APPLICATION OF COORDINATION COMPOUNDS IN

AGRICULTURE
Coordination compound, any of a class of substances with chemical structures in which a
central metal atom is surrounded by non-metal atoms or groups of atoms, called ligands, joined
to it by chemical bonds. Coordination compounds include such substances as vitamin B12,
hemoglobin, and chlorophyll, dyes and pigments, and catalysts used in preparing organic
substances.

Coordination compounds contain a central metal atom

surrounded by non-metal atoms or groups of atoms,
called ligands. For example, vitamin B12 is made up of a
central metallic cobalt ion bound to multiple nitrogen-
containing ligands.

A major application of coordination compounds is their use as catalysts, which serve to alter
the rate of chemical reactions. Certain complex metal catalysts, for example, play a key role in
the production of polyethylene and polypropylene. In addition, a very stable class of
organometallic coordination compounds has provided impetus to the development of
organometallic chemistry. Organometallic coordination compounds are sometimes
characterized by “sandwich” structures, in which two molecules of an unsaturated cyclic
hydrocarbon, which lacks one or more hydrogen atoms, bond on either side of a metal atom.
This results in a highly stable aromatic system.
 Organometallic coordination compounds, which include transition metal
compounds, may be characterized by “sandwich” structures that contain two
unsaturated cyclic hydrocarbons on either side of a metal atom. Organometallic
compounds are found in the p-, d-, s-, and f- blocks of the periodic table (the purple-
shaded blocks; the transition metals include those elements in the d- and f-blocks).

The following article covers the history, applications, and characteristics (including structure
and bonding, principle types of complexes, and reactions and syntheses) of coordination
compounds.

Coordination Compounds in Nature

Naturally occurring coordination compounds are vital to living organisms. Metal complexes
play a variety of important roles in biological systems. Many enzymes, the naturally occurring
catalysts that regulate biological processes, are metal complexes (metalloenzymes); for
example, carboxypeptidase, a hydrolytic enzyme important in digestion, contains a zinc ion
coordinated to several amino acid residues of the protein. Another enzyme, catalase, which is
an efficient catalyst for the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide, contains iron-porphyrin
complexes. In both cases, the coordinated metal ions are probably the sites of catalytic activity.
Hemoglobin also contains iron-porphyrin complexes, its role as an oxygen carrier being related
to the ability of the iron atoms to coordinate oxygen molecules reversibly. Other biologically
important coordination compounds include chlorophyll (a magnesium-porphyrin complex) and
vitamin B12, a complex of cobalt with a macrocyclic ligand known as corrin.
 Hemoglobin is a protein made up of four
polypeptide chains (α1, α2, β1, and β2). Each chain is
attached to a heme group composed of porphyrin
(an organic ringlike compound) attached to an iron
atom. These iron-porphyrin complexes coordinate
oxygen molecules reversibly, an ability directly
related to the role of hemoglobin in oxygen
transport in the blood.

HISTORY OF COORDINATION COMPOUNDS

Perhaps the earliest known coordination compound is the bright red alizarin dye first used in
India and known to the ancient Persians and Egyptians. It is a calcium aluminium chelate
complex of hydroxyanthraquinone. The first scientifically recorded observation of a
completely inorganic coordination compound is German chemist, physician, and alchemist
Andreas Libavius’s description in 1597 of the blue colour (due to [Cu(NH3)4]2+) formed when
lime water containing sal ammoniac (NH4Cl) comes into contact with brass.
Another example of a coordination compound is the substance Prussian blue, with formula
KFe[Fe(CN)6], which has been used as an artist’s pigment since the beginning of the 18th
century. Another early example of the preparation of a coordination compound is the use in
1760 of a sparingly soluble compound, potassium hexachloroplatinate(2−), K2[PtCl6], to refine
the element platinum.
The sustained and systematic development of modern coordination chemistry, however,
usually is considered to have begun with the discovery by the French chemist B.M. Tassaert in
1798 that ammoniacal solutions of cobalt chloride, CoCl3, develop a brownish mahogany
colour. He failed to follow up on his discovery, however. It remained for others to isolate
orange crystals with the composition CoCl3 6NH3, the correct formulation of which is
recognized to be [Co(NH3)6]Cl3; this shows that the six ammonia molecules are associated with
the cobalt(3+) ion and the positive charge is balanced by three chloride anions. The particularly
significant feature of this observation was the recognition that two independently stable
compounds (i.e., cobalt chloride and ammonia) could combine to form a new chemical
compound with properties quite different from those of the constituent compounds.
In the 19th century, as more complexes were discovered, a number of theories were proposed
to account for their formation and properties. The most successful and widely accepted of these
theories was the so-called chain theory (1869) of the Swedish chemist Christian Wilhelm
Blomstrand, as modified and developed by the Danish chemist Sophus Mads Jørgensen.
Jørgensen’s extensive preparations of numerous complexes provided the experimental
foundation not only for the Blomstrand-Jørgensen chain theory but for Alsatian-born Swiss
chemist Alfred Werner’s coordination theory (1893) as well.
Blomstrand proposed that ammonia molecules could link together as ―NH3― chains, similar
to ―CH2― chains in hydrocarbons. The number of NH3 molecules associated with the metal
(i.e., the length of the chain) depends on the metal and its oxidation state. Werner later
explained this number more adequately with his concept of coordination number. Jørgensen
proposed that atoms or groups that dissociated into ions in solution were bonded through the
NH3 chain, whereas those that did not were bonded directly to the metal ion.
Werner called these two types of bonding ionogenic and nonionogenic, respectively. He
proposed that the first occurred outside the coordination sphere and the second inside it. In his
first experimental work in support of his coordination theory, Werner, together with the Italian
Arturo Miolati, determined the electrical conductivities of solutions of several series of
coordination compounds and claimed that the number of ions formed agreed with the
constitutions (manners of bonding of the ligands) predicted by his theory rather than those
predicted by Jørgensen.
Werner also established the configuration (the spatial arrangement of ligands around the metal
ion) of complexes by comparing the number and type of isomers (see below Isomerism) that
he actually prepared for various series of compounds with the number and type theoretically
predicted for various configurations. In this way he was able not only to refute the rival
Blomstrand-Jørgensen chain theory but also to demonstrate unequivocally that hexacoordinate
cobalt(+3) possesses an octahedral configuration. Shortly after he and his American student
Victor L. King resolved (split) [CoCl(NH3)(en)2]Cl2 into its optical isomers (see below
Enantiomers and Diastereomers) in 1911, Werner received the 1913 Nobel Prize for Chemistry.
The zenith of his quarter-century experimental achievements was attained with his resolution
of the completely inorganic tetranuclear compound, [tris(tetraammine-μ-dihydroxocobalt(+3))
cobalt(+3)](6+) bromide,

first prepared by Jørgensen, which effectively silenced even Werner’s most vociferous
opponents. Today he is universally recognized as the founder not only of coordination
chemistry but of structural inorganic chemistry as well.

CHARACTERISTICS OF COORDINATION COMPOUNDS

Coordination compounds have been studied extensively because of what they reveal about
molecular structure and chemical bonding, as well as because of the unusual chemical nature
and useful properties of certain coordination compounds. The general class of coordination
compounds—or complexes, as they are sometimes called—is extensive and diverse. The
substances in the class may be composed of electrically neutral molecules or of positively or
negatively charged species (ions).
Among the many coordination compounds having neutral molecules is uranium(+6) fluoride,
or uranium hexafluoride (UF6). The structural formula of the compound represents the actual
arrangement of atoms in the molecules:

In this formula the solid lines, which represent bonds between atoms, show that four of the
fluorine (F) atoms are bonded to the single atom of uranium (U) and lie in a plane with it, the
plane being indicated by dotted lines (which do not represent bonds), whereas the remaining
two fluorine atoms (also bonded to the uranium atom) lie above and below the plane,
respectively.
An example of an ionic coordination complex is the hydrated ion of nickel, (Ni),
hexaaquanickel(2+) ion, [Ni(H2O)6]2+, the structure of which is shown below. In this structure,
the symbols and lines are used as above, and the brackets and the “two plus” (2+) sign show
that the double positive charge is assigned to the unit as a whole.

The central metal atom in a coordination compound itself may be neutral or charged (ionic).
The coordinated groups—or ligands—may be neutral molecules such as water (in the above
example), ammonia (NH3), or carbon monoxide (CO); negatively charged ions (anions) such
as the fluoride (in the first example above) or cyanide ion (CN−); or, occasionally, positively
charged ions (cations) such as the hydrazinium (N2H5+) or nitrosonium (NO+) ion.
Complex ions that is, the ionic members of the family of coordination substances may exist as
free ions in solution, or they may be incorporated into crystalline materials (salts) with other
ions of opposite charge. In such salts, the complex ion may be either the cationic (positively
charged) or the anionic (negatively charged) component (or, on occasion, both). The hydrated
nickel ion (above) is an example of a cationic complex. An anionic complex is the hexacyanide
of the ferric iron (Fe+3) ion, the hexacyanoferrate(3−) ion, [Fe(CN)6]3−, or
Crystalline salts containing complex ions include potassium hexacyanoferrate(3−) (potassium
ferricyanide), K3[Fe(CN)6], and the hexahydrate of nickel chloride, hexaaquanickel(2+)
chloride, [Ni(H2O)6]Cl2. In each case the charge on the complex ion is balanced by ions of
opposite charge. In the case of potassium ferricyanide, three positively charged potassium ions,
K+, balance the negative charge on the complex, and in the nickel complex the positive charges
are balanced by two negative chloride ions, Cl−. The oxidation state of the central metal is
determined from the charges on the ligands and the overall charge on the complex. For
example, in hexaaquanickel(2+), water is electrically neutral and the charge on the complex
ion is +2; thus, the oxidation state of Ni is +2. In hexacyanoferrate(3−), all six cyano ligands
have a charge of –1; thus, the overall charge of –3 dictates that the oxidation state of Fe is +3.
The distinction between coordination compounds and other substances is, in fact, somewhat
arbitrary. The designation coordination compound, however, is generally restricted to
substances whose molecules or ions are discrete entities and in which the central atom is metal.
Accordingly, molecules such as sulphur(+6) fluoride (sulphur hexafluoride; SF6) and
carbon(+4) fluoride (carbon tetrafluoride; CF4) are not normally considered coordination
compounds, because sulphur (S) and carbon (C) are non-metallic elements. Yet there is no
great difference between these compounds and, say, uranium hexafluoride. Furthermore, such
simple ionic salts as sodium chloride (NaCl) or nickel(+2) fluoride (nickel difluoride; NiF2)
are not considered coordination compounds, because they consist of continuous ionic lattices
rather than discrete molecules. Nevertheless, the arrangement (and bonding) of the anions
surrounding the metal ions in these salts is similar to that in coordination compounds.
Coordination compounds generally display a variety of distinctive physical and chemical
properties, such as colour, magnetic susceptibility, solubility and volatility, an ability to
undergo oxidation-reduction reactions, and catalytic activity.
A coordination compound is characterized by the nature of the central metal atom or ion, the
oxidation state of the latter (that is, the gain or loss of electrons in passing from the neutral
atom to the charged ion, sometimes referred to as the oxidation number), and the number, kind,
and arrangement of the ligands. Because virtually all metallic elements form coordination
compounds
ROLE IN AGRICULTURE
Plant physiology will probably also assume an increasingly importanl role in agricultural
research problems. As world population increases, mankind faces enormously complex
problems. Their solutions will require input from many sources: social, economical,
technological and agricultural. One of the primary tasks of the future will be to increase food,
forage, fiber, and wood production substantially throughout the world. Future agricultural
research programme will continue, as in the present, to have as their major goals the production
of new and better varieties and strains of crop plants, the improvement of plant protection
against insects, diseases and weeds, the control of soil fertility and an increase in mechanization
efficiency. But in addition, there will be a sharp intensification of demands of plant
physiologists not only to supply basic information regarding how plants grow and develop but
also to undertake research programs designed specifically to increase yields of plant products.

One of the important contributions of the nineteenth century experimental plantphysiology to

agricultural was the discovery that soil fertility and crop yields could be increased by adding
several nutrients to the soil. Prior to the nineteenth century, the common method for increasing
crop production was to Apply plant and animal (manners, copouts etc.) to so. It was not released
that this treatment returned to the soil only a portion of nutrients that had been extracted by
plants. Another centuries old agricultural practice was to rotate crops periodically with other
crops. This practice resulted in increased growth of crops only in the early 1800's, agricultural
scientists realize that crop plants grow in proportion to the amounts of various nutrients present
in soils. This principle was adopted by nineteenth century agronomists. Today the application
of various salts to soils is a basic feature of agricultural practice. Without the application of
these and other fertilizer to soils the large crop yields obtained in developing countries
thoughtout the world during the past 50 years or more could not be possible. In modern
agricultural practice, various chemicals in solution or aqueous suspension are sprayed on to the
crop plants within the object of accelerating and modifying the plant growth and development.
Powerful support for the connection between chelation and cancer has come out from discovery
that some of the coordination compounds of platinum are very effective in inhibiting the growth
of tumors
Environmental Impact of Pesticides:
The impact of pesticides consists of the effects of pesticides on non-target species. Pesticides
are chemical preparations used to kill fungal or animal pests. Over 98% of sprayed insecticides
and 95% of herbicides reach a destination other than their target species, because they are
sprayed or spread across entire agricultural fields. Runoff can carry pesticides into aquatic
environments while wind can carry them to other fields, grazing areas, human settlements and
undeveloped areas, potentially affecting other species. Other problems emerge from poor
production, transport and storage practices. Over time, repeated application increases pest
resistance, while its effects on other species can facilitate the pest's resurgence.
Each pesticide or pesticide class comes with a specific set of environmental concerns. Such
undesirable effects have led many pesticides to be banned, while regulations have limited
and/or reduced the use of others. Over time, pesticides have generally become less persistent
and more species-specific, reducing their environmental footprint. In addition, the amounts of
pesticides applied per hectare have declined, in some cases by 99%. The global spread of
pesticide use, including the use of older/obsolete pesticides that have been banned in some
jurisdictions, has increased overall
The Effects and Uses of Pesticides in Agriculture:
The arrival of humans in an area, to live or to conduct agriculture, necessarily has
environmental impacts. These range from simple crowding out of wild plants in favor of more
desirable cultivars to larger scale impacts such as reducing biodiversity by reducing food
availability of native species, which can propagate across food chains. The use of agricultural
chemicals such as fertilizer and des magnify those impacts. While advances in agro chemistry
have reduced those impacts, for example by the replacement of long-lived chemicals with those
that reliably degrade, even in the best case they remain substantial. These effects are magnified
by the use of older chemistries and poor management practices.
The extensive use of pesticides in agricultural production can degrade and damage the
community of microorganisms living in the soil, particularly when these chemicals are
overused or misused. The full impact of pesticides on soil microorganisms is still not entirely
understood; many studies have found deleterious effects of pesticides on soil microorganisms
and biochemical processes, while others have found that the residue of some pesticides can be
degraded and assimilated by microorganisms. The effect of pesticides on soil microorganisms
is impacted by the persistence, concentration, and toxicity of the applied pesticide, in addition
to various environmental factors. This complex interaction of factors makes it difficult to draw
definitive conclusions about the interaction of pesticides with the soil ecosystem. In general,
long-term pesticide application can disturb the biochemical processes of nutrient cycling.
Many of the chemicals used in pesticides are persistent soil contaminants, whose impact may
endure for decades and adversely affect soil conservation.
The use of pesticides decreases the general biodiversity in the soil. Not using the chemicals
results in higher soil quality, with the additional effect that more organic matter in the soil
allows for higher water retention. This helps increase yields for farms in drought years, when
organic farms have had yields 20-40% higher than their conventional counterparts. A smaller
content of organic matter in the soil increases the amount of pesticide that will leave the area
of application, because organic matter binds to and helps break down pesticides.
Degradation and sorption are both factors which influence the persistence of pesticides in soil.
Depending on the chemical nature of the pesticide, such processes control directly the
transportation from soil to water, and in turn to air and our food. Breaking down organic
substances, degradation, involves interactions among microorganisms in the soil. Sorption
affects bioaccumulation of pesticides which are dependent on organic matter in the soil. Weak
organic acids have been shown to be weakly sorted by soil, because of pH and mostly acidic
structure. Sorted chemicals have been shown to be less accessible to microorganisms. Aging
mechanisms are poorly understood but as residence times in soil increase, pesticide residues
become more resistant to degradation and extraction as they lose biological activity.
Nitrogen fixation, which is required for the growth of higher plants, is hindered by pesticides
in soil. The insecticides DDT, methyl parathion, and especially pentachlorophenol have been
shown to interfere with legume-rhizobium chemical signalling. Reduction of this symbiotic
chemical signalling results in reduced nitrogen fixation and thus reduced crop yields. Root
nodule formation in these plants saves the world economy $10 billion in synthetic nitrogen
fertilizer every year.
Pesticides can kill bees and are strongly implicated in pollinator decline, the loss of species that
pollinate plants, including through the mechanism of Colony Collapse Disorder, in which
worker bees from a beehive or western honey bee colony abruptly disappear. Application of
pesticides to crops that are in bloom can kill honeybees, which act as pollinators. The USDA
and USFWS estimate that US farmers lose at least $200 million a year from reduced crop
pollination because pesticides applied to fields eliminate about a fifth of honeybee colonies in
the US and harm an additional 15%.
On the other side, pesticides have some direct harmful effect on plant including poor root hair
development, shoot yellowing and reduced plant growth