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Art. 6 INDUSTRIAL WASTEWATER
Art. 6 INDUSTRIAL WASTEWATER
Art. 6 INDUSTRIAL WASTEWATER
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INDUSTRIAL WASTEWATER
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The wastewater from industries varies so greatly in both flow and pollutional
strength. So, it is impossible to assign fixed values to their constituents. In general,
industrial wastewaters may contain suspended, colloidal and dissolved (mineral and
organic) solids. In addition, they may be either excessively acid or alkaline and may
contain high or low concentrations of colored matter. These wastes may contain inert,
organic or toxic materials and possibly pathogenic bacteria. These wastes may be
discharged into the sewer system provided they have no adverse effect on treatment
efficiency or undesirable effects on the sewer system. It may be necessary to pretreat
the wastes prior to release to the municipal system or it is necessary to a fully
treatment when the wastes will be discharged directly to surface or ground waters.
1
settleable (Ron & George, 1998). Solids may be classified in another way
as well: those that are volatilized at a high temperature (600 °C) and those
that are not. The former are known as volatile solids, the latter as fixed
solids. Usually, volatile solids are organic.
- Colour
Colour is a qualitative characteristic that can be used to assess the general
condition of wastewater. Wastewater that is light brown in colour is less
than 6 h old, while a light-to-medium grey colour is characteristic of
wastewaters that have undergone some degree of decomposition or that
have been in the collection system for some time. Lastly, if the colour is
dark grey or black, the wastewater is typically septic, having undergone
extensive bacterial decomposition under anaerobic conditions. The
blackening of wastewater is often due to the formation of various
sulphides, particularly, ferrous sulphide. This results when hydrogen
sulphide produced under anaerobic conditions combines with divalent
metal, such as iron, which may be present. Colour is measured by
comparison with standards.
- Odour
The determination of odour has become increasingly important, as the
general public has become more concerned with the proper operation of
wastewater treatment facilities. The odour of fresh wastewater is usually
not offensive, but a variety of odorous compounds are released when
wastewater is decomposed biologically under anaerobic conditions. The
different unpleasant odours produced by certain industrial wastewater are
presented in Table 1-1.
- Temperature
The temperature of wastewater is commonly higher than that of the water
supply because warm municipal water has been added. The measurement
2
of temperature is important because most wastewater treatment schemes
include biological processes that are temperature dependent. The
temperature of wastewater will vary from season to season and also with
geographic location. In cold regions the temperature will vary from about
7 to 18 °C, while in warmer regions the temperatures vary from 13 to 24
°C (Ron & George, 1998).
• Organic chemicals
Over the years, a number of different tests have been developed to
determine the organic content of wastewaters. In general, the tests may be
divided into those used to measure gross concentrations of organic matter
greater than about 1 mg/l and those used to measure trace concentrations
in the range of 10−12 to 10 −3 mg/l. Laboratory methods commonly used
today to measure gross amounts of organic matter (greater than 1 mg/l) in
3
wastewater include (1) biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), (2) chemical
oxygen demand (COD) and (3) total organic carbon (TOC). Trace
organics in the range of 10−12 to 10 −3 mg/l are determined using
instrumental methods including gas mass spectroscopy and
chromatography. Specific organic compounds are determined to assess
the presence of priority pollutants (Metcalf & Eddy, 1991). The BOD,
COD and TOC tests are gross measures of organic content and as such do
not reflect the response of the wastewater to various types of biological
treatment technologies. It is therefore desirable to divide the wastewater
into several categories, as shown in Figure 1-1.
4
Table 1-2 Substances present in industrial effluents (Bond & Straub,
1974)
5
reproductive success, prevent proper growth and development, and even
cause death.
Table 1-3 Heavy metals found in major industries (Bond & Straub,
1974)
Industry A As Cd Cr C Hg Pb Ni Zn
Pulp & paper mills X X X X X X
Organic chem. X X X X X X X
Alkalis, Chlorine X X X X X X
Fertilizers X X X X X X X X X
Petroleum refining X X X X X X X X
Steel works X X X X X X X X
Aircraft plating, finishing X X X X X X
Flat glass, cement X
Textile mills X
Tanning X
Power plants X
6
frequently undergo geochemical processes together. Both metals are
found in water in the +2 oxidation state. The effects of acute cadmium
poisoning in humans are very serious. Among them are high blood
pressure, kidney damage, destruction of testicular tissue, and destruction
of red blood cells. Cadmium may replace zinc in some enzymes, thereby
altering the stereo-structure of the enzyme and impairing its catalytic
activity. Cadmium and zinc are common water and sediment pollutants in
harbours surrounded by industrial facilities.
Inorganic lead arising from a number of industrial and mining sources
occurs in water in the +2 oxidation state. Lead from leaded gasoline used
to be a major source of atmospheric and terrestrial lead, much of which
eventually enters natural water systems. Acute lead poisoning in humans
causes severe dysfunction in the kidneys, reproductive system, liver, and
the brain and nervous system.
Mercury is found as a trace component of many minerals, with
continental rocks containing an average of around 80 ppb, or slightly less,
of this element. Cinnabar, red mercuric sulphide, is the chief commercial
mercury ore. Metallic mercury is used as an electrode in the electrolytic
generation of chlorine gas, in laboratory vacuum apparatuses and in other
applications. Organic mercury compounds used to be widely applied as
pesticides, particularly fungicides. Mercury enters the environment from
a large number of miscellaneous sources related to human use of the
element. These include discarded laboratory chemicals, batteries, broken
thermometers, lawn fungicides, amalgam tooth fillings and
pharmaceutical products. Sewage effluent sometimes contains up to 10
times the level of mercury found in typical natural waters. The toxicity of
mercury was tragically illustrated in the Minamata Bay area of Japan
during the period of 1953-1960. A total of 111 cases of mercury
poisoning and 43 deaths were reported among people who had consumed
seafood from the contaminated bay. Among the toxicological effects of
mercury were neurological damage, including irritability, paralysis,
blindness, insanity, chromosome breakage and birth defects (Rein, 2005).
• Cyanide
Cyanide ion, CN-, is probably the most important of the various
inorganic species in wastewater. Cyanide, a deadly poisonous substance,
exists in water as HCN which is a weak acid. The cyanide ion has a
strong affinity for many metal ions, forming relatively less toxic
ferrocyanide, Fe(CN) 6 4− , with iron (II), for example. Volatile HCN is
very toxic and has been used in gas chamber executions in the United
States. Cyanide is widely used in industry, especially for metal cleaning
and electroplating. It is also one of the main gas and coke scrubber
7
effluent pollutants from gas works and coke ovens. Cyanide is widely
used in certain mineral processing operations.
• Ammonia
Ammonia is the initial product of the decay of nitrogenous organic
wastes, and its presence frequently indicates the presence of such wastes.
It is a normal constituent of some sources of groundwater and is
sometimes added to drinking water to remove the taste and odour of free
chlorine. Since the pKa (The negative log of the acid ionization constant )
of the ammonium ion, NH4 + , is 9.26, most ammonia in water is present
as NH4 + rather than NH3.
8
be treated using physical and chemical methods, including air stripping,
solvent extraction, ozonation and carbon adsorption.
First discovered as environmental pollutants in 1966, polychlorinated
biphenyls (PCB compounds) have been found throughout the world in
water, sediments and bird and fish tissue. They are made by substituting
between 1 and 10 Cl atoms onto the biphenyl aromatic structure. This
substitution can produce 209 different compounds (Rein, 2005).
11
Table 1-5 Comparative strengths of wastewaters from industry
(Bond & Straub, 1974)
Type of waste BOD5 mg/l COD mg/l SS mg/l pH
Apparel
Cotton 200 - 1000 400 - 1800 200 8 - 12
Wool scouring 2000 - 5000 2000 – 5000 (a) 3000 - 30000 9 - 11
Wool composite 1 - 100 9 – 10
Tannery 1000 - 2000 2000 - 4000 2000 – 3000 11 - 12
Laundry 1600 2700 250 - 500 8-9
Food
Brewery 850 1700 90 4-8
Distillery 7 10 Low -
Dairy 600 - 1000 - 200 - 400 Acid
Cannery
citrus 2000 - 7000 Acid
pea 570 - 130 Acid
Slaughterhouse 1500 - 2500 - 800 7
Potato processing 2000 3500 2500 11 - 13
Sugar beet 450 - 2000 600 - 3000 800 - 1500 7-8
Farm 1000 - 2000 - 1500 - 3000 7.5 – 8.5
Poultry 500 - 800 600 - 1050 450 - 800 6.5 - 9
Materials
Pulp; sulfite 1400 - 1700 - Variable
Pulp; kraft 100 - 350 170 - 600 75 - 300 7 – 9.5
Paperboard 100 - 450 300 - 1400 40 - 100
Strawboard 950 - 1350
Coke oven 780 1650 (a) 70 7 - 11
Oil refinery 100 - 500 150 - 800 130 - 600 2-6
(a) = COD as KMnO4 mg O2/l
12
(industrial wastewater treatment system), and may cause pass-through or
interference with the treatment system. Even some biologically
degradable wastes such as soluble, synthetic cooling oils may cause
interference with the heavy metal removal system by inhibiting floc
formation. Other examples of noncompatible pollutants include heavy
metals such as copper, nickel, lead, and zinc; organics such as methylene
chloride, 1,1,1-trichloroethylene, methyl ethyl ketone, acetone, and
gasoline; and sludges containing toxic organics or metals.
From the perspective of the POTW, conventional pollutants
sometimes exhibit the characteristics of noncompatible pollutants, and
vice versa. Soluble BOD from a food industry may have some harmful
effects on a POTW's secondary treatment system. The accidental
discharge of ammonia by a fertilizer manufacturer may disrupt the
nitrification/denitrification or stripping tower processes used by the
POTW to treat ammonia. On the other hand, some of the heavy metals
(usually classified as noncompatible pollutants) are used as micronu-
trients to aid in the production of biological mass and the reduction of
BOD. Certain organic chemical wastes such as acetone and isopropanol
are biodegradable and, in dilute solutions, are removed by biological
action in secondary treatment.
15
1-2-5-1 Hours of operation versus discharge
Normally, the hours of operation are also the hours of discharge to the
IWTS. Thus the operator can generally expect to receive flow for
treatment during the hours of operation. If the production is constant, the
discharge volume and chemical constituents will also be constant.
Several common situations where an industrial waste must be treated
after the normal production hours are described below:
1. The "wet" processes run for one shift, but the "dry" processes run
for two. The dry processes may require utilities such as compressed air
or a boiler, each having a wastewater discharge.
2. In industries with long collection systems, production and
wastewater flow to the system may stop, but the IWTS may continue to
operate and discharge until the wastewater in the collection system has
been processed.
3. Spills, accidental discharges or storm water flow that goes to the
IWTS may cause the IWTS to operate outside of the normal production
hours.
4. A food processing plant operates for one or two shifts, generating
some wastewater, but most of the equipment cleaning operations occur
on an off shift. The cleaning generates most of the wastewater volume.
5. The IWTS has an equalization tank either at the beginning of the
IWTS or at the end of the manufacturing system. Discharge from the
equalization tank to the rest of the IWTS may continue after production
stops because it is programmed to pump to the next unit process until it
reaches its low level.
Equalization of the wastewater is an important factor affecting the
actual hours of wastewater discharge to the IWTS and sewer. In order to
deliver a relatively constant flow and concentration of pollutants to the
IWTS, large wastewater collection sumps, equalization tanks or storage
tanks may be used. As noted above, these equalization devices may also
lengthen the time of discharge beyond the actual hours of operation of
the manufacturing facility. Equalization of industrial wastewater flows
can also be beneficial to the POTW. By lengthening the hours of
discharge from the industry, there is an effective increase in the available
hydraulic capacity of the POTW collection system because of the
decreased industrial flow rates. Due to the normal diurnal variation in
domestic wastewater flows (peak flows usually occur between 8:00 a.m.
and 6:00 p.m.), the hydraulic capacity of a sewer may be exceeded if a
large industrial flow is allowed to be discharged to the sewer during a
short period. Therefore, it may be necessary for the industry to discharge
only at night. Sampling of this discharge would then be shifted to the
night-time hours.
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1-2-5-2 Discharge variations
Industries that have daily, weekly, or seasonal manufacturing cycles
will show variations in wastewater generation. Business cycles for each
of the various segments of the industrial community will have an effect
on production, and therefore on the generation of wastewater. The food
processing industry provides a good example of daily, weekly, and
seasonal variations in discharge quantity and quality. For example, an
industry that processes citrus peel to make pectin is dependent on when
the peel arrives at the industry's plant. This may mean anywhere from
three to six days per week. As the season progresses, the type of peel
changes from orange to lemon, and the sugar content changes yielding a
slightly different type of wastewater. After the citrus season, the plant is
completely shut down. In certain industries, variations in the quantity of
wastewater reflect the nature of the business or the business cycle of the
particular business segment. In a small shop producing printed circuit
boards, it is typical to have a 30-day turnaround with sales, ordering, and
development taking place during the first part of the month. Production
is slow while making test boards, but once the board is developed,
production proceeds at a rapid pace to produce the boards for shipment
in the last week of the month. The printed circuit board industry is
subject to both downturns and upturns in the market. The major pollutant
from the industry is copper and, consequently, the quantity of copper
discharged to the industrial sewer fluctuates according to market and
production cycles.
Variations in the quality of industrial waste can also occur due to
market forces or environmental concerns requiring a different type of
product. In the metal finishing industry, for example, companies are
moving from cadmium-plated metal, an environmentally more hazardous
substance with more stringent discharge limitations, to zinc-plated parts.
Knowledge of the industry, the manufacturing processes, and market
forces are valuable tools needed by the industrial waste treatment plant
operator to anticipate variations in industrial discharges.
17
crude oil, either at the well head or refinery, air or fume scrubbing,
papermaking, and leather tanning. Intermittent discharges of wastewater
are characterized by discharges of a volume of wastewater separated by a
time period between discharges.
These typically occur at the beginning or ending of a manufacturing
process or during equipment cleanup, a spill, replacement of spent
solution, or disposal of a reject product. Intermittent discharges also tend
to be more concentrated and of smaller volume than the wastewater
normally discharged. For an industrial pretreatment facility, the
intermittent discharges and the variations in waste generation determine
the design capacity of the system.
18
For the correct design of an industrial effluent treatment plant, the
following parameters must be carefully established (I.W.T, 1999):
- types of production, capacities and cycles, raw materials used,
- composition of the make-up water used by the industrial plant,
- possibility of separating effluents and/or recycling them,
- daily volume of effluents per type,
- average and maximum hourly flows (duration and frequency by, type),
- average and maximum pollution flow (frequency and duration) per type
of waste and for the specific type of pollution coming from the industry
under consideration.
Since it can seriously, disturb the working of certain parts of the
treatment facilities (glues, tars, fibers, oils, sands, etc.).
When a new factory is being designed, these parameters will be
ascertained after analysis of the manufacturing processes and compared
with data from existing factories. The amount and degree of pollution
depend on the methods of manufacturing. For an example, in piggeries
industry the method of cleaning will affect both the degree of pollution
and water processing consumed as shown in Table 1-6.
Table 1-7 General pollution of wet process for starch producing (Brault,
1991)
Volume of water BOD5
Raw material (cubic meter per ton) Kg per ton
Corn starch 2-4 5 - 12
Wheat starch (gravity 10 - 12 40 - 60
separation)
Rice starch 8 - 12 5 - 10
19
The effluents are rather acidic which is due to lactic fermentation or to
sulphitation (pH 4 to 5). When a wet technique is used to extract starch,
the pollution comes from the evaporation of water and its made up of
volatile organic acids. A notably soluble protein-rich pollution may come
from the glucose shop. The general wastes of potatoes processing is
presented in Table 1-8.
20
standards for discharge, recycle or disposal of wastewater, sludge or air
emissions. Accordingly, the effects of discharging the industrial effluent
to the POTW or the environment will depend on the characteristics of the
effluent, the type and size of the POTW system, and their standards for
sludge and wastewater disposal or reuse. Waste characteristics such as
temperature, pH, odor, toxicity, concentration, and flow must be
evaluated to determine their acceptability to the IWTS. Similarly,
understanding these characteristics of the IWTS effluent will also enable
to predict the effect the effluent may have on the POTW system.
The effects of industrial waste discharges are not always negative;
some beneficial effects also occur. For example, in a short POTW
collection system, such as a small treatment system discharging to a trout
stream, a continuous discharge of boiler blowdown from a large power
plant can be cause for concern. High temperature discharges to sewers
can accelerate (1) biological degradation, (2) slime growths, (3) odor
production from anaerobic decomposition, and (4) corrosion of concrete
pipe and metal sewer appurtenances. The high temperature wastewater
can cause a bacterial population shift in the secondary treatment causing
floating sludge and reduced BOD removal efficiency. This in turn would
endanger the treatment plant's ability to meet its discharge permit limits.
The high temperature wastewater may also cause the plant to exceed its
temperature standards to the trout stream.
On the other hand, the high temperature wastewater discharge from a
power plant in a larger conveyance and treatment system located in a
colder climate may, in fact, enhance the POTW secondary treatment
processes removal efficiencies by keeping the wastewater temperature
above 65 F (18 °C) all year. When evaluating an industrial wastestream,
it is necessary to understand the specific characteristics of the waste and
how they may affect each portion of the IWTS and in turn how the
effluent will affect the POTW's conveyance, treatment, disposal, and
reuse facilities.
1-3-1-2 Plugging
If the discharge from a manufacturing process contains large amounts
of fibrous or stringy materials, heavy solids, adhesives, or grease,
plugging of the sewer system may result. Plugging may occur just
downstream of the discharge or in the pumping station. Fibrous or
stringy materials get caught on rough surfaces and soon build up by
entangling more solids. These types of materials can also wind
themselves around pump impellers or shafts causing the pump to fail. If
problems are occurring, it may be an indication of a problem with the
manufacturing process or that the waste should have been pretreated
prior to discharge. Review the manufacturing process to determine if
changes in the process or disposal of wastes are required or if the sewer
needs to be enlarged to accommodate the materials. Heavy solids such as
sand, ceramic or porcelain solids, or grindings can build up in a sewer or
22
pump station wet well and reduce its hydraulic capacity. Solids that are
not removed by pretreatment at the process may be discharged during
peak wastewater flows during the day and may settle in pump station wet
wells or oversized sewers downstream of the actual point of discharge
when the flow subsides. The solids then have an opportunity to compact
and may not become resuspended when the flow in the sewer returns to
its peak flow. This cycle of transporting the solids to a section of the
collection system to settle, build up, and compact will eventually cause a
restriction. A complete blockage may also occur if large objects are
released to the sewer. Rags, tools, rejected food products, and discarded
by-products may accidentally be released to the sewer due to operator
carelessness or equipment malfunction. Because of their size, they can
easily become wedged or entangled with other waste material and
completely block the sewer or lift station pump.
1-3-1-3 Odors
Examples of industrial discharges that can be odorous are those from
petroleum refining, petrochemical manufacturing, and food processing.
Generally, the odors are produced from a compound containing sulfur,
such as mercaptants or hydrogen sulfide. These compounds in air are
detectable in the parts-per-billion range (by volume) and can cause
complaints from residents and other industries. While the problem is
airborne, the actual cause originates in the industrial discharge. It is even
more common to find this problem in the discharge to the POTW
system. The first solution may be to change the manufacturing process.
Sour water, which is wastewater containing high concentrations of
sulfide from the petroleum refining industry, can be stripped with steam
and reduced to elemental sulfur using the Klaus process. This process
and other similar recovery processes have reduced the odor pollution
problem while producing a saleable by-product (sulfur). Another
solution may be to oxidize the offending components prior to discharge
using air, hydrogen peroxide, or chlorine; or not discharge them at all.
The wastewater produced during the etherification reaction to make
polyester is very odiferous. Because of the quantity of organics in the
wastes, it is practical to incinerate the wastes at no net fuel expense and
solve the odor problem.
Industrial discharges of sulfide can result in toxic and corrosive
conditions. If there is biodegradable material, a source of bacteria and a
source of sulfide or sulfate in the industrial wastestreams, hydrogen
sulfide gas may be produced under anaerobic conditions in the sewer.
Bacteria reduce the inorganic sulfate to sulfide when there is insufficient
oxygen in the wastewater (less than 0.1 mg/L), thus producing hydrogen
sulfide gas. The sulfide is subsequently oxidized to sulfate by other
23
bacteria under aerobic conditions, producing sulfuric acid which is
extremely corrosive to the crown (upper section) of sewer pipes (I.W.T,
1999).
Besides an odor problem, hydrogen sulfide also presents a safety
(toxic gas) problem to sewer maintenance personnel and the IWTS
operator or, if discharged to the sanitary sewer, the POTW collection
system and treatment plant operators. Hydrogen sulfide when dissolved
in the wastewater will also produce sulfurous and sulfuric acid, very
corrosive materials that attack uncoated metal and concrete surfaces. The
anaerobic reduction usually requires a long detention time and an active
biological population. Sources of sulfide and sulfate should be identified
and recovered or treated prior to discharge. Some suggested solutions to
this problem are: require oxygenation and/or chlorination prior to
discharge; aerate the wastewater in the collection system; periodically
remove the slime layer of anaerobic growth in the system with a slug
loading of alkali or chlorine; or periodically clean the sewer with a high-
velocity cleaner or a pig (a sewer-cleaning device). Industrial discharges
to the POTW containing high concentrations of sulfide are normally
restricted. Limitations of 5 mg/L of total sulfide and 0.5 mg/L of
dissolved sulfide are used.
1-3-1-4 pH Problems
The pH of an industrial discharge or the amount of acids and alkalies
discharged to an industrial sewer are normally taken into account during
design. While older plants in the petroleum, primary metals, and
chemical industries have sewers constructed from less corrosion-resistant
materials, many of the modern facilities use plastics, fiberglass or other
resin material for the industrial wastewater piping and sewer systems.
Difficulties can arise when the manufacturing process changes or new
chemicals are used that are not compatible with the existing sewer
system. For example, fiberglass piping is an acceptable material of
construction for sulfuric acid, but if the plating operation adds a process
using hydrofluoric acid, the fiberglass may be severely damaged.
The industrial collection system may be designed to handle strong
acids or alkalies, but may not be designed to withstand the heat of
solution or reaction. For example, when a concentrated solution of
sodium hydroxide (such as a spent alkaline cleaner) is discharged to the
sewer, there could be a large temperature rise due to the heat of solution.
If there is only a small quantity of stagnant wastewater in the sewer or
pump station, the heat of solution may exceed 104 degrees Fahrenheit
(40 °C), the deformation temperature of PVC (I.W.T, 1999). A spill of
liquid chlorine can cause a temperature rise sufficient to produce steam
24
resulting in a very toxic gas. Liquid chlorine can also damage plastics
directly.
Acids will corrode concrete and cast iron sewers (Fig. 1-4), concrete
wet wells and tanks, the internal steel equipment in the primary and
secondary clarifiers, trickling filters, aerators, and pumps. Mineral acids
such as sulfuric, nitric, hydrochloric, and phosphoric acids are used
extensively to clean base metals in the metal finishing industries. The
fertilizer, iron and steel, mining, and petroleum industries also use vast
quantities of these strong acids.
1-3-1-5 Flammables
26
Any source of ignition such as an arc from tripping a breaker or a motor,
or a spark created while removing a manhole cover with a pick can cause
a fire or explosion.
The discharge of flammables to the POTW sewer is dangerous for the
same reasons noted above. If the concentration of flammables is high
enough, an explosive atmosphere can develop, especially if the
secondary treatment process is covered or uses pure oxygen. Any
hydrocarbon may cause a flammable hazard in a pure oxygen activated
sludge system. However, these systems are usually equipped with
sensors and purge systems to prevent flammable and explosive
conditions from developing.
1-3-1-6 Temperature
27
1-3-2 Effects on the treatment system
Industrial waste discharges damage treatment plant equipment in
many of the same ways they damage the collection system. High volume
discharges can exceed the pumping capacities; plugging of mechanical
equipment such as bar screens or pumps can occur from a high solids
discharge; acids and alkalies will corrode metal parts eventually causing
failure; and flammables in the treatment plant are an explosive problem
that can cause almost instantaneous damage. The added potential
problem with industrial discharges is their effect on the treatment
processes, including blinding of filters with oil; plugging microfiltration,
nanofiltration or reverse osmosis membranes; interfering with recovery
processes by contaminating the by-product; and overloading or upsetting
the aerobic and anaerobic biological treatment processes.
29
1-3-2-3 Influent variability
Measurements of wastewater flow, pH, temperature, and conductivity
are used to detect changes in the influent to the IWTS or POTW. As with
hydraulic surges, variability in the chemical composition of the influent
wastewater can cause upsets in the treatment processes. The larger the
difference between the existing influent composition and the contribution
from the industrial discharge, the larger the potential for problems. A
change of one pH unit represents a ten fold change in the concentration
of acid in the influent. Chemical reactions, precipitation, settleability and
filterability are greatly changed by the pH of the wastewater. For
biological treatment systems, both aerobic and anaerobic treatment are
inhibited by rapid changes in environmental conditions. Operation
outside of the pH range of 7.0 to 8.5 can be toxic to bacteria; however, if
the change is gradual the microorganisms can become acclimated to pH
levels slightly beyond this range. Changes in conductivity or ORP
(oxidation-reduction potential) normally represent increases or decreases
in soluble salts, cyanide or metals. Inhibition or interference can range
from overloading the chemical processes with the mass of metals or
cyanide requiring treatment to inhibiting the biological reactions.
Changes in soluble salt concentrations alter the rate of oxygen transfer
through bacterial cell walls and therefore affect the health and
performance of the microorganisms.
1-3-2-4 Slug loadings (also called Shock Loads)
Slug loadings or batch dumps of compatible or noncompatible
pollutants from industrial processes, whether accidental or as part of
normal production, may cause interference with the treatment processes
or pass-through of pollutants. To assess the effect of a slug loading, the
mass of the discharge and the resulting concentration at the treatment
plant have to be taken in consider. For example, if a concentrated
solution containing 45.3 gr of copper is discharged to a biological
treatment system, it may result in a concentration of 5 mg/ L for a 5-
minute period at the treatment plant. While this is a significant variation
from a 0.25 mg/L average influent concentration, the effect on the
activated sludge treatment system would be minimal, and the sludge
reuse potential would not appreciably suffer from a one-time occurrence.
However, if the concentration were to remain at 5.0 mg/L for a one-hour
period, the biological treatment system would likely be affected, severely
reducing or stopping biological treatment, and the sludge would be
contaminated (I.W.T, 1999). The concentration of the slug loading as
measured at the treatment plant was the same in both examples, but the
second example illustrated a batch dump which was 12 times more mass
than the first. It would have caused discharge violations, sludge
contamination, and the biological treatment removal efficiencies would
30
suffer until new bacteria could be cultured to return to the previous
efficiency. If slug loadings such as in the first example are allowed to
continue on a daily basis, organisms in the activated sludge or trickling
filter process may become acclimated and the daily discharges probably
will not affect the effluent quality.
1-3-3 Effects on effluent and sludge disposal and reuse
Industrial discharges which, alone or in conjunction with discharges
from other sources, pass through the POTW's facilities to navigable
waters and cause a violation of the discharge permit are considered pass-
through discharges. Pass-through of compatible and noncompatible
pollutants can occur when the POTW treatment system is under stress
from hydraulic or compatible waste overloads or shock loadings of toxic
pollutants. When the pollutant removal efficiency decreases, the
constituents from industrial discharges are found in the effluent.
Excluding slug loadings, the constituents most likely to pass through a
biological IWTS are small quantities of the toxic organics that are very
miscible (Ketones and alcohols, if not stripped, are metabolized by
secondary treatment), or immiscible and lipophilic (pesticides or
polychlorinated biphenyls) and soluble heavy metals that are not used as
micronutrients.
The constituents that are likely to pass through a physical-chemical
IWTS are small quantities of toxic organics that are miscible solvents or
chelated metals. If the toxic constituents in industrial processes are
controlled on site, the level of toxics discharged to the sewer is minimal.
This optimizes the recycle and reuse options of both the effluent and
sludge. Effluent can be further treated for reclaimed water uses; sludge
can be applied to land as fertilizer or mixed with a bulking agent and
made into compost if it is biological. If the sludge contains a high
percentage of metal, it may be reclaimable as an ore by refining or
smelting. Industrial processes whose discharges, upset or pass through
the treatment system eventually have an effect on the effluent and sludge
quality. In essence, the industrial process has contaminated the
wastewater. Instead of being a potential resource, the effluent and sludge
become a liability.
1-3-4 Effects on the POTW
Effects of an industrial discharge on the POTW collection, treatment
and disposal system parallel those of a manufacturing process waste on
the IWTS. There are problems with each component of the system. The
Pretreatment Regulations were established to remove toxic pollutants at
the source and to protect the POTW's collection, treatment and disposal
systems and the environment.
The effects of an industrial discharge on the POTW will always depend
on the characteristics and flexibility of the system, the level of skill
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possessed by the POTW inspectors, laboratory analysts, and POTW
operators, and the amount and type of industrial flow. Factors such as the
size and length of the sewer system also influence how an industrial
discharge will affect the POTW collection system. In general, the larger
the system, the less effect a single industrial discharge will have on the
POTW regardless of whether the industrial discharge is a slug loading or
a constant discharge. Dilution and equalization of the industrial
discharge occur naturally in the larger collection systems, thereby
reducing the effect on the POTW facilities. As the complexity of the
POTW treatment system increases from only primary treatment to
tertiary treatment, the effect of an industrial discharge also increases. The
higher degrees of treatment are more sensitive to upset from industrial
discharges. Secondary and tertiary biological processes such as activated
sludge, nitrification, denitrification, and anaerobic digestion can be upset
by a toxic "overdose" of heavy metals. Tertiary physical-chemical
processes such as sand filtration can be rendered useless by a pass-
through of oil or a carryover of gelatinous (jelly-like) bacteria from an
upset biological process. If the configuration of the treatment system can
be easily changed, the effect of an industrial discharge may be lessened.
Changing the recycle ratio on a trickling filter or altering the biomass
concentration in an activated sludge system could prevent pass-through
of noncompatible pollutants or air strip volatile organic compounds.
Changing a two-unit process from parallel operation to series operation
may help to remove high loadings of compatible pollutants. The disposal
of the POTW effluent and sludge are also affected by industrial
discharges. The effluent discharge requirements are more stringent for
water reuse than for discharge to receiving waters. POTW sludge being
used as a component in compost for resale must meet stricter quality
requirements than sludge being landfilled. Toxic components of
industrial discharges may limit the recycle and reuse options if the
POTW is not properly protected from slug loadings or if contaminated
concentrations reach a level that may pass through and be discharged in
the effluent or sludge. When certain metals reach high enough
concentrations in the sludge, then the sludge must be handled as a
hazardous waste.
References:
- Wang & Howard. "Handbook of Industrial and Hazardous Wastes Treatment".
USA 2004.
- WBG, World Bank Group. "Pollution Prevention and Abatement Handbook", 1998.
- WASAMED, Water Saving in Mediterranean agriculture. "Non-Conventional Water
Use". Eygpt 2004
- I.W.T, "Industrial Waste Treatment, V1&V2". California State University, USA
1999.
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