, 723 ‘of Ayséit and frovitena de arriba 721-725 successive frontiers: 4-5. 11, 14,463,717 Frutes, Francisco de 538 Fuente, Gaspar dela 378, 380, 385-386 Fuerte, river 88, 92 Fuerteitos 196 G xgilleon 6, 299, 766-769, 771-778, 795 See also Manila Galleon Gallo de Pardifias, Claudia 771-774, 776, 7Ammg Gallo de Pardifias, Juan Eusebio 771-776 Gallo de Parditias, Miguel Ventura 773,776 Gallo, Miguel 770=775 gender 8,18, 282, 343-344, 354-359, 361015, 373 38, 384, 387.551.553.579 See also ethnicity General Indian Court af New Spain 300-301, 308-305, 312038 Ghent 495 gifting / gift exchange 9, 190, 191, 213, 220, 222,245, 248, 251, 328, 238165, 346, 424, $02, 619, 641-642, 652-654, 729-730. 774-776 B02 Goa 445-447 4495 451-453, 455-457 Golds, captaincy and state 67, 209, 591-594. 596, 598-601, 603-604 Goitacd, Indians 214 gold 12, 214-220, 248, 252, 438073; 445, 46034, 496, 502, 598-584, 596-597 599, 718, 727,730, 742 791 and contraband 210, 223-224, 229n20 and naa, 232040, 414 and mining 71,73, 166, 374-375, 598 green gold 448-449 Gomes, José 217-219, 230029 ‘Gomez Manzo, Juan 746 Geimer, Pedro 825 Gorizia, Friar Serafin de 439, 43 Gracias a Dios, town of, Honduras 363. 243 Gran Chaco 36.37 Gran Chichimeca 5,131,182 map, 139, 141, 145s 148s 1675 371, 3888 Gran Paititi 332 Gran Quivira, see Quivira Gria-Pard, State of, see Maranhio ‘Guachichiles, Indians 131, 132, 135,147, 169, ar 381 Guachinangos (Mesoamerican laborers in Havana) 823-825, 835n35, Guadalajara, Mexico 119, 152 map, 142-143, 304, 372 MAP, 378, 3844 509, 7695 851 Guadiana (current Durango), Mexico agi Guadiana Valley, Durango 510 Gusikuri, Indians 642, 644-648, 650-656 alliances of 645 as Kadiwéu 647 Guamares, I 13,132, 372, 38 Guana, Indians 645-646, 653~654 Guanacevi, Nueva Vizcaya 372 map, 375, 493 Guanajuato, Mexico. 71, 88, 235, 300-303, 372 map, 373, 377-378 774 population of 380-381 _guancasco, see dance (guano 39, 284n6 Guarani, Indians 10-11, 16, 25165, 60, 76023, 397, 40902, §35~826, $28, 534, 541.40 and 42, $45: 548: 350-353. 555-357 5595 S61 notes 2, 5, and 8; 565 notes 17.19, and 23:565n45 and ng8, 556N58, 567, 674, 7O6M1, FORNI9 and N24, 714096, 75 Guarayos, Indians 693-695, 700-Fa5, 715 _guardacostas 753 and Caracas Company 748,751 as agents af empire 752-753, Guatemala 134-235, 173,7m05, 18151, 182, 299, S17 Audioncis of 172 Cabildo of 573 Guaymi, Indians 243 See also Ngdbe Indians Guayrd, Indians. 554,559 Guendalain, Juan de 495Guianas, coastsof 42 Guiana, French 209, 61.4 Guiana, Dutch é15 Guyana (Guiana), British 622 Glirizo, Juan 198-190 Gurrola, Cristéhal 188, 190, 200 Guzman, Nufiode 9, 85-88. 99, 134-135, 142-144, 819-821 H ‘hacienda (agricultural estate) 11, 65, 17-18, 123-124, 242, 244-245, 301-303, 304, 306, 309116, 323, 343-344, 346-347 349-35ln 353-3505 371s 377, 380, 382-385, 575-575, 693, 695-695, 700, 703, 70818, 714N87, 76 ade minas (mining estate) 371, 372.385 ade beneficio (metal refining plant) 71,72, 376 ‘Hagemeister, Leontii, captain $53, 854.855, hallucinogens 36 ‘Hamme, Peter ‘Thomas van (Pedro van Hamme} 495, $02 Hanabana Quemada 830 Havana, Cuba 670, 672, 743, 819-827 healing / healers 9, 36, 395-356, 358, 616, 803 See alsa shamanism, Heceta, Bruno de, lieutenant 842 hechiceria 357 see also witchcraft ‘Henriques, Manoel (Mao de Luva) 21 214-215, 217-220, 20n22, 231033 Henriques, Luis 326, 332, 341ng6 bhides 71, 272, 311m35, 354, 593, 598, 6444, 674 6577-679, 68% 7435 747 Hispaniola 742, 819-826, 834n19 Hohokar, archeological culture 43, I-93, 97 Hopi, Indians 15, 92, 94 97 Hormuz 445 ‘Huamanga 272 Huasteca, region 99 Huastecos, Indians 18 map, 819-823, 834m19 Hgli 443, 445.447 map ‘Huichol, Indians (Wixarika) 89-90, 94, 97-98, 379 Huilliches, Indians 11, 718 shi 791, 794~ INDEX = 877, I Iberian Peninsula 6, 329, 597,513,527, 5724771 Iberian World, definition of 6 identity 19, 133, 136, 181, 192-195, 197-198, 318-3195 415, 527, 822, 824 and culture language 184, 401, 43212, 546-547, 549, 616, 693 and migration 770 Christian / Catholic 528, 531, 538 corporate / communal. 303, §32, 537 ethnic 177m15, 241, 345, 350, 356, 373, 439181, 595,-627-628, 695-696, 703 national 414, 431n3, 705, 715 See also ethnicity idolatry 453. 494.512, 916, 813068 Immaculate Conception, Virgin of in Zape. Durango 489-495, 500, 508 44 order of Franciscan nuns $13, $33 See also Franciscans See also Jesuits India 7.408, 766-767, 795.797 799 Estado da india 443-458 See also East India Company (VOC) Indian allies / friends as conquerors 131-133, 148 as colonists / settlers 132-133, 147 165-169, 171-175 toriography and sources 131, 133-135, 1son4, 1siniz and ma4—17 in borderlands 5, 18, 131,133.35, 5207, 173-175, 20114, 33405, 365058, 402, 532, 636NN15, 639, 645, 655 number of in conquest expeditions 133, 142-144 154029, 157074, OF8, 653,733 of the Dutch 252, 722, 728-730.733 of the English 240, 241, 243-244, 249, 350, 252 of the Portugese 614, 615, 617-620, 625, 627, 641-643, 645.651, 653, 655, 683, 685; Bororo 604; Krahd 6 Potiguar 402;'Tobajara 402, 617; Tremembé 617; Tupi / Tupinamba 398, 617 of the Spaniards 83-87. 90, 99, 163-365, 183-185, 192-193, 30703, 331-332, 33405. 346, 349, 352 Mexica 147,164, ‘174, 185; Mixtec 164, 166, 173;$78 INDEX Indian allies friends (Continued) ont 14-182, 198-141, 7-140, 164, 185; Tarascan / Purépecha 131,135.43. 147 158ndo, 185; Tlatelolca 13 145-146; Tlaxealan 131,133, 135-197 Ls 164-165, 1694173-175, 185; Pima, Mayo, Pueblo, Apache 142: Zapotec 144, 164, 166,173 organization of 144-145, 147, 15884 recruitment of 133-134, 145, 147-148, 15114 rights and privileges af 153,134, 166, 168, 171,172,175, See also Mesoamerican es of the Spaniards Indian Ocean 7.44% 765.777 incligenows artisans 295, 306,557; 698 indigenous informants: 18, 87,136,211, 24 215-216, 219, 23, 453, 456, 4685 497, 615, 626, 652 incligenows languages 28014, 241, 336028, 382, 549, $57,616 See alsa Macto-Gé, Tepiman, and Uto-Aztecan language families See also Kakin See alsa Nahua speaking peoples Infidels / gentiles 327-328, 407, 451. 453-454, 464, 470. 473, 476-477. 479-480, 509-510, 512-514, 547-548. 558.598, 702, Boo, 864 Inquisition, Holy Office of 217.219, 358.386, 450-451, 518-516, 518-519, $27. $32 jnntendants (intendaney sytem) 173,296, poms Intendencia Delegacional de Guarayos, sce DelegaciOn Nacional de Guarayos, Init 32, 41, 849-850 inrigation 42-44, 38-60, 66, 68-65, 7512, 96, 863 Isthmus of Panama 517,726,731 Itambacur, city and mission in Minas Gerais 429, 422-425, 425-430 Itaptia, mission 559 J Jalisco, Mexican state of $8-89, 92, 97, 142-143 Jamaica 240, 244, 249-250 Japan f Japanese 445, 452,766, 769, 774-775. 789, 791-799, 801-803, 806, 451 Japiagu, Tupinamba leader 406, 408. Japurd, river 620, 626, 648 Jequitinkonha, river 421—425, 430 Jesuits. 117, 1B, 346-347. 353. 452, 457 463-464, 466, 534-535, 773, 799 and cartography 471 and martyrdam 797-799, Sins and science 803, 806, 815, as Society of Jesus 187.332, 465, 467, 470-416 4D, 490, 545, 597% 720. 789, 780, 796, 800, 805 missionaries 769-773.776-779, 784-785 trans-Pacific networks of 789-795 expulsions of 474, 476, 490, 528, 545.549 $53 588-555, 595, 597, 693-694, 696, 79n 793-794 See also St. Thomas Christians Joss, Gertrudis de 528 Tilotepec, New Spain 139-141,144, 48-149 Joaquim, indigenous leader 215, 220, 224, 23240 Juan Andrés 187, 200 Juan Ferninder Islands 731-732 Jujuy 270-284, 323 Juruna, Indians 614, 623-627 Jusacamea, Juan Ignacio (Banderas) 196, 200, 2031, 204n42. 207087 Jusacamea, juan Maria 200, 20341 Just War 216, 417.449, 421,572, 618-619 K Kadiwéu, Indians 60. 647f, 655. 6s8nn. 63n62 Kaka, language 321, 326,332 Kamchatka Peninsula 31, 844-845. 850-851 First Kamchatka Expedition 844 Second Kamchatka Expedition 845 Kangxi 448 Karajé, Indians 592, 594 map, 595-596, 599-602, 641 Kashaya Pomo, Indians. 33, 36.843, 852, 854 Kayapé, Indians 596-597, 602-604 Kayapé do Sul, Indians 592, 5944 map, 558, 641. 645 kelp highway 32, 864 Kerala, India 449, 450, 451, 454, 460n39 Kino, Francisco Eusebio 464-473, 481m12 and mit, 801-803, 805, 81484‘Kodiak Island $41, 848, 850 ‘Konkani, language in India 455, 437 Kotzebue. Otto von 854-855 Krahé, Indians 594-596, 600-602 ‘kyu (Botocuide Indians) 419, 480, 434032 ‘Kukra, Indians 24}, 245-246, 248 ‘Kuna, Indians, see Tule, Indians Kuskov, Ivan A. 852-855 L Hermite, Jacques 726 ‘La Paz, Bolivia 372-274, 280-281, 704-705 La Rioja, Argentina 273, 283, 322-325 labor debt peonage 576, 586n24, 828-830 Jorzados 818-820, 823-827, 831, 8351135, laborios 576, 578, See also naborias repartimiento (forced labor} 1, 124, 185-186, 297, 346-347, 378, 575, 577-578 582, 588, 865 and wages 147,196, 378-379, 382, 420,61 620, 704, 830, 851, 865 See alsa mining See alsa mita Ladrillero, Juan de 723 Laguna de Mayran, region 95 Lake Titicaca 33.42.44 ind tenure $9, 63-64, 67-68, 72, 7835, 345. 350, 360010, 465138, 369, 7111163 landscape cultural landseapes 13.18, 27.53.57-62, 4ogna, 68,82, 95, 370, 4644, 472f, 480, 543.629, 6396716 changes in. 63,65, 70-72 colonial landscapes 672 definition of 57 desert landscapes. 98 Hooded landscapes. 592 and hydraulic systems 69 of Araucania and southern C! $ee also environment Larios, Juan sia aw 4-5, 68-69, 307n2, 312042, 320, 358 378, 419-420, 422, 513-514, 57 577-578, 653.793 lawenforcement 2, 235,751,774 Law of Catechesis (Brazil, 845) 414 RB INDEX 879 Law of Landholding (Brazil, 1830) 414, 422 Law of Liberty (Brazil) 213, See also Directorate Lav of Missions (Brazil, 1872) 422 Minas Law (Brazil, 1872) 425 and citizenship (Bolivia) 697, 699-700 and enslavement 618, 825-826 and indigneous rights 153n21, 178n24, 197. 305174, 702-703, 713079, 715097 Le Maite, Strait. 738, 731-733 Lempira Revolt. 165,169,174 Lerma Santiago, river 171 Léry, Jean de 9, 12-13 Liengo de Tlaxcala 136-138, 153020, 167 Lima, Peru i4-12, 271-273, 277; 280, 320, 574, 724 727, 73% 776, 790, 795-796, 798 Linares, Nuevo Letin 109, 119-122, 124 Lingua Geral (Nheengatu) 616, 624 Lishon 209, 211, 217-219, 224, 404, 456, 598, 614, 617, 683-684, 790 liturgy. 451-452, 527, 529,538 5355 53% 55 60 Lobo, Manuel 673 Lagroiio, Spain $16 Loma Alta, archaeological culture #9, 9¢ Loma San Gabriel, archaeological culture 95 Londres, Argentina 322-325. 327. 33863 Lapez de Haro, Goniala, pilot 842. 847-848 Lapes de Legazpi, Miguel 767 Lopez, Diego $15 Lord of Tlaxcala, sce Tlaxcala, Lord of Loreto, place name 475. 359, 563m17 Virgin of 490, 494, 505n3, 557. 565. 566n33 Luso-Brazilians, see Brazil M Macacu, river 215 Macau, China 445.452. Macoyagui, Pueblo of, (Macoyahuis) 66-67 Macro-Gié, language family 214, 595 Madeira, river 613, 615, 623, 628, 648, 694 Madrid, Spain 37,494 515, 526, 574, 613, 723-724, 763, 790, 792-794, 803, 846, 853 Madrid, José Maria 200, 207088 Madruga, Cuba $31 Madurai, India 447 map, 452-454, 456, 797S80 INDEX ‘Magellan, Strait of 6. 319. 717-719, 723, 725-728. 730-733 Magellan, Ferdinand de 7x parnés and 6 “Mahu, Jacques 728 Maire, Jacob Le 728 ‘Malabar 447 map, 449, 454, 456, a60m32 Manao, Brazil 615. 619 Mandan, Indians 40 ‘Manila. 527, 670, 766-768, 770, 773-774, FIR 7FMNT TBan4s, FAENG, 791-795, 798 Manila Galleon 6, 299, 766-772, 774-778, 78ONB, FROME, 784N46, 789s 803, $06 ‘Manila Proposal, see China Manilenols) 773-775, 779 maniog 38-42, 45, 50N64, 59, 63, 400, 419. 595-98, 598-599, 614, ‘Mapuche, Indians 11-12, 398, 573-574, 580, 651, 718-739, 722, 728, 733 rebellion of 1598 728, 733 Marajé Island 42, 614~615, 617, 619~620, 622 Maranhio, captaincy of 398, 402, 405-408, 592-595, 04f, 62, 617, 619-620 river 596-397, 602 State of Maranbio, founded in 1621 617 State of Grio Pari and Maranhio, founded inazse 620 Marathi, language in India 457 “Margi de Fests, Antonio 513, 937-519 See alsa Franciscans Marliére, G aamns7 Martinez de la Marcha, Hernando 578-379 “Martine, José Esteban, lieutenant $42, 847-848 Martinho, indigenous leader 221 martyrdom, red and white 800, 81160 See alsa Franciscans See also Jesuits mass (catholic religious service) 140, 458,519, 526, 527, 550-551, 554, 556, 746 matachinres, see dance ‘Matina, Costa Rica 242,245-246, 251 Mato Grasso, Brazil 16,68, 592, 594-595, 509, 603-604, 615, 620-621, 646, 65), 654-655 Maurelle, Antonio, second pilot 842 723.726-727, ido Thomaz 9-421, 43646, Mawé (Maué), Indians 614, 623-627 Mawe, John 224 Maxakali, ethnic group and language 415, 433, 43981 Maya, Indians Kagehikel 165,171 Vueatec 819-851 Mayo, Inclians 125, 190-391, 193-194, 197-198, 206178, 466 Mazapil, Zacatecas 372-map, 378-379, 381, 383, 385-386 Mbayi-Guaikuri, Indians, see Gi Mecos, Indians 825, 827 Mediterranean 6, 752, 765.777 Medrano, Blas 188-189, 198, 199f, 205074, 206n79 Medrano, Francisco 288, 198, 1991 Mendoza, Antanio de, 141-146, 157969 and 70, 792 Meira da Rocha, José 683 Melaka, Strait of 7,445, 447 Melo, Francisco 515 Mendieta, Jerénimo de 511 Mendonga Furtado, Francisco Xavier de, governar and captain general 613-614, 620 Mendoza, Francisco de 493-494. 496-497. 502 Mercedarians 247, 618 as authorized missionary order s20n4 merchants, seccommerce Mérida, Yucatan 824 Mesoamerica culture area 5, 13.17 39-40, 43, 59-60, 63, 68, 83-84, 91-92, 95, 96-97, 99,135, 147.185, 298 Mesoamerican allies of the Spaniards 84-87 90, 994 1325 137, B45; 1695353 Mesoamerican borderlands / periphery 41, garg Mesoamerican cultures, groups, and, peoples 41,59, 83-88, 94-98, 98, To1ni2, 103-104N46, 141, 30810, 345, 349,824 Mesoamerican frontier and frontier fluctuations 59, 83, 88-92 ‘Mesoamerican influence on the US Southwest 10, 308m10 ri iceroy 9, 22m39, 133,Mesoamerican painted histories 64 northern Mesoamerica 85-89.92-93 95-96, 99, 100n7, 10106, 20114 nuclear / core Mesoamerica 10. 87 ‘Messner, Johan 587 smestizaje, cultural and biological 113.114 Map, 15, 125, 319, 331, 34s 354-35, 350, 429, 696, 720, 823, 830, as State policy in Brazil. 418-420, 42%430 concept of 547 mestizos 166, 190, 2870135, 325-326. 328, 343,347, 351-352, 393, 409, 476, 48551, Sm, $37 795, #35035, 851 ‘white-mestizns cari) 698-700, 704 Mexica Empire 9, 64 ‘Mexica, Indians 41, 86, 88, 90, 92, 101m12, oana8, 136, 139, 147, 153N19, 15433, 164, 166, 172-173, 185, 382, 491, 819, 879. ‘Mexicaneros, Indians 89-90 ‘Mexicapa, Honduras 163-165, 173-372 ‘Mexico central 33, 42~43, 63,69, 71, 87, 88, 93, roma, 131-132, 134, 138,139. 144, 164, 169, 185, 295, 297, 300, 303, 307, 347, 373 378.378~370, 382, 491-492, 534, 575,823 Mexico City 9, 70-71, 142-144. 190. 295-296, 29-300, 304, 308, 312038, 352, 472 map, 373,378, 380-381, 463, 467, 491-492, 495, 497-498. $09, 533, 595: 89% 768-7705 773-776, 778, 790, 798, $02, 826-827, 855 northern 2, 9-10, 15, 17-18, 38, $9, 67,72, BB, 117,300 3345, 973, 3910963, 4905 550 southern 38,379 Valley of 18,35. 44 42. dd. 595 62, 89,138 149,170, 296, 4a 528, 824 al, Valle del, New Spain. 62-63, 65, 138-139,147 Michoacin, madern Mexican state 88-91, 95, 99, 134s 142-1455 147, 352, 3546375, 578 ilpa 39, 45.59, 65-87, 695 864 Mimbres, archaeological culture 95 ‘Minas Gerais, captaincy and state 6%; 209-216, 28-221, 413-431, 59% 599, 603, 615, 624 mining =, 61-62, 65-67, 71-72, 19, 165, 173, 269, 279-281, 318, 344, 353,371 372/, 375-382, 416, 645 Meza INDEX 881 Africans in 375 ancient indigenous mining 89 and roads 298-300 Brazil mining boom 215 children, families, and orphans in 380, 383-386 enslaved and farced laborers in. 375. 378.587 environmental impact of 72, 73.349, 373-377, 387, 390032 ethnie and language diversity in 373-374, 31-385, 387 free-wage labarers in 378-379, 382 gold mining 215-217, 374, 593. 598-599 illegal operations in Minas Gerais 216-221, 225, 230n21, 231n29 and 38 Indian migration to, and population of, mine districts 108, 17-18, 134, 296, 347 379-380, 385 indigenous prospectors 375 labor regime 147,375. 378 mining tawns, centers and camps (reales de ‘minas) 13, 123-124. 147. 242, 303, 32044, 351-354, 386, 358, 371-373, 375-380, 526-527, 53%, 581-582, $92, 596, 6a3~6o4, Gosins3, 61s northern New Spain mining, district 375,378 ‘peperta, partida (ore sharing) 379 silver timing 1g. 19. 132, 169, 268, 271-273, 304, 3461 393 371-38} 771 social fluidity in 382-387 societal norms in. 383-385 violence in 386 women’s work in 379, 383-386 See also anita Minuane, Indians 671, 675.677-679 Miskitu, region and Indians 239-247, 249-254, 257N27N28, 25BN33- 263-264 Tawira Miskitu 243, 245,264 Sambo Miskitu 243, 245,247,250, 284 ns and missionaries, see Augustinians, friars and missions; Capuchin order, friars and missions, Carmelite, friars, convents, missions; Directorate (Diretirio); Dominicans; Franciscans, Jesuits; reduccidn / reducciones$82 INDEX _mita, forced labor system in Peru 325.378, 575-576, 577-578, $86 .mitates, suppression of 332 Miwok, native people of Bodega Bay 843, 852 “Mixton: War 85,131, 183, 142-146, 198184, 178, s20n1, 573 Mocha Island 727 Mochica, Indians 43-44 Mojas (Moxos), region and peoples 16, 70. 526, 528, $341 54s 548-550, 567 (692-684, 696-698, 7a, 703, 715.736 ‘Momboré-tagu, Tipinamba elder 397,399, 405 Monclova, Coahuila 351, 353, 358 ‘Monoxé, Indians 15 ‘Monsieur de Gennes 731 ‘Monte Verde, Chile 32 Monteiro, Jahn 9, 19,397, 4091, 422, 436043, 592, 599. ‘Montejo, Francisco de 165,171, 819-820 ‘Montes, Juan 187, 189-190 Montevideo, Uruguay 672, 674-677, 680, 62, 686 Moraga, Gabriel 853 Mosquitia 239-250, 253 See also Miskitu Mota y Escobar, Alonso, Bishop 379 Motolinia, see Benavente, Taribio de Moxos, ser Mojos Moya, José 376 ‘Moya de Contreras, Pedro 509.792 ‘Mucuri Commerce and Navigation Company (1847-1861) 419, 424-425, Mucuri, river 432-423, 427 Mughal 443-445, 454-455 mulite (Spondyius princeps) 44 ‘Munduruku (Munduruct, Munduruka) 614, 625-627, 634n86 and nr, 641, 650, 635, Munoz Camargo, Diego 153020, 168 ‘Mufiog, Juan Bautista 326-332, 340182, saint ‘Mura, Indians 614, 623-627, 641, 647-656, 65am music §,19, 356, 367173, 405, 525-537, 53915, 548.554, 557, SO4N36 N34, 567, O41 labados / alabansas. 527, 529-534, 537 chants / chanting 405, 527-328, 531, S3B-SB4, 5375 593-554 musical instruments 527~530, 532534. 536-537. 341040. 352-354 See also bells N naborias 336021, $76, 578-579. 585, 819 See alsa laborios Nagasaki martyrs. 795-798 Miki, Paul 795-799, 810038 and nai Kisai, Jamies 795-799, Sian38 Goto, John de 795-799, 810n38 Nahua (Nahuas) / Nahuatl speaking peoples 59,85, 134-139, 145. 147148 167, 304, 312144, 374-375, 382-383, 819, s23-824 as colonists 164-168, 172-175, 3345 Naknenuk 415, 425-426, 428, 4390181 Nalda, Soria 513, Narborough, John 730-731 net energy, theorem of 34 See also food security New Laws of 1542-(Spanish America) 12, 167, 171, 17821, §72°575, $80, 820-821 New Laws of 1680 771 New mission history 348 New Mexico / Nuevo México 2,9, 13-14, 18, 32. 65.69, 74, 93, 101m, 109-110, ny-mng, 122-125, 133, 135.142, 143, 187, 296, 299, 347, 355, 466-467, 460, 471-472, 473.10, 476-480, 487, 525, 309 $14-516, 529-550, 532-983, 5765 380, 773,803, 852 New Spain 5.15.19, 62, 65.68, 71-72, 83-84, 87, 89-90, 98, 107-110, 112-115, 114f MG, 71195 122, 132-1355 142-143, 146-148, 163, 168, 169-170, 173,183, 185-186, 194, 242, 305, 311N32, 389, 3.444 353 356, 489-490, 492-495, 502-503, 589-512, 515-516, 518-519, 526, 528, 530-832, 534-537 793, 817, 823-826, S41-B4.4, 46-848, 851, 853, 855 indigenous enslavement in. 572-573. 575-577, 579-580 mapping of 463-479, 482n20, $03 miningin_371~375, 378-379, 381-382 387 royal roads of 295-298 Viceroyalty of 165, 296, 789,791, 795and Jesuit networks, See Jesuits and Pacific trade 766-77 ‘Nglibe, Indians 243. 245, 247-248 See also Guaymi Indians ‘Nieremberg, Eusebio. $57 nixtamalization qo ‘Nira, Fray Marcos de 88, 143 Nobili, Roberta 452-454, 456, Ston4t Nochiathin, Jalisco 145 ‘Nombre de Dios, Durango 109, 152 map 142, 147-148, 304-306, 727 ‘Noott, Olivier Van 728 Nootka Bay 842,847-K48 Nootka Controversy #42, 848 Nootka Sound 6 Spanish settlement of (8, Cruz de Nutka) 847 Noperl, Ignacio 188, 199 Appendix 71 Noperi, Ferdnimo 188, 199, Appendix 71, 20: ‘North Pacific 6, 841-847 851 ‘Nosa, Frutos 699 ‘Nossa Senhora das Anjos de Itambacuri Central Settlement 427, 430 ‘Nuestra Sefiora de la Natividad del Acaray 599 ‘Nueva Espaia. Sec New Spain ‘Nueva Galicia 107, 1$..134=135, 142-146, 354. 378. ip conquest af 134-135, 142-146, 154029 ‘Nueva Granada 744 Nueva Vircaya 1). 65, 71.11}. 117 13h 8. 135, 142, 147, 187, 300, 343-354. 358, 46%, 476, 478, 489-490, 494, 497, 510,535, 576.7736 776 Nuevo Lean 65, 71, 109,113, 163, 165, 170,174 ‘Nusdortfer, Bernard 555 0 ‘O'Cain, Joseph S50 ‘Oddhams (Odami), see Pima, Indians ‘Oacpicagigua, Luis 189,190, 194 ‘Olid, Cristobal de 255153, 171 ‘Olivares, Count Duke of (Gaspar de Guzmin y Pimentel) 167, 472-173 ‘Omagua, Indians 40, 614 ‘Gpata, Indians 113,133, 85.187—191, 194-199, 350, 405, 475 INDEX 883 Orientalism, Catholic 457 Orta, Garcia de 447, 449451 Ortiz, Fernando 4.20718, 183, 818 Ortiz Zapata, Juan 495 stinnuri, province of 66, 68, 91, 190-191 474 map Otomi, Indians 64, 72, 85-B7.231-132, 54-39, 141, 147-148, 164, 169, 185, 382, 825 ‘toni, Tedfilo Benedito 424-425, 43869 Qur Lady of Guadalupe (Nuestra senara de Guadalupe), see Virgin of Quro Préto (Vila Rica), city and captaincy of Minas Gerais 219, 225, 414, 416, 419, 428, 599 Ovando, Juan de 167 Oviedo, Juan Antonio de 496 Onitipa, ancient Mexican pality 99 Oaord, Indians 215 P Pacific horderland, see transoceanic and riverine networks Pacific Ocean 7, 11, 19, 271, 723, 724, 726, 805, 842-843, 845-846 Pacd, Domingos Ramos 426 Padilla, Fray Juan de 99. padroado 446, 450-452. 454-456 Panamahka, Indians 243, 246-247, 251 Pantanal 10,60, 68 Pnuce 83, 99, 142,170, 819-822 Papasquiara 343, 494. 494, 496 Paquimé, archaeological site, see Casas Grandes Para, captaincy 595, 600-602, 615, 617,619, 621-625, 627, 648-649 Paraguana Peninsula 742 Paraguay 916, 46, 60 68) 397, 534, 545-546, S48, $52, 855, 703 river basin 9-10, 33, 6, 645-648, 651 Paraiba 216, 402-4093 Paraiba do Sul, river 214-216, 224 Parani, river 558-559, 593, 604 parcialidades 194, 698-699 Parra, Real del, Chibwahua 71, 80n67, 108-109, 5,17, 124, 40-347 35% 357 372 MAP, 373i 379-380, 384, 386, 581,773, Parras, Coahuila 109, 115, 19-121, 124, 353884 INDEX Pasco, Peru 279 Patagonia 2, 35, 37. 61, $45. 645. 725.727 Patagones 725,728 expeditions in search af 725 patriarchy 436, 358-350 Paulinus a Sancto Bartholamace 454-435 Paya, Indians (also known as Pech} 243-248, 351, 658 peacemaking 19, 591, 601.605, 641-845, 648-650, 6544 656 See alsa diplomacy Pech, Indians, see Paya Indians Pehalver Angulo, Sebastiin de 825 Peramas, Jasé 553 Pérea de Ribas, Andrés 101, 192-194. 492-498, 502-503, 533, 800, 802 Pérez, Juan 842 performance ritual 355, 404 536-37 554 musicand dance 525, 527, 534-537 permiso (trade regulation} 771-772, 775 See also transoceanic and riverine networks, and trans-Pacific trade Pernambuco, Brazil 398, 400, 403, 406-407, er Peru 12, 44.242, 279, 281, 283, 286n31, 395,335,397 528, 574, 695.724, 793-794. 795 Alto Peru 269, 270, 272-274, 277-281, 409m, $48 and maritime trade 770, 772.777 780n8 and pirates 727.731, 732, and Spain's European enemies 725, 726. 738,730 Baja Peru. 270, 272, 277-279 disease and population decline in 63, 107 Jesuits in 20m, 528, 545 Peruvian Current 37 Peruvian highlands 37. 44 silver exports to Europe 766 silver mining 72, ons8, 269, 290n62, 377576 real situade 720 roads in. 33, 28740 Viceroyalty of 319, 437, 548722, 725-726 See also mita, forced labor system Philip I, King of Spain u. Philip TIL King of Spain 14, 573.720 Philip 1, King of Portugal (IV of Spain). 403 Philip IV, King of Spain (IIL of Portugal) 71-173, 516, 525, 574 Philip V, Bourbon monarch of Spain 472 Philippines 299, 767-770.773-77, 979 Piaxtla, river 92 Pidal, Pedro 828 Pima, Indians 94, 104 map, 142, 185, 287, 189-192, 194-195, 199 Map, 347, 356, 464-65, 467-468, 470, 475-472, 532 Pimas Altos 285, 199 map, 204 Pimas Bajos 185, 199 map, 470 Pimeria 108, 195, 351, 465-466, 469-472, 4IS-4TR Ph Pinacate desert 94 piraguas, see watercraft pirates 726-728, 730-731 Pires, Francisco 401, 404 Pires, Tomé 448 Pita, Sebastido-da Rocha 406 Pizarro, Gonzalo 12,320 Pojichd, Indians. 415. 427-428 Pokrane, Guido 420 Parco, Bolivia 274 part cities 7, 669-673, 765, 769. 777. 826 Part Famine, Chile 731, 73761 Parto Segura 402,421, 423 Portugal n1.227n6, 436.6, 448, 571,578. 592, 308, 605 Portuguese Empire 210, 625, 654, 669-672, 674. 684. 790 Spanish rule over (1580-1640) 617 Potiguagu 402 Patiguar, Indians 402-403, pron24 Potosi, Bolivia 269, 271-274, 277, 279-283, 320-322, 325, 332-353, 378, 380, 576, S78. 719, 726 presidias 135, 195-196, 203037, 206179, 306, 315NS1, 355, 194 437057, 600, 851-853 Presidio of San Felipe de Montevideo, Rie dela Plata 674 Presidio of San Francisca, Alta California 855 Presidio of Santa Maria do- Araguaia, Brazil 602 See also fortsprobancas de méritos 166 Propaganda Fide 454-55. 457. 460039. 515, 517-518, 701 Pueblo, Indians 13, 14, 89. 91-92, 97, 114 map, Pucbloans 69.525. 532 Pucblo revolt 123, 142,187, 3. 478,532 Pulares, Indians 322, 324 Paints Peru 279-381 Purépecha, Indians 86, 151-132. 134-135, 157 See also Tarascan Indians Puri, Indians 210, 214, 216, 22814, 415, sams? 25. 382 Q ‘Quemada, La, archaeological site 87-88, 90.93 ‘Querétaro, Mexican state of 62, 88,153, 138-141, 165, 301, ‘Querétaro, Santiago de, city in New Spain 87, 141, 517-519 quilombos, fugitive slave communities 433019, 591, $93, 600, 604. See also slavery Quivira 69, 99,472,516 R Rahum, Sonora 189-190, 199 map, 200 Rama, Indians 243-245, 250 Ramirer de Velasco, Juan 320-321, 326-330, 336036, 33973 ‘Ramas da Cruz, Félix tand brothers} 423, 425, 497068 Raines, riven Duranga 96 ‘Ramusio, Giovanni Battista 448 Real Colegio Beaterio de Santa Rasa de Viterbo 518 Real Comparifa Guipuzcoana de Caracas, see Caracas Company ‘Real Hacienda 683, 682, 835035 Real Sala de Crimen 824, 865 vreduceidn # reducciones (reductions) 16, 240-244, 246-248, 251, 253-254, 324, 465, 476, 486062, 510, 537, 545-54, 548-550, 552, 557-560, 563017, 645, 693-702, 712077, 71383, 720, 865 See also congregation policy INDEX 885 Remedios, Durango 494-495 repartimiento, sce labor Repiéblica Guaraya 703-704.713n84 Repiiblica de indios 166, 168, 192-193, 866 Restive, Paulo 358 Revanery, Nikolai Petrovich 849. 951-852 Ricci, Matteo 452, 793-797. 799 Rinaldini, Benito 495-408, 503, Rio de janeiro, captaincy of 417, 420-421, 484, 437 city and province of Brazil 210,218, 218, 224, 403, 416,599 as port 671-673, 67, 683-684 Rio dela Plata. 3, 6,10, 18, 60, 209, 275, 333, 546, 669-674, 677-686 Rio Doce Military Division. 416-417, 419-424 430, 433m08 Rio Grande, river in Brazil 216, 422 Rio Grande de Gila (Rio Gila), river 468-469 Rio Grande do Norte, captain in Brazil 4o2 Rio Grande do Sul, captaincy in Brazil 224 Rio Grande Valley, and river in northern New Spain 14, 69, 92, 295, 296 Rio Negro, river 40, 613-616, 618-620, 622, 628, 648 River Plate, region 3. 271-273, 278-280, 356 roads 33, 42. 99, 186, 268-269, 286n31, 381, 414, 592, 674, 679, 694 and epidemie contagion 118-119 asborderlands 296, j92n6s, $23 n45 Andean east-west roads 281—282 cart roads 146 constuction and maintenance of 309916, 424, 6144 686, 703, 821.822, 826 definition 207 in pre-Incaic Andes 267 indigenous pathways 295-296 Pacific Coast road, ancient 9 Royal roads 295-299, 307 ‘Tierra Adentro road, ancient. 89-92 See also caminas Rome 454-456, 471, 492, 493,495, 502, 515, 790; 792, 802, 803 Russian America 843-845, 850-855 Russian American Company (RAC) 842, 848, 849-850, 852-55S86 INDEX 8 Mem de 4o0 sacrament manuals 557 Sadeles, Jan 500 501, 503, 507041 Sahagiin, Bernardino de 86-875 136,145, 154130, 510 Salas, Juan de 515 Salcedo, Miguel de 679, 681, 68 ‘Salta, province of 270-284, 322-325, 37-328, 352 Saltillo, Nueva Vizcaya. 169, 15, 124, 132 map, 135, 165, 169, 352-354, 357, 372 Map Salvador, Frei Vicente do 397,399 ‘San Bartolomé, Valle de (today Valle de Allende), Chihuahua 117, 0 134.346 ‘San Demetrio, mines in Zacatecas. 372 map, 375-376 ‘San Esteban de la Nueva Tlaxeala, Nueva Vizcaya 135,165,169 San Esteban de Saltillo, Nueva Vizcaya 115,124 San Francisco, facinto de, friar 510. ‘San Juan de Santa Gruz, Francisco 776, 785072 San Juan de Santa Graz, Manuel 353,357 FIST, 776, 7BSNT2, PSOE San Juliin Convent in Agreda, Spain. 513 San Laiis Montanés, Nicolis de 141 ‘San Lauis Patost 71-72, 88, 115,119,135, 165, 377-386 mining town of (real de atinas) 147,165, 371-373, 3882 population of 380-382 San Felipe de Jestis (Saint) 795, 798, suns San Miguel Octopin, Guanajuate 301-303, yang San Miguel el Grande, Guanajuato 132: map, 1355 BO=14 San Miguel de Aguayo, Nuevo Leén 163-170, 174 ‘San Miguel de Tucuman, city 322-323, 3 327-320, 332-333 ‘San Pablo, missin among the Gui San Pablo de Vicuier, mission in Sonora 478-479 ‘San Sebastian (Saint) 165 yos 701-702 San Sebastiin, village in Zacatecas 303-304, 306, s13n44 Santa Barbara, Nueva Viseaya 13.71, 225, 346, 349, 352 Santa Cruz de la Sierra, Bolivia 692, 604, 702 Prefectura of 68 Department of 693,.695-696, 701-705 Santa Fe, New Mexico 8, 135, 312,533, 773 Santa Lucia, devotional image of 163-164 Santa Maria, Guillermo de 509, 520m Santiago cle Guancamé (Cuancamé de Ceniceros), Durango 305-306, 313n51 Santiago, Augustin de 825 Santisima Trinidad, Guarani reduction 552 Santo Domingo (Hispaniola) 742,744 Audiencia of 742 Santo Tomé, Guarani mission. 558 o Francisca, river 402, 593 Go Luis, Maranh3o. 398, 401, 617 Sio Mateus, river 423 Sio Paulo, captaincy and state 209, 401, 417, 421, 592-593, 395-596, 599, Gag, 616 Sio Tomé de Meliapor (Chennai), South India 447: map, 457 Siric, Luis de 194-195 Sarmiento de Gamboa, Pedro 725, 727 yasmsq Sassoferrato, Friar Angelo de 429 Schabel, Miguel Alexis 750 Schid, Martin, S.J. 534.357 Schouten, Willem 728 Scott; James C. 46, 584, 827 secondary subsistence system, See food security Sedelmayr, Jacobo, 8]. 470, 803, 805 Sena, Bernardino de 515 Sephardic Jews 744,748 Sepp, AMON 534, 554 Seris, Indians (Comeaiac) 114 map, 186, 189-190, 345, 395, 466,475, 48ont sermons 551, 556-558, 798 Serrano, José 557 sertio (backlands) 216-218, 221, 406-407, 413, AV 596, 614-616, 620-624, 627, 624n5, 866 drogas do sertio 615, 618 Shahjahan, Mughal emperar £43shamanism 36.444, 11, 356, 358. 401, 415. 426-427, 46.553 See alsa healing, | healers, curanderismo / curanderas Shelikhow, Grigori Ivanovieh 848-850, 85829 Siberia 31-35. 4h 844-845. 848, S51 Sierra Madre Occidental 9. 65-66, 71, 88-89, 91-92, 94, 98, 123, 30704, 346, 349-350, 354) 485049 Silao [de la Vietoria}, Guanajtiate 302, jr2n40 Silva, Joaquim da 219 silver 44, 17, 218, 272, 284, 296, 299, 371-388, 443,554, 573, 576, 578, 671, 679, 684, 7304743, 765-766, 989-771, 773s 776-778, 79mg and 7, 782n35, 784n48 and 51 amount of production in New Spain 71, 132,148 and environment 72-73 currency 2on49 See also mining Sinaloa colonial province 66, 71, 13, 119, 123, 14 187; 190, 192-194, 198, 345-347, 466, 472, 492, 797, 851 modern Mexican state 9. 69, 88, 125. 345, 9.579 slave trade 310n26, 36551, 414.571 580, 615, 617, 619-620. 671, 680, 685, 744, 827 African slave trade $18 Asian slave trade 773,790 indigenous slave trade 820 ‘Trans- Atlantic Slave Trade Dtabase 579 ‘Trans-Pacific slave trade 790 ‘See also enslavement and captivity smuggling 210-211, 213, 215-216, 233, 414, 672, 678-682, 685-686, 6BBNI5, 745 747-753, 852 ‘See also contraband trade Society of Jesus, see Fesuits Soli, Pablo Vicente de 855 Solimoes, river 614, 618-620, 626, 628 Sombrerete, Zacatecas 13, 109, 120-121, 141, 147, 303, 31244372 Map, 375 Sonara colonial province 71, 108-109, 3,135, 19, 123, 125, 133,142, 183-200, 345-347, 351, INDEX 887, 356, 359, 366166, 379, 463-480, 492, 529, $89, 980, 698. 797, 84, Bt highlands 350, 356.465 modern Mexican state 43, 69, 94, 96-98, 184, 345-347 Sonoran Desert 43, 65, 72 91 Sorarte, Diego de 682 Sorarte, Savina 682 Sousa, Luisde Vasconcelos ¢ 211, 215-216, 218-224 22705 South Asia 5 443.445 447 Map, 452. 4551457 South Sea Company 682 Southwest, US 28, 43, 91,95. 97.298, 373.527 Souza Coutinho, Francisco de 623-624, 649 Spanish Lake 726-727, 732,769 Spilbergen, Joris Van. 728 spiritual conquest 493, 407, 448, 509, stn, 693 Sri Lanka 445, 447.459, 453 St, Ignatius Loyola 460n39, 491, 498, 503-504 St. Thomas Christians 451452, 454 Steller, Georg 845 Stephens, Thomas 457 Sumu, Indians, see Twahk: swidden agriculture 38-39, 61, 68 See also environment, fallow Indians T Tacna 281, 283 Talamanca, region and people 239-240, 243-248, 251, 255mg and 8, 256 23. 257 nzz, 258 n33and 35, 260n37 and 60, 263,517 ‘Tamardn y Rometal, Pedro 496-498, 503 ‘Tamtaullipas, Mexican state of 88, 165 ‘Tapajés chiefdom 41, 633, river 618, 623-635, 637 ‘Tapia, Fernanda de (Conni) 140-141 ‘Tarahumara (Rardmuri), Indians 10546, 409, Hg Map, 185, 135, 347-348, 350, 353-54, 357; 3B. 46-4 534 missions 495, 541n40, 797 Tarascan (Purépecha), Indians 64, 86, 88, 90, 935 995 138-132) 134-135, 137,139 142-143, 185, 375 382 Sigismundo 481n20, 805 Tarazona, Carmelite convent in 513888 INDEX ‘Tarija_ 77, 280, 282, 290063 ‘Tawantinsuyn 269 taxation 133,167,372, 174. 209, 215, 225, 269, 274, 302, 449, 673, 730 and New Laws of 1542 171 See alse tribute ‘Tayaoba, Nicalés 555 Tecdac. battle of 136-138 Tello de Sandoval visita 144-145, 158084 Tenochtitlan #2, 88,131,139, 155042, 15884 conquest of 136, 144-145, 15433, 164, 166, 170, 3736185 “Teocalhueyacan 136-138, 15433 ‘Teotihuacan, archaeological culture 41, 88-92 ‘Tepecanos, Indians 94,.97-98 ‘Tepehuan, Indians (also Tepelwanos and Tepehuanes) 59, 85,89, 94-98, 101m19, 109, 115, 188 map, 222, 125, 138-132, 3130151, 347"350, 379, 381, 491-492, 494-497, 500-502 ‘Tepiman, culture and language family 8,94, 97-98, 10346 “Terbi, Indians, see'Teribe, Indians ‘Teribe, Indians 243-244, 246-247, 251 territory and diasparic populations 83 of Beni, Bolivia 692-692, 694-695, 700-702, 704-705 of Bravil 210-211, 213-214, 408, 408, 414, 416, 428, 502, 306, 619-620, 624, 636, 643-6445 648, 653 of New Spain 34, 89-91, 93. 95-98. 110,115, 136-197, 139, 142, 145, 174, 185, 192-194, 295,297 299, 304, 464-465, 467 469-470, 479, 529,538 798, 803 of Ria dela Plata. 669, 683 oF South Asia 446, 449-450, 453-454 vunconquered 2, 12, 84-85, 243, 246, 320, 323, 326-327, 332-333, 377 S455 548s 560, 717-721, 723-725, 733, 864 South Andean territory 268-269, 27 277-279, 282, 284 sovereignty over 4, 871, 754, 765, 841-843, 845-849, 853, 855 El, archaeological site 83, 88, 90 “Teal de Gonzilex Ortega, town in Jalisco, Mexico 87 theology 436, 510, Bor ‘Third Provincial Council of Mexico 4585) 509 ‘Thule Eskimo 41 Vidar, Indians 516 tierra adentro-toad, see roads Tierra del Fuego 33. 717-718, 727 Titicaca, sce Lake Titicaca ‘Tlingit, Indians 843, 850 Tlacateccatl, Martin Cuaubtzin 145 Tlaxcala, Lord af 163-165 ‘Tiaxealilla, San Luis Potosi 147 Tlaxcalteca (Tlaxcalan), Indians 86,98, 15, 148 map, 135-257, 145, 164-265, 170, 173-175, 185,194, 3536382 ‘Tabajara, Indians 40a, 617 Tocantins, river 593, 594-597, 599-603, 614, 617, 619, 626 Tocantins, state 592, 597, 605 ‘Tahono O'odham, see Pima, Indians ‘Toltec, mative ancient culture 86~88,90, 93,139 Talteca-Chichi culture 86, 90 Toltén, river 1 ancient paowpan Toluca, Mexico 1384139, 824 Toro, Pedro Martin de 141 Torre, Andrés de la 516 Torres, Diego de 352 uration 4, 16.183-84, 191,195, 627% 369, 817 Lransimperial intefaction and colonial networks 669, 673. 677, 679, 682, 684-685, 753, transoceanic and riverine networks 6-7, 60. 26s 3868, 591-592, 669-671, 686, 733, 752, 762 765-767, 771-7744 776-777 peacemaking 639, 641-645, 648-650, 654, 656 Treaty of Madrid (1750) 209, 613, 617-618 ‘Treaty af Bl Escorial (1790) 842, 847-848 ‘Treaty of San Ildefonso (1777) 613 ‘Treaty of Tordesillas (1494). 617, 674 ‘Treaty of Westphalia (1648) 740 Trés Sainte Trinité, Philippe de 454 tribute 12, 110, 133 135-137; 139-148, 143, 148, 166, 168, 172,174, 185-186, 245-246, 25%, 300, 305-306, 347,352 378, 5454 5494 559 and citizenship 697 and debt peonage 576and encomienda 575.745. 864 and farmar 458 note » and Guaikuri. 652 and Russian Tsar 844-845, 848 i Alto Petu. 4o9 na records af 6 See also taxation Trinidad, Bolivia 698, 701-702 ‘Tucumin, province of 241, 274. 280, 285, i938 ‘Tula, archaeological site 88, 93.139. 141 Mocteeuma-Panuco, river 8% idians 240-245, 247-249, 251-253 See also Kuna, Indians tundra 233,35, 848 ‘Tungla, Indians 243, 245-246 Tupi, Indians 12.13, 41 44. 397-398, 40-401, 404, 598, 618-617, 624 ‘Tupinambé, Indians 13, 41 397, 398, 404-408, 617 “Turner, Frederick Jackson 5,417,424 Tursellino, Orazio 494 “Tuticorim, South India 447 map, 456 ‘Twahka, Indians 243-251 U ‘Uactisechas (Tarascan), Indians. 90, 139 ‘Ugarte, Jacobo 825 ‘Uhia, Valley of, Honduras. 169 ‘Ubwa, Indians 243-248, 250-251 4 ‘United Indian Nations, petition of to the King of Portugal (1821) 601 ‘Urban VII, Pope $15. 795 Undaneta, Andrés de 767.770 Urdifiola, Francisca de 165,169, 353.357 ‘Urinama, Indians, see Cabécar, Indians ‘Unubichd, mission 693-684. 02, ptanas ‘Uruguay, river 558 Usacumea, Juan Ignacio (Muri) 187-188, 190, 196, 200, 203741, 207088 and n89 ‘Ute-Aztecan, language family 103n46 speakers 41, 42 Union of Arms 372 v vaccine 110,112 ‘Valdivia, Chile 332, 718, 720, 722-723, 729-733. 738074 INDEX 889 a, Pedrode 12, 738, 722-725 Valencia, Martin de 512 Valignano, Alessandro 452, 792. 793, 794. 795. Soona6 Valladolid, Spain 502, 768 Valladolid-Comayagua, Honduras 172 Valle, Juan del 491-452 Varela Avalos, Juan Manuel 188, 191, 194, 99%, 203057, 204 NA Varela, Andrés 188, 199t veirzea (seasonally flooded land) 42, 614. 615, Vasconcelos, Anténio Pedro de 676-677, 683-685, vassalage F vassals 136, 171, 17615, 246,295, 297,300, 302-306, 409, 402-405, 4485 57% 602, 605,644, 650, 662n55, 681 Vazquez de Coronado, Francisco 13, 85, 88, 995 13%; 135, 142-146, 15769, 825, veciandad J vecinots) 169-170, 172, 190, 305, 320-324, 336, 3444350, 376, 380, 573, 722-723, 773-777 786K, B22, 866 Velasco, José Miguel de yon, 712071 Velasco, Luisde (the elder}, Viceroy of New Spain 135, 140-141. 147, 1503, 155153 Veracrur 62, 65, 298, 378, 463, 670,672, 776,826 Vieira, Antonio 407.597. 618 Vila Boa de Gots, Brazil 392, 594 map, 506-599, 604 Villaged, Gaspar Pérez de 9. 14-14, 108 Villamanrique, [Marquess of], Viceroy of New Spain 59 Villar de Francos, Claudia ‘Tomasa Pardifias 771,773 Villar de Francos, Juan Isidro de 773, 7ayng2 Virgin Mary 491-494, 496-497, 500-303, 516, 18-519, 523043, 553 of Aringazu 490 of Balvanera 490 of Caldas 490 of Guadalupe 489, 493, 517-518, 530-531, 537 of the Immaculate Conception 489-495, 500, 513, 523043, 553 of Loreto 490 of Sorrows 489, 509, 501) ofthe Rosary 490