Governance

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This article is about the concept of Governance. For the journal Governance, see Governance (journal). For information on the administrative structure of
Wikipedia, see Wikipedia:Administration.

"Governing" redirects here. For the magazine, see Governing (magazine).

Part of a series on

Governance

Models

 Collaborative

 Good

 Multistakeholder

 Open-source

 Private

 Self

By level

 Local

 Global

By field

 Climate

 Clinical

 Corporate

 Cultural

 Data

 Earth system

 Ecclesiastical

 Environmental

 Higher education

 Information

 Network

 Ocean

 Political party

 Project

 Security sector
  Self

 Simulation

 Service-oriented architecture

 Soil

 Technology

 Transnational

 Website

Measures

 World Governance Index

 Sustainable Governance Indicators

Related topics

 Chief governance officer

 Governance, risk management

and compliance

 E-governance

 Environmental, social and

corporate governance

 Market governance mechanism

 v

 t

 e

Governance comprises all of the processes of governing – whether undertaken by the government of a state, by a market or by a network – over a social
system (family, tribe, formal or informal organization, a territory or across territories) and whether through the laws, norms, power or language of an organized
society.[1] It relates to "the processes of interaction and decision-making among the actors involved in a collective problem that lead to the creation, reinforcement,
or reproduction of social norms and institutions".[2] In lay terms, it could be described as the political processes that exist in and between formal institutions.

A variety of entities (known generically as governing bodies) can govern. The most formal is a government, a body whose sole responsibility and authority is to
make binding decisions in a given geopolitical system (such as a state) by establishing laws. Other types of governing include an organization (such as
a corporation recognized as a legal entity by a government), a socio-political group (chiefdom, tribe, gang, family, religious denomination, etc.), or another,
informal group of people. In business and outsourcing relationships, Governance Frameworks are built[by whom?] into relational contracts that foster long-term
collaboration and innovation.[citation needed]

Governance is the way rules, norms and actions are structured, sustained, regulated and held accountable.[citation needed] The degree of formality depends on the
internal rules of a given organization and, externally, with its business partners. As such, governance may take many forms, driven by many different motivations
and with many different results. For instance, a government may operate as a democracy where citizens vote on who should govern and the public good is the
goal, while a non-profit organization or a corporation may be governed by a small board of directors and pursue more specific aims.

In addition, a variety of external actors without decision-making power can influence the process of governing. These include lobbies, think tanks, political
parties, non-government organizations, community and media.

Contents

 1Origin of the word

 2Types
o 2.1Governance as process
o 2.2Public governance
o 2.3Private governance
o 2.4Global governance
 o 2.5Governance Analytical Framework
o 2.6Nonprofit governance
o 2.7Corporate governance
o 2.8Project governance
o 2.9Environmental governance
o 2.10Land governance
o 2.11Internet governance
o 2.12Information technology governance
o 2.13Regulatory governance
o 2.14Participatory governance
o 2.15Contract governance
o 2.16Multi-level governance
o 2.17Metagovernance
o 2.18Collaborative governance
o 2.19Security sector governance

 3As a normative concept

o 3.1Fair governance
o 3.2Good governance
o 3.3Measurement and assessment

 4See also

 5References

 6Further reading

 7External links

Origin of the word[edit]

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Like government, the word governance derives, ultimately, from the Greek verb kubernaein [kubernáo] (meaning to steer, the metaphorical sense first being
attested in Plato). Its occasional use in English to refer to the specific activity of ruling a country can be traced to early modern England, when the phrase
"governance of the realm" appears in works by William Tyndale[3] and in royal correspondence between James V of Scotland and Henry VIII of England.[4] The first
usage in connection with institutional structures (as distinct from individual rule) is in Charles Plummer's The Governance of England (an 1885 translation from a
15th-century Latin work by John Fortescue, also known as The Difference between an Absolute and a Limited Monarchy). This usage of governance to refer to the
arrangements of governing became orthodox including in Sidney Low’s seminal text of the same title in 1904 and among some later British constitutional
historians.[5]

However, the use of the term governance in its current broader sense, encompassing the activities of a wide range of public and private institutions, acquired
general currency only as recently as the 1990s, when it was re-minted by economists and political scientists and disseminated by institutions such as
the UN, IMF and World Bank.[6] Since then, the term has steadily gained increasing usage.

Types[edit]
Governance often refers to a particular level of governance associated with a type of organization (including public governance, global governance, non-profit
governance, corporate governance, and project governance), a particular 'field' of governance associated with a type of activity or outcome (including
environmental governance, internet governance, and information technology governance), or a particular 'model' of governance, often derived as an empirical or
normative theory (including regulatory governance, participatory governance, multilevel governance, metagovernance, and collaborative governance).

Governance can also define normative or practical agendas. Normative concepts of fair governance or good governance are common among political, public
sector, voluntary, and private sector organizations.

Governance as process[edit]
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In its most abstract sense, governance is a theoretical concept referring to the actions and processes by which stable practices and organizations arise and
persist.[7] These actions and processes may operate in formal and informal organizations of any size; and they may function for any purpose, good or evil, for profit
or not. Conceiving of governance in this way, one can apply the concept to states, to corporations, to non-profits, to NGOs, to partnerships and other associations,
to business relationships (especially complex outsourcing relationships), to project teams, and to any number of humans engaged in some purposeful activity.

Most theories of governance as process arose out of neoclassical economics.[8] These theories build deductive models, based on the assumptions of modern
economics, to show how rational actors may come to establish and sustain formal organizations, including firms and states, and informal organizations, such as
networks and practices for governing the commons. Many of these theories draw on transaction cost economics.[9]

Public governance[edit]
Main article: Public administration

There is a distinction between the concepts of governance and politics. Politics involves processes by which a group of people (perhaps with divergent opinions or
interests) reach collective decisions generally regarded as binding on the group, and enforced as common policy. Governance, on the other hand, conveys
the administrative and process-oriented elements of governing rather than its antagonistic ones.[10] Such an argument continues to assume the possibility of the
traditional separation between "politics" and "administration". Contemporary governance practice and theory sometimes questions this distinction, premising that
both "governance" and "politics" involve aspects of power and accountability.

In general terms, public governance occurs in three broad ways:

 Through networks involving public-private partnerships (PPP) or with the collaboration of community
organisations;
 Through the use of market mechanisms whereby market principles of competition serve to allocate resources
while operating under government regulation;
 Through top-down methods that primarily involve governments and the state bureaucracy.

Private governance[edit]
Private governance occurs when non-governmental entities, including private organizations, dispute resolution organizations, or other third party groups, make
rules and/or standards which have a binding effect on the "quality of life and opportunities of the larger public." Simply put, private—not public—entities are
making public policy. For example, insurance companies exert a great societal impact, largely invisible and freely accepted, that is a private form of governance in
society; in turn, reinsurers, as private companies, may exert similar private governance over their underlying carriers.[11] The term "public policy" should not be
exclusively associated with policy that is made by government. Public policy may be created by either the private sector or the public sector. If one wishes to refer
only to public policy that is made by government, the best term to use is "governmental policy," which eliminates the ambiguity regarding the agent of the policy
making.

Global governance[edit]
Main article: Global governance

Global governance is defined as "the complex of formal and informal institutions, mechanisms, relationships, and processes between and among states, markets,
citizens and organizations, both inter- and non-governmental, through which collective interests on the global plane are articulated, right and obligations are
established, and differences are mediated".[12] In contrast to the traditional meaning of "governance", some authors like James Rosenau have used the term "global
governance" to denote the regulation of interdependent relations in the absence of an overarching political authority. [13] The best example of this is the international
system or relationships between independent states. The term, however, can apply wherever a group of free equals needs to form a regular relationship.

Governance Analytical Framework[edit]

The Governance Analytical Framework (GAF) is a practical methodology for investigating governance processes, where various stakeholders interact and make
decisions regarding collective issues, thus creating or reinforcing social norms and institutions. It is postulated that governance processes can be found in any
society, and unlike other approaches, that these can be observed and analysed from a non-normative perspective. It proposes a methodology based on five main
analytical units: problems, actors, norms, processes and "nodal points". These logically articulated analytical units make up a coherent methodology aimed at
being used as a tool for empirical social policy research.[2][14][15]

Nonprofit governance[edit]
Nonprofit governance has a dual focus: achieving the organization's social mission and ensuring the organization is viable. Both responsibilities relate to fiduciary
responsibility that a board of trustees (sometimes called directors, or Board, or Management Committee—the terms are interchangeable) has with respect to the
exercise of authority over the explicit actions the organization takes. Public trust and accountability is an essential aspect of organizational viability so it achieves
the social mission in a way that is respected by those whom the organization serves and the society in which it is located.

Corporate governance[edit]
Main article: Corporate governance

Corporate organizations often use the word governance to describe both:

1. The manner in which boards or their like direct a corporation

2. The laws and customs (rules) applying to that direction

Corporate governance consists of the set of processes, customs, policies, laws and institutions affecting the way people direct, administer or control a corporation.
Corporate governance also includes the relationships among the many players involved (the stakeholders) and the corporate goals. The principal players include
the shareholders, management, and the board of directors. Other stakeholders include employees, suppliers, customers, banks and other lenders, regulators, the
environment and the community at large.

The first documented use of the word "corporate governance" is by Richard Eells (1960, p. 108) to denote "the structure and functioning of the corporate polity".
The "corporate government" concept itself is older and was already used in finance textbooks at the beginning of the 20th century (Becht, Bolton, Röell 2004).

Project governance[edit]
Main article: Project governance

Project governance is the management framework within which project decisions are made. Its role is to provide a repeatable and robust system through which an
organization can manage its capital investments—project governance handles tasks such as outlining the relationships between all groups involved and describing
the flow of information to all stakeholders.

Environmental governance[edit]
Main article: Environmental governance

Governance in an environmental context may refer to:

  a concept in political ecology which promotes environmental policy that advocates for sustainable human
activity (ie. that governance should be based upon environmental principles).
 the processes of decision-making involved in the control and management of the environment and natural
resources. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), define environmental governance as
the "multi-level interactions (i.e., local, national, international/global) among, but not limited to, three main
actors, i.e., state, market, and civil society, which interact with one another, whether in formal and informal
ways; in formulating and implementing policies in response to environment-related demands and inputs from
the society; bound by rules, procedures, processes, and widely accepted behavior; possessing characteristics
of 'good governance'; for the purpose of attaining environmentally-sustainable development."

Land governance[edit]
Land governance is concerned with issues of land ownership and tenure. It consists of the policies, processes and institutions by which decisions about the access
to, use of and control over land are made, implemented and enforced; it is also about managing and reconciling competing claims on land. In developing countries,
it is relevant as a tool to contribute to equitable and sustainable development, addressing the phenomenon that is known as ‘land grabbing’.[16][17] The operational
dimension of land governance is land administration.

Security of land tenure is considered to contribute to poverty reduction and food security, since it can enable farmers to fully participate in the economy. Without
recognized property rights, it is hard for small entrepreneurs, farmers included, to obtain credit or sell their business[18] – hence the relevance of comprehensive
land governance.

There is constant feedback between land tenure problems and land governance. For instance, it has been argued that what is frequently called 'land grabbing',
was partly made possible by the Washington Consensus-inspired liberalization of land markets in developing countries. Many land acquisition deals were
perceived to have negative consequences, and this in turn led to initiatives to improve land governance in developing countries.[19]

The quality of land governance depends on its practical implementation, which is known as land administration: ‘the way in which rules of land tenure are made
operational’. And another factor is accountability: the degree to which citizens and stakeholder groups are consulted and can hold to account their authorities.[19]

The main international policy initiative to improve land governance is known as the Voluntary Guidelines on the Responsible Governance of Tenure of Land,
Fisheries and Forests in the Context of National Food Security (VGGT),[20] endorsed by the Committee on World Food Security (CFS).

Internet governance[edit]
Main article: Internet governance

Internet governance was defined by the World Summit on the Information Society as "the development and application by Governments, the private sector and
civil society, in their respective roles, of shared principles, norms, rules, decision-making procedures, and programmes that shape the evolution and use of
the Internet."[21] Internet governance deals with how much influence each sector of society should have on the development of the Internet, such as to what extent
the state should be able to censor it, and how issues on the Internet, such as cyber-bullying, should be approached.

Information technology governance[edit]

Main article: Information technology governance

IT governance primarily deals with connections between business focus and IT management. The goal of clear governance is to assure that investment in IT
generates business value and mitigates the risks that are associated with IT projects.[22]

Regulatory governance[edit]
Main article: Regulatory governance

Regulatory governance reflects the emergence of decentered and mutually adaptive policy regimes which rests on regulation rather than service provision or
taxing and spending.[23] The term captures the tendency of policy regimes to deal with complexity with delegated system of rules. It is likely to appear in arenas and
nations which are more complex, more global, more contested and more liberally democratic.[24] The term builds upon and extends the terms of the regulatory state
on the one hand and governance on the other. While the term regulatory state marginalize non-state actors (NGOs and Business) in the domestic and global level,
the term governance marginalizes regulation as a constitutive instrument of governance. The term regulatory governance therefore allows us to understand
governance beyond the state and governance via regulation.

Participatory governance[edit]
Participatory governance focuses on deepening democratic engagement through the participation of citizens in the processes of governance with the state. The
idea is that citizens should play a more direct roles in public decision-making or at least engage more deeply with political issues. Government officials should also
be responsive to this kind of engagement. In practice, participatory governance can supplement the roles of citizens as voters or as watchdogs through more direct
forms of involvement.[25]

Contract governance[edit]
(See also contract management.) Emerging thinking about contract governance is focusing on creating a governance structure in which the parties have a vested
interest in managing what are often highly complex contractual arrangements in a more collaborative, aligned, flexible, and credible way. [26] In 1979, Nobel laureate
Oliver Williamson wrote that the governance structure for a contract is the "framework within which the integrity of a transaction is decided", adding further that
"because contracts are varied and complex, governance structures vary with the nature of the transaction."[27]

Multi-level governance[edit]
Main article: Multi-level governance

Multi-level governance is the concept and study of the fact that many intertangled authority structures are present in a global political economy. The theory of multi-
level governance, developed mainly by Liesbet Hooghe and Gary Marks, arose from increasing European integration, particularly through the European
Union. José Manuel Barroso, former President of the European Commission, has stated that "the multilevel system of governance on which our European regional
policy is based provides a key boost to the Union's competitive edge" and that, in times of economic crisis, "multilevel governance must be a priority."

Metagovernance[edit]
"Metagovernance" is the "governing of governing".[28] It represents the established ethical principles, or 'norms', that shape and steer the entire governing process.
It is important to note that there are no clearly defined settings within which metagoverning takes place, or particular persons who are responsible for it. While
some[who?] believe metagovernance to be the role of the state which is assumed to want to steer actors in a particular direction, it can "potentially be exercised by
any resourceful actor"[29] who wishes to influence the governing process. Examples of this include the publishing of codes of conduct at the highest level of
international government,[30] and media focus on specific issues[31] at the sociocultural level. Despite their different sources, both seek to establish values in such a
way that they become accepted 'norms'. The fact that 'norms' can be established at any level and can then be used to shape the governance process as whole,
means metagovernance is part of both the input and the output of the governing system.[32]

Collaborative governance[edit]
Main article: Collaborative governance

A collaborative governance framework uses a relationship management structure, joint performance and transformation management processes and an exit
management plan as controlling mechanisms to encourage the organizations to make ethical, proactive changes for the mutual benefit of all the parties.[33]

Security sector governance[edit]

Main article: Security sector governance and reform

Security sector governance (SSG) is a subpart concept or framework of security governance that focuses specifically on decisions about security and their
implementation within the security sector of a single state. SSG applies the principles of good governance to the security sector in question.[34]

As a normative concept[edit]
Fair governance[edit]
When discussing governance in particular organizations, the quality of governance within the organization is often compared to a standard of good governance. In
the case of a business or of a non-profit organization, for example, good governance relates to consistent management, cohesive policies, guidance, processes
and decision-rights for a given area of responsibility, and proper oversight and accountability. "Good governance" implies that mechanisms function in a way that
allows the executives (the "agents") to respect the rights and interests of the stakeholders (the "principals"), in a spirit of democracy.

Good governance[edit]
Main article: Good governance

Good governance is an indeterminate term used in international development literature to describe various normative accounts of how public institutions ought to
conduct public affairs and manage public resources. These normative accounts are often justified on the grounds that they are thought to be conducive to
economic ends, such as the eradication of poverty and successful economic development. Unsurprisingly different organizations have defined governance and
good governance differently to promote different normative ends.

The World Bank defines governance as:

the manner in which power is exercised in the management of a country's economic and social resources for development.[35]

The Worldwide Governance Indicators project of the World Bank defines governance as:

the traditions and institutions by which authority in a country is exercised.[36]

This considers the process by which governments are selected, monitored and replaced; the capacity of the government to effectively formulate and implement
sound policies and the respect of citizens and the state of the institutions that govern economic and social interactions among them.

An alternate definition sees governance as:

the use of institutions, structures of authority and even collaboration to allocate resources and coordinate or control activity in society or the economy.[37]

According to the United Nations Development Programme's Regional Project on Local Governance for Latin America:

Governance has been defined as the rules of the political system to solve conflicts between actors and adopt decision (legality). It has also been used to describe
the "proper functioning of institutions and their acceptance by the public" (legitimacy). And it has been used to invoke the efficacy of government and the
achievement of consensus by democratic means (participation).[38]

Measurement and assessmen

Since the early years of the 2000s (decade),[when?] efforts have been conducted in the research and international development community to assess and measure
the quality of governance of countries all around the world. Measuring governance is inherently a controversial and somewhat political exercise. A distinction is
therefore made between external assessments, peer assessments and self-assessments. Examples of external assessments are donor assessments or
comparative indices produced by international non-governmental organizations. An example of a peer assessment is the African Peer Review Mechanism.
Examples of self-assessments are country-led assessments that can be led by government, civil society, researchers and/or other stakeholders at the national
level.

One of these efforts to create an internationally comparable measure of governance and an example of an external assessment is the Worldwide Governance
Indicators project, developed by members of the World Bank and the World Bank Institute. The project reports aggregate and individual indicators for more than
200 countries for six dimensions of governance: voice and accountability, political stability and lack of violence, government effectiveness, regulatory quality, rule
of law, control of corruption. To complement the macro-level cross-country Worldwide Governance Indicators, the World Bank Institute developed the World Bank
Governance Surveys, which are country-level governance assessment tools that operate at the micro or sub-national level and use information gathered from a
country's own citizens, business people and public sector workers to diagnose governance vulnerabilities and suggest concrete approaches for fighting corruption.

A Worldwide Governance Index (WGI)[39] was developed in 2009 and is open for improvement through public participation. The following domains, in the form of
indicators and composite indexes, were selected to achieve the development of the WGI: Peace and Security, Rule of Law, Human Rights and Participation,
Sustainable Development, and Human Development. Additionally, in 2009 the Bertelsmann Foundation published the Sustainable Governance Indicators (SGI),
which systematically measure the need for reform and the capacity for reform within the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)
countries. The project examines to what extent governments can identify, formulate and implement effective reforms that render a society well-equipped to meet
future challenges, and ensure their future viability.[40] Section 10 of the Government Performance and Results Act (GPRA) Modernization Act requires U.S. federal
agencies to publish their strategic and performance plans and reports in machine-readable format.

The International Budget Partnership (IBP) launched the Open Budget Initiative in 2006 with the release of the first Open Budget Survey (OBS). The OBS is a
comprehensive analysis and survey that evaluates whether central governments give the public access to budget documents and provide opportunities for public
participation in the budget process. To measure the overall commitment to transparency, the IBP created Open Budget Index (OBI), which assigns a score to each
country based on the results of the survey. While the OBS is released biannually, the IBP recently released a new OBS Tracker, which serves as an online tool for
civil society, the media, and other actors to monitor in real time whether governments are releasing eight key budget documents. The Open Budget Index data are
used by the Open Government Partnership, development aid agencies, and increasingly investors in the private sector as key indicators of governance,
particularly fiscal transparency and management of public funds.[41] Examples of country-led assessments include the Indonesian Democracy Index, monitoring of
the Millennium Development Goal 9 on Human Rights and Democratic Governance in Mongolia and the Gross National Happiness Index in Bhutan.

Section 10 of the Government Performance and Results Act Modernization Act (GPRAMA) requires U.S. federal agencies to publish their performance plans and
reports in machine-readable format, thereby providing the basis for evaluating the quality of their performance of the governance functions entrusted to them, as
specified in their strategic objectives and performance indicators. Publishing performance reports openly on the Web in a standard, machine-readable format is
good practice for all organizations whose plans and reports should be matters of public record.

See also[edit]

 Agency cost
 Anarchism
 Collaborative governance
 Corporate governance
 Contract management
 Data governance
 Ecclesiastical polity
 International healthcare accreditation
 Internet governance
 Global governance
 Governmentality
 Governance without government
 Open-source governance
 Participatory democracy
 Policy Governance
 Principal–agent problem
 Public choice theory
 Public management and New public management
 Rule According to Higher Law
 Sarbanes-Oxley
 Simulation Governance
 Seat of local government
 Social innovation
 Sociocracy
 SOA governance
 Statism
 Strategy Markup Language (StratML), particularly Part 2, Performance Plans and Reports

References[edit]

1. ^ Compare: Bevir, Mark (2012). Governance: A very short introduction. Oxford, UK: Oxford University
Press. Governance refers, therefore, to all processes of governing, whether undertaken by a government,
market, or network, whether over a family, tribe, formal or informal organization, or territory, and whether
through laws, norms, power or language. Governance differs from government in that it focuses less on the
state and its institutions and more on social practices and activities.
2. ^ Jump up to:a b Hufty, Marc (2011). "Investigating Policy Processes: The Governance Analytical Framework
(GAF). In: Wiesmann, U., Hurni, H., et al. eds. Research for Sustainable Development: Foundations,
Experiences, and Perspectives". Bern: Geographica Bernensia: 403–24.
3. ^ "When the king's grace came first to the right of the crown, and unto the governance of the realm young and
unexpert..." William Tyndale; John Frith (1831). The works of Tyndale. Ebenezer Palmer. p. 452.
4. ^ "We have put all our confidence, has als actyflie with ye help of our derrest Modir takin on Ws ye governance
of our Realme": "Letter of James V to Henry VIII". State Papers: King Henry the Eighth; Part IV. Murray. 1836.
p. 95.
5. ^ "The Concept of Good Governance in Modern World and Governance by Caliphs of Islam – Part I".
Retrieved 2019-03-03.
6. ^ Étymologie du terme "gouvernance", document prepared by the European Commission.
7. ^ Lijun, Yang; Wei, Shan (1998-08-14). New Humanism and Global Governance. World
Scientific. ISBN 9789813236196.
8. ^ "Economics – Major Theories". science.jrank.org. Retrieved 2019-03-03.
9. ^ Williamson, Oliver E. (1979). "Transaction-Cost Economics: The Governance of Contractual
Relations" (PDF). Journal of Law and Economics. 22 (2): 233–261. doi:10.1086/466942. JSTOR 725118.
 10. ^ Offe, Claus (2009). "Governance: An "Empty Signifier"?". Constellations. 16: 550–62. doi:10.1111/j.1467-
8675.2009.00570.x.
11. ^ Mendoza, Marcos (2014). "Reinsurance as Governance: Governmental Risk Management Pools as a Case
Study in the Governance Role Played by Reinsurance Institutions". Conn. Ins. L. J. 21: 53, 68–70.
12. ^ Thakur, Ramesh; Van Langenhove, Luk (2006). "Enhancing Global Governance through Regional
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13. ^ James N. Rosenau, "Toward an Ontology for Global Governance", in Martin Hewson and Thomas Sinclair,
eds., Approaches to Global Governance Theory, SUNY Press, Albany, 1999.
14. ^ Hufty, Marc (2011). "Governance: Exploring four approaches and their relevance to research. In: Wiesmann,
U., Hurni, H., et al. editors. Research for Sustainable Development: Foundations, Experiences, and
Perspectives". Bern: Geographica Bernensia: 165–183.
15. ^ Spear, Cornforth & Aiken, 2009. The governance challenges of social enterprises: Evidence from a UK
empirical study. Annals of Public and Cooperative Economics, 89(2): 247–73.
16. ^ "Focus on Land". Focus on Land. Retrieved 2019-11-22.
17. ^ Policy Paper: Good Land Governance. Global Land Tool Network, no date.
18. ^ De Soto, Hernando. The Mystery of Capital: Why Capitalism Triumphs in the West and Fails Everywhere
Else. New York: Basic Books. 2000
19. ^ Jump up to:a b Mayke Kaag and Annelies Zoomers: The global land grab: beyond the hype, Zed Books, 2014
20. ^ "Voluntary Guidelines on Tenure". Governance of Tenure. Food and Agricultural Organization of the United
Nations.
21. ^ "Report of the Working Group on Internet Governance" (PDF). June 2005. Retrieved 2018-12-12.
22. ^ Smallwood, Deb (March 2009). "IT Governance: A Simple Model". Tech Decision CIO Insights.
23. ^ David Levi-Faur, "Regulation & Regulatory Governance", in David Levi-Faur, Handbook on the Politics of
Regulation, Edward Elgar, Cheltenham, 2011, pp. 1–20.
24. ^ Braithwaite, John, Cary Coglianese, and David Levi‐Faur. "Can regulation and governance make a
difference?." Regulation & Governance 1.1 (2007): 1–7.
25. ^ 'Triumph, Deficit or Contestation? Deepening the 'Deepening Democracy' Debate' Institute of Development
Studies (IDS) Working Paper 264 July 2006.
26. ^ Unpacking Outsourcing Governance: How to Build a Sound Governance Structure to Drive Insight Versus
Oversight|[1]|2015|Vested Way|accessed 17 August 2016
27. ^ Williamson, Oliver (1979-10-01). "Transaction-Cost Economics: The Governance of Contractual
Relations". Journal of Law and Economics. 22 (2).
28. ^ Kooiman, J. Governing as Governance. Sage publications 2003. p. 170.
29. ^ Sorensen, E. Metagovernance: The Changing Role of Politicians in Processes of Democratic
Governance. American Review of Public Administration. Volume 36 2006, pp. 98–114 (p. 103).
30. ^ Onyango, P & Jentoft, S. Assessing Poverty in small-scale fisheries in Lake Victoria, Tanzania.Fish and
Fisheries. Volume 11 2010, pp. 250–63 (p. 258).
31. ^ Evans, J. Environmental Governance. Routledge 2012. p. 40.
32. ^ Kooiman, J. Governing as Governance. Sage publications 2003. p. 171.
33. ^ Vitasek, Kate; et al. (2011). The Vested Outsourcing Manual (1st ed.). New York: Palgrave
Macmillan. ISBN 0230112684.
34. ^ Security Sector Governance. SSR Backgrounder Series. Geneva: Geneva Centre for the Democratic Control
of Armed Forces (DCAF). 2015.
35. ^ World Bank, Managing Development – The Governance Dimension, 1991, Washington D.C., p. 1
36. ^ "A Decade of Measuring the Quality of Governance" (PDF). The World Bank. 2006.
37. ^ Bell, Stephen, 2002. Economic Governance and Institutional Dynamics, Oxford University Press, Melbourne,
Australia.
38. ^ This is a very widely cited definition, as in Applebaugh, J. (rapporteur), "Governance Working Group", power-
point presentation, National Defense University and ISAF, 2010, slide 22.
39. ^ "World Governance Index 2009 Report". World Governance. Archived from the original on 4 October 2011.
Retrieved 3 February 2013.
40. ^ Empter, Stefan; Janning, Josef (2009). "Sustainable Governance Indicators 2009 – An Introduction". In
Stiftung, Bertelsmann (ed.). Policy Performance and Executive Capacity in the OECD. Gütersloh: Verlag
Bertelsmann Stiftung.
41. ^ Castro, Michael, 12 September 2013, Open Budgets Key to Open Government: Next Steps for OGP
Countries, retrieved 2 December 2014

Further reading[edit]

 "Manifesto for Smarter Intervention in Complex Systems", by Mark Fell, Carré & Strauss. 2013.
 Becht, Marco, Patrick Bolton, Ailsa Röell, "Corporate Governance and Control" (October 2002; updated
August 2004). ECGI – Finance Working Paper No. 02/2002.
 Asie Dwise (2011), Corporate Governance: An Informative Glimpse, International Journal of Governance.
1(2): 206–14
 Eells, R.S.F. (1960), The Meaning of Modern Business: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Large Corporate
Enterprise (Columbia University Press, NY).
 Heritier, P. & Silvestri P. (Eds.), Good government, Governance, Human complexity. Luigi Einaudi's legacy
and contemporary societies, Leo Olschki, Firenze, 2012.
 Senn, Marcell. Sovereignty – Some critical Remarks on the Genealogy of Governance In: Journal on
European History of Law, London: STS Science Centre, Vol. 1, No. 2, pp. 9–13, ISSN 2042-6402.
 Türke, Ralf-Eckhard: Governance – Systemic Foundation and Framework (Contributions to Management
Science, Physica of Springer, September 2008).

External links