Energy Performance Assessment PDF

Energy Performance Assessment
This book is a part of the course by Jaipur National University, Jaipur.

This book contains the course content for Energy Performance Assessment.
JNU, Jaipur
First Edition 2013
The content in the book is copyright of JNU. All rights reserved.

No part of the content may in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or any other
means be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or be broadcast or transmitted without the prior permission of
the publisher.
JNU makes reasonable endeavours to ensure content is current and accurate. JNU reserves the right to alter the
content whenever the need arises, and to vary it at any time without prior notice.
Index
I. Content......................................................................IV
II. List of Figures...........................................................IX
III. List of Tables............................................................ X
IV. Abbreviations..........................................................XI
V. Case Study ............................................................. 143
VI. Bibliography.......................................................... 146
VII. Self Assessment Answers.................................... 148
Book at a Glance
III//JNU OLE
Contents
Chapter I........................................................................................................................................................ 1
Performance Assessment of Boilers............................................................................................................. 1
Aim................................................................................................................................................................. 1
Objectives....................................................................................................................................................... 1
Learning outcome........................................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Introduction............................................................................................................................................... 2
1.2 Why Conduct a Performance Test............................................................................................................ 2
1.3 Performance Terms and Definitions......................................................................................................... 2
1.3.1 Scope......................................................................................................................................... 2
1.4 Reference Standards.................................................................................................................................. 2
1.5 The Direct Method of Testing................................................................................................................... 3
1.5.1 Description................................................................................................................................ 3
1.5.2 Measurements required for direct method testing.................................................................... 3
1.5.2.1 Heat Input................................................................................................................... 3
1.5.2.2 Heat Output................................................................................................................ 4
1.5.3 Boiler Efficiency by Direct Method - Calculation and Example.............................................. 4
1.5.4 Merits and Demerits of Direct Method..................................................................................... 5
1.6 The Indirect Method of Testing................................................................................................................ 5
1.6.1 Description................................................................................................................................ 5
1.6.2 Measurements Required for Performance Assessment Testing................................................ 6
1.6.3 Test Conditions and Precautions for Indirect Method of Testing............................................. 7
1.6.4 Boiler Efficiency by Indirect Method - Calculation Procedure and Formula........................... 8
1.7 Heat Balance........................................................................................................................................... 12
1.7.1 Summary of Heat Balance for Coal Fired Boiler................................................................... 19
1.8 Factors Affecting Boiler Performance.................................................................................................... 19
1.8.1 Data Collection Format for Boiler Performance Assessment................................................. 20
Summary...................................................................................................................................................... 25
Recommended Reading.............................................................................................................................. 25
Self Assessment............................................................................................................................................ 26
Chapter II.................................................................................................................................................... 28
Performance Assessment of Furnaces....................................................................................................... 28
Aim............................................................................................................................................................... 28
Objectives..................................................................................................................................................... 28
Learning outcome......................................................................................................................................... 28
2.1 Industrial Heating Furnaces.................................................................................................................... 29
2.2 Purpose of the Performance Test............................................................................................................ 29
2.3 Furnace Efficiency Testing Method........................................................................................................ 30
2.3.1 Furnace Efficiency.................................................................................................................. 30
2.3.2 Direct Method of Testing........................................................................................................ 31
2.3.3 Indirect Method of Testing...................................................................................................... 31
2.4 Measurement Parameters........................................................................................................................ 31
2.4.1 Heat Loss due to Openings..................................................................................................... 33
2.4.2 Heat Loss Through Skin......................................................................................................... 34
2.4.3 Unaccounted Loss................................................................................................................... 36
2.5 Furnace Efficiency (Direct Method)....................................................................................................... 36
2.6 Furnace Efficiency (Indirect Method).................................................................................................... 36
2.7 Factors Affecting Furnace Performance................................................................................................. 36
2.8 Data Collection Format for Furnace Performance Assessment.............................................................. 37
2.9 Useful Data............................................................................................................................................. 38
Summary...................................................................................................................................................... 41
Self Assessment............................................................................................................................................ 42
IV//JNU OLE
Chapter III................................................................................................................................................... 44
Energy Performance Assessment of Cogeneration Systems with Steam and GasTurbines................. 44
Aim............................................................................................................................................................... 44
Objectives..................................................................................................................................................... 44
3.1 Introduction............................................................................................................................................. 45
3.3 Performance Terms and Definitions....................................................................................................... 45
3.4 Reference Standards................................................................................................................................ 46
3.5 Field Testing Procedure.......................................................................................................................... 46
3.6 Example.................................................................................................................................................. 48
Summary...................................................................................................................................................... 51
Self Assessment............................................................................................................................................ 52
Chapter IV................................................................................................................................................... 54
Energy Performance Assessment of Heat Exchangers............................................................................ 54
Aim............................................................................................................................................................... 54
Objectives..................................................................................................................................................... 54
4.1 Introduction............................................................................................................................................. 55
4.4 Methodology of Heat Exchanger Performance Assessment................................................................... 56
4.4.1 Procedure for determination of Overall heat transfer Coefficient, U at field......................... 56
4.4.2 Examples................................................................................................................................. 57
Summary...................................................................................................................................................... 61
Self Assessment............................................................................................................................................ 62
Chapter V..................................................................................................................................................... 64
Energy Performance Assessment of Motors and Variable Speed Drives............................................... 64
Aim............................................................................................................................................................... 64
Objectives..................................................................................................................................................... 64
5.1 Introduction............................................................................................................................................. 65
5.3 Efficiency Testing................................................................................................................................... 65
5.4 Determining Motor Loading................................................................................................................... 68
5.5 Performance Evaluation of Rewound Motors......................................................................................... 69
5.6 Format for Data Collection..................................................................................................................... 70
5.7 Application of Variable Speed Drives (VSD)......................................................................................... 70
5.7.1 Concept of Variable Frequency Drive ................................................................................... 70
5.7.2 Factors for Successful Implementation of Variable Speed Drives.......................................... 71
5.7.3 Information needed to Evaluate Energy Savings for Variable Speed Application ................ 73
Summary...................................................................................................................................................... 74
Self Assessment............................................................................................................................................ 75
Chapter VI................................................................................................................................................... 77
Energy Performance Assessment of Fans and Blowers........................................................................... 77
Aim............................................................................................................................................................... 77
Objectives..................................................................................................................................................... 77
6.1 Introduction............................................................................................................................................. 78
V//JNU OLE
6.4 Scope....................................................................................................................................................... 78
6.5 Reference Standards................................................................................................................................ 78
6.6 Field Testing............................................................................................................................................ 78
6.6.1 Instruction for Site Testing...................................................................................................... 78
6.6.2 Location of Measurement Planes............................................................................................ 78
6.6.3 Measurement of Air Velocity on Site...................................................................................... 79
6.6.4 Determination of Flow............................................................................................................ 81
6.6.5 Determination of Fan Pressure............................................................................................... 81
6.6.6 Determination of Power Input................................................................................................ 81
Summary...................................................................................................................................................... 82
Self Assessment............................................................................................................................................ 83
Chapter VII................................................................................................................................................. 85
Energy Performance Assessment of Water Pumps.................................................................................. 85
Aim............................................................................................................................................................... 85
Objectives..................................................................................................................................................... 85
7.1 Introduction............................................................................................................................................. 86
7.4 Field Testing for Determination of Pump Efficiency.............................................................................. 86
7.4.1 Flow Measurement, Q............................................................................................................. 87
7.4.2 Determination of Total Head, H.............................................................................................. 87
7.4.3 Determination of Hydraulic Power (Liquid Horse Power),.................................................... 87
7.4.4 Measurement of Motor Input Power....................................................................................... 88
7.4.5 Pump Shaft Power.................................................................................................................. 88
7.4.6 Pump Efficiency..................................................................................................................... 88
7.5 Determining the System Resistance and Duty Point ............................................................................. 88
7.6 Determining the System Resistance and Duty Point.............................................................................. 89
Summary...................................................................................................................................................... 91
Self Assessment............................................................................................................................................ 92
Chapter VIII................................................................................................................................................ 94
Energy Performance Assessment of Compressors................................................................................... 94
Aim............................................................................................................................................................... 94
Objectives..................................................................................................................................................... 94
8.1 Introduction............................................................................................................................................. 95
8.4 Field Testing............................................................................................................................................ 95
8.4.1 Measurement of Free Air Delivery (FAD) by Nozzle method............................................... 95
8.4.2 Arrangement of Test Equipment............................................................................................. 95
8.4.3 Nozzle Sizes . ......................................................................................................................... 95
8.4.4 Measurements and Duration of the Test................................................................................. 96
8.5 Calculation Procedure for Nozzle Method ............................................................................................ 97
8.6 Example ................................................................................................................................................. 97
8.7 Assessment of Specific Power requirement . ......................................................................................... 98
8.8 Measurement of FAD by Pump Up Method .......................................................................................... 98
Summary.................................................................................................................................................... 100
Recommended Reading............................................................................................................................ 100
Self Assessment.......................................................................................................................................... 101
VI//JNU OLE
Chapter IX................................................................................................................................................. 103
Energy Performance Assessment of HVAC Systems............................................................................. 103
Aim............................................................................................................................................................. 103
Objectives................................................................................................................................................... 103
Learning outcome....................................................................................................................................... 103
9.1 Introduction........................................................................................................................................... 104
9.2 Purpose of the Performance Test ......................................................................................................... 104
9.3 Performance Terms and Definitions .................................................................................................... 104
9.4 Preparatory for Measurements . ........................................................................................................... 104
9.5 Procedure ............................................................................................................................................. 104
9.5.1 To determine the net refrigeration capacity.......................................................................... 104
9.5.2 Measurement of Compressor Power . .................................................................................. 105
9.5.3 Performance Calculations..................................................................................................... 105
9.5.4 Performance Evaluation of Air Conditioning Systems......................................................... 105
9.6 Measurements to be Recorded During the Test.................................................................................... 106
9.7 Example................................................................................................................................................ 106
Summary.................................................................................................................................................... 107
Self Assessment.......................................................................................................................................... 108
Chapter X...................................................................................................................................................110
Energy Performance Assessment of Lighting Systems...........................................................................110
Aim..............................................................................................................................................................110
Objectives....................................................................................................................................................110
Learning outcome........................................................................................................................................110
10.1 Introduction . .......................................................................................................................................111
10.2 Purpose of the Performance Test ........................................................................................................111
10.3 Performance Terms and Definitions ...................................................................................................111
10.4 Preparation ..........................................................................................................................................112
10.5 Procedure for Assessment of Lighting Systems .................................................................................112
10.5.1 To Determine the Minimum Number and Positions of Measurement Points . ...................112
10.6 ILER Assessment ................................................................................................................................113
10.7 Example of ILER Calculation . ...........................................................................................................113
10.8 Areas for Improvement .......................................................................................................................113
10.9 Other Useful Information . ..................................................................................................................113
10.9.1 IES - Recommendations .....................................................................................................113
10.9.2 Example Using IES Recommendations . ............................................................................113
10.10 Characteristics of Different Types of Lamps ....................................................................................114
Summary.....................................................................................................................................................116
Chapter- XI.................................................................................................................................................119
Financial Analysis, Application of Non-conventional, Renewal Energy Sources and
Waste Minimisation...................................................................................................................................119
Aim..............................................................................................................................................................119
Objectives....................................................................................................................................................119
Learning outcome........................................................................................................................................119
11.1 Introduction......................................................................................................................................... 120
11.2 Fixed and Variable Costs..................................................................................................................... 120
11.3 Interest Charges................................................................................................................................... 121
11.4 Simple Payback Period....................................................................................................................... 122
11.5 Discounted Cash Flow Methods......................................................................................................... 122
11.6 Net Present Value Method................................................................................................................... 122
11.7 Internal Rate of Return Method.......................................................................................................... 123
11.8 Factors Affecting Analysis.................................................................................................................. 123
11.9 Real Value........................................................................................................................................... 123
VII/JNU OLE
11.10 Application of Non-conventional and Renewable Energy Sources.................................................. 124

11.11 Solar Energy...................................................................................................................................... 124
11.12 Solar Thermal Energy Application.................................................................................................... 125
11.13 Wind Energy...................................................................................................................................... 129
11.14 Bio Energy........................................................................................................................................ 130
11.15 Tidal and Ocean Energy.................................................................................................................... 135
11.16 Waste Minimisation and Resource Conservation.............................................................................. 136
11.17 Waste Minimisation.......................................................................................................................... 136
11.18 Classification of Waste Minimisation (WM) Techniques................................................................. 136
11.19 Typical Causes of Waste.................................................................................................................... 138
Summary.................................................................................................................................................... 140
Self Assessment.......................................................................................................................................... 141
VIII/JNU OLE
List of Figures
Fig. 1.1 Input-output method.......................................................................................................................... 3
Fig. 1.2 Heat losses in a boiler........................................................................................................................ 6
Fig. 2.1 Pusher-type 3-zone reheating furnace............................................................................................. 29
Fig. 2.2 Walking beam-type reheating furnace............................................................................................. 29
Fig. 2.3 Fuel Fired Furnace........................................................................................................................... 31
Fig. 2.4 Factor for determining the equivalent of heat release from............................................................. 33
Fig. 2.5 Graph determining black body radiation at a particular temperature.............................................. 34
Fig. 2.6 Quantity of heat release at various temperatures............................................................................. 35
Fig. 3.1 Process Flow Diagrams for Cogeneration Plant.............................................................................. 47
Fig. 3.2 Process flow diagram for small cogeneration ................................................................................ 48
Fig. 4.1 Typical shell and tube heat exchanger............................................................................................. 55
Fig. 5.1 Efficiency vs. loading...................................................................................................................... 65
Fig. 5.2 Components of a variable speed drive............................................................................................. 71
Fig. 5.3 Example of an excellent variable speed drive candidate................................................................. 72
Fig. 5.4 Example of a poor variable speed drive candidate.......................................................................... 72
Fig. 6.1 Traverse point determination for round duct................................................................................... 80
Fig. 7.1 System resistance and duty point..................................................................................................... 89
Fig. 7.2 System resistance curve................................................................................................................... 90
Fig. 8.1 Test Arrangement for measurement of compressed air flow........................................................... 96
Fig. 11.1 Solar water heater........................................................................................................................ 125
Fig. 11.2 Solar cooker................................................................................................................................. 126
Fig. 11.3 Parabolic concentrating solar cooker........................................................................................... 127
Fig. 11.4 Solar photovoltaic (PV)............................................................................................................... 127
Fig. 11.5 Solar street light........................................................................................................................... 128
Fig. 11.6 Wind Tturbine configuration....................................................................................................... 129
Fig. 11.7 Biomass briquetting..................................................................................................................... 131
Fig. 11.8 Biomass gasifier........................................................................................................................... 132
Fig. 11.9 Hydro energy............................................................................................................................... 134
Fig. 11. 10 Classification of waste minimisation........................................................................................ 137
IX/JNU OLE
List of Tables
Table 1.1 Typical instruments used for boiler performance assessment......................................................... 7
Table 1.2 Theoretical (Stoichiometric) air fuel ratio....................................................................................... 9
Table 1.3 Heat loss due to moisture.............................................................................................................. 10
Table 1.4 Boiler heat balance........................................................................................................................ 12
Table 1.5 Boiler efficiency calculation......................................................................................................... 19
Table 2.1 Stock.............................................................................................................................................. 37
Table 2.2 Fuel analysis.................................................................................................................................. 37
Table 2.3 Flue Gas Analysis.......................................................................................................................... 37
Table 2.4 Cooling Water............................................................................................................................... 37
Table 2.5 Heat Balance Table....................................................................................................................... 38
Table 2.6 Radiation Loss and Absolute Temperature................................................................................... 38
Table 2.7 Pusher type billet reheating furnace (for rolling mills)................................................................. 39
Table 2.8 Pusher type forging furnace.......................................................................................................... 40
Table 3.1 Thermal energy checklist.............................................................................................................. 46
Table 4.1 Calculated data vs design data...................................................................................................... 58
Table 4.2 Monitored parameters................................................................................................................... 59
Table 7.1 Resistance in the different circuits................................................................................................ 89
Table 7.2 System resistance at different flow rates....................................................................................... 90
Table 8.1 Flow nozzle: Flow nozzle with profile as desired in IS 10431:1994 and dimensions.................. 96
Table 10.1 Characteristics of different types of lamps.................................................................................115
Table 11.1 Fixed and variable costs............................................................................................................ 121
X/JNU OLE
Abbreviations
GCV Gross Calorific Value
NCV Net Calorific Value
VSD Variable Speed Drives
XI/JNU OLE
Chapter I
Performance Assessment of Boilers
Aim
The aim of this chapter is to:
• evaluate efficiency of coal fired and oil fired boilers
• understand boiler performance - terms and definitions
• identify methods of boiler efficiency evaluation - direct and indirect
• understand planning for efficiency evaluation
Objectives
The objectives of this chapter are to:
• understand boiler performance and factors affecting it
• observe the British Standard BS845: 1987, which states methods and conditions under which a boiler should
be tested
• explain the concepts of Gross Calorific Value (GCV) and Net Calorific Value (NCV)
Learning outcome
At the end of this chapter, students will be able to:
• detect efficiency of coal and oil fired boilers
• explain boiler performance
• analyse the British Standard BS845: 1987
1/JNU OLE
1.1 Introduction
• Performance of the boiler like, efficiency and evaporation ratio reduces over time due to poor combustion, heat
transfer fouling and poor operation and maintenance.
• Deterioration of fuel quality and water quality also leads to poor performance of boiler. Efficiency testing helps
us to find out how far the boiler efficiency drifts away from the best efficiency. Any observed abnormal deviations
could therefore be investigated to pinpoint the problem area for necessary corrective action.
• Hence, it is necessary to find out the current level of efficiency for performance evaluation, which is a pre-
requisite for energy conservation action in industry.
1.2 Why Conduct a Performance Test

It is an indicator for tracking day-to-day and season-to-season variations in boiler efficiency and finding out the
scope for energy efficiency improvements.
A performance test is conducted to:
• find out the efficiency of the boiler
• find out the evaporation ratio
The purpose of the performance test is to:

• determine the actual performance of the boiler
• calculate the efficiency of the boiler
• compare it with design values or standard norms
1.3 Performance Terms and Definitions

Boiler Efficiency,η = (Heat Output)/(Heat Input)
= Heat in Steam output (KCals)
= Heat in Fuel Input (KCals)
Evaporation Ratio = Quantity of Steam Generation /Quantity of Fuel Generation
Boiler Efficiency = (1)
1.3.1 Scope
The above procedure describes routine test for both oil fired and solid fuel fired boilers using coal, agro residues
etc. Only those observations and measurements need to be made which can be readily applied and is necessary to
attain the purpose of the test.
1.4 Reference Standards

British standards, BS845: 1987
• It describes the methods and conditions under which a boiler must be tested to determine its efficiency.
• For the testing to be done, the boiler should be operated under steady load conditions (generally full load) for a
period of one hour after which readings would be taken during the next hour of steady operation to enable the
successful calculation of the efficiency.
• The efficiency of a boiler is quoted as the % of useful heat available, expressed as a percentage of the total
energy potentially available by burning the fuel.
• This is expressed on the basis of Gross Calorific Value (GCV).
• This deals with the complete heat balance and it has two parts. These are;
• Part one deals with standard boilers, where the indirect method is specified
2/JNU OLE
• Part two deals with complex plant where there are many channels of heat flow. In this case, both the direct and
indirect methods are applicable, in whole or in part
• ASME Standard: PTC-4-1 Power Test Code for Steam Generating Units
• This consists of the following parts:
Part one: Direct method (also called as input -output method)
Part two: Indirect method (also called as heat loss method)
IS 8753: Indian Standard for Boiler Efficiency Testing

Most standards for computation of boiler efficiency, including IS 8753 and BS845 are designed for spot measurement
of boiler efficiency.
Invariably, all these standards do not include blow down as a loss in the efficiency determination process.
Boiler efficiency can be tested by the following methods:

The direct method: Here the energy gain of the working fluid (water and steam) is compared with the energy
content of the boiler fuel.
The indirect method: Here the efficiency is the difference between the losses and the energy input.
1.5 The Direct Method of Testing

The direct method of testing is furthere described below:
1.5.1 Description
This is also known as ‘input-output method’ due to the fact that it needs only the useful output (steam) and the heat
input (i.e., fuel) for evaluating the efficiency. This efficiency can be evaluated using the above formula: (1)
Output
Steam
Fuel Input Boiler Flue

100% + Air Gas
Water
Fig. 1.1 Input-output method
1.5.2 Measurements required for direct method testing
1.5.2.1 Heat Input

Both, heat input and heat output must be measured. The measurement of heat input requires knowledge of the calorific
value of the fuel and its flow rate in terms of mass or volume, according to the nature of the fuel.
For gaseous fuel

A gas meter of the approved type can be used and the measured volume should be corrected for temperature and
pressure. A sample of gas can be collected for calorific value determination, but it is usually acceptable to use the
calorific value declared by the gas suppliers.
3/JNU OLE
For liquid fuel

Heavy fuel oil is very viscous, and this property varies sharply with temperature. The meter, which is usually installed
on the combustion appliance, should be regarded as a rough indicator only and, for test purposes, a meter calibrated
for the particular oil is to be used and over a realistic range of temperature should be installed. Even better is the
use of an accurately calibrated day tank.
For solid fuel

The accurate measurement of the flow of coal or other solid fuel is very difficult. The measurement must be based
on mass, which means that bulky apparatus must be set up on the boiler-house floor. Samples must be taken and
bagged throughout the test. The bags must be sealed and sent to a laboratory for analysis and calorific value
determination.
In some more recent boiler houses, the problem has been alleviated by mounting the hoppers over the boilers on
calibrated load cells, but these are yet uncommon.
1.5.2.2 Heat Output

There are several methods, which can be used for measuring heat output. With steam boilers, an installed steam
meter can be used to measure flow rate, but this must be corrected for temperature and pressure.
Earlier, this approach was not favoured due to the change in accuracy of orifice or venture meters with flow rate. It
is now more viable with modern flow meters of the variable-orifice or vortex-shedding types.
The alternative with small boilers is to measure feed water and this can be done by previously calibrating the feed
tank and noting down the levels of water during the beginning and end of the trial. Care should be taken not to pump
water during this period. Heat addition for conversion of feed water at inlet temperature to steam, is considered for
heat output.
In case of boilers with intermittent blow down, blow down should be avoided during the trial period.
In case of boilers with continuous blow down, the heat loss due to blow down should be calculated and added to
the heat in steam.
1.5.3 Boiler Efficiency by Direct Method - Calculation and Example

Test Data and Calculation
Water consumption and coal consumption were measured in a coal-fired boiler at hourly intervals. Weighed
quantities of coal were fed into the boiler during the trial period. Simultaneously, water level difference was noted
to calculate steam generation during the trial period. Blow down was avoided during the test. The measured data
is given below.
Type of boiler: Coal Fired Boiler

Heat output data
Quantity of steam generated (output) 8 TPH
Steam pressure / temperature 10 kg/cm2(g)/ 180 0C
Enthalpy of steam (dry and Saturated) at 10 kg/cm2(g) pressure 665 Kcal/kg
Feed water temperature 850 C
Enthalpy of feed water 85 Kcal/kg Heat input data
Quantity of coal consumed (Input) 1.6 TPH
GCV of coal 4000 KCal/kg
Calculation
Boiler Efficiency (η) =
4/JNU OLE
Where,
Q = Quantity of steam generated per hour (kg/hr)
q = Quantity of fuel used per hour (kg/hr)
GCV = Gross calorific value of the fuel (kCal/kg)
H = Enthalpy of steam (kCal/kg)
H = Enthalpy of feed water (kCal/kg)
=72.5%
Evaporation Ratio = 8 Tonne of steam / 1.6 Tonne of coal =5
1.5.4 Merits and Demerits of Direct Method

The merits of direct method include:
• plant people can evaluate quickly the efficiency of boilers
• requires few parameters for computation
• needs few instruments for monitoring
The demerits of direct method include:

• does not give clues to the operator as to why efficiency of system is lower
• does not calculate various losses accountable for various efficiency levels
• evaporation ratio and efficiency may mislead, if the steam is highly wet due to water carryover
1.6 The Indirect Method of Testing

The Indirect method of testing is described in detail below:
1.6.1 Description
• The efficiency can be measured easily by measuring all the losses occurring in the boilers using the principles
to be described.
• The disadvantages of the direct method can be overcome by this method, which calculates the various heat
losses associated with boiler.
• The efficiency can be arrived at, by subtracting the heat loss fractions from 100.
• An important advantage of this method is that the errors in measurement do not make significant change in
efficiency.
Thus, if boiler efficiency is 90%, an error of 1% in direct method will result in significant change in efficiency.
i.e., Efficiency = 90 + 0.9 = 89.1 to 90.9
In indirect method, 1% error in measurement of losses will result in;

Efficiency = 100 – (10 + 0.1) = 90 + 0.1 = 89.9 to 90.1
The various heat losses occurring in the boiler are mentioned in the diagram below.
5/JNU OLE
Steam Output
1.Dry Flue Gas loss
6.Surface 2.H2 loss
loss 3.Moisture in fuel
4.Moisture in air
5.CO loss
7.Fly ash loss
Fuel Input,100% Flue Gas sample
Boiler
Air
8.Bottom ash loss
Water
Blow down
Efficiency = 100 – (1+2+3+4+5+6+7+8) (by Indirect Method)
Fig. 1.2 Heat losses in a boiler
The following losses are applicable to liquid, gas and solid fired boiler:
L1 loss due to dry fuel gas (sensible heat)
L2 loss due to hydrogen in fuel (H2)
L3 loss due to moisture in fuel
L4 loss due to moisture in air
L5 loss due to carbon monoxide
L6 loss due to surface radiation, convection and other unaccounted
L7 unburnt losses in fly ash (Carbon)
L8 unburnt losses in bottom ash (Carbon)
Boiler Efficiency by indirect method =100-(L1+L2+L3+L4+L5+L6+L7+L8)
1.6.2 Measurements Required for Performance Assessment Testing

The following parameters need to be measured, as applicable for the computation of boiler efficiency and
performance:
Flue gas analysis:

Percentage of CO2 or O2 in flue gas
Percentage of CO in flue gas
Temperature of flue gas
Flow meter measurements for:
Fuel
Steam
Feed water
Condensate water
Combustion air
Temperature measurements for:
Flue gas
Team
Makeup water
Condensate return
Combustion air
Fuel
Boiler feed water
6/JNU OLE
Pressure measurements for:
Steam
Fuel
Combustion air, both primary and secondary
Draft
Water condition
Total dissolved solids (TDS)
pH
Blow down rate and quantity
The various parameters discussed above can be measured with the instruments that are given in Table1.1
Instrument Type Measurements

Flue gas Portable or fixed % CO2 and CO
analyser
Temperature Thermocouple, liquid Fuel temperature, flue gas temperature, combustion
Indicator in glass air temperature, boiler surface temperature, team
temperature
Draft gauge Manometer, Amount of draft used or available
differential pressure
TDS Meter Conductivity Boiler water TDS, feed water TDS, Make-up water
TDS
Flow meter As applicable Steam flow, water flow, fuel flow, air flow
Table 1.1 Typical instruments used for boiler performance assessment
1.6.3 Test Conditions and Precautions for Indirect Method of Testing

The efficiency test does not account for:
Standby losses
Efficiency test is to be carried out, when the boiler is operating under a steady load. Therefore, the combustion
efficiency test does not reveal standby losses, which occur between firing intervals.
Blow down loss

The amount of energy wasted by blow down varies over a wide range.
Soot blower steam

The amount of steam used by soot blowers is variable that depends on the type of fuel.
Auxiliary equipment energy consumption

The combustion efficiency test does not account for the energy usage by auxiliary equipments, such as burners,
fans, and pumps.
Preparations and pre-conditions for testing

• burn the specified fuel(s) at the required rate
• do the tests while the boiler is under steady load
• avoid testing during warming up of boilers from a cold condition
• obtain the charts /tables for the additional data
• determination of general method of operation
• sampling and analysis of fuel and ash
7/JNU OLE
• ensure the accuracy of fuel and ash analysis in the laboratory

• check the type of blow down and method of measurement
• ensure proper operation of all instruments
• check for any air infiltration in the combustion zone
• flue gas sampling location
• it is suggested that the exit duct of the boiler be probed and traversed to find the location of the zone of maximum
temperature. This is likely to coincide with the zone of maximum gas flow and is therefore a good sampling
point for both temperature and gas analysis.
• options of flue gas analysis
• check the oxygen test with the carbon dioxide test
Oxygen Test and Carbon Dioxide Test:

• If continuous-reading oxygen test equipment is installed in boiler plant, use oxygen reading.
• Occasionally, use portable test equipment that checks for both oxygen and carbon dioxide.
• If the carbon dioxide test does not give the same results as the oxygen test, something is wrong.
• One (or both) of the tests could be erroneous, perhaps because of stale chemicals or drifting instrument
calibration.
• Another possibility is that outside air is being picked up along with the flue gas.
• This occurs if the combustion gas area operates under negative pressure and there are leaks in the boiler
casing.
Carbon Monoxide Test

• The carbon monoxide content of flue gas is a good indicator of incomplete combustion with all types of fuels,
as long as they contain carbon.
• Carbon monoxide in the flue gas is minimal with ordinary amounts of excess air, but it rises abruptly as soon
as fuel combustion starts to be incomplete.
Planning for the testing

• The testing is to be conducted for a duration of 4 to 8 hours in a normal production day.
• Advanced planning is essential for the resource arrangement of manpower, fuel, water and instrument check
etc and the same to be communicated to the boiler supervisor and production department.
• Sufficient quantity of fuel stock and water storage required for the test duration should be arranged so that a
test is not disrupted due to non-availability of fuel and water.
• Necessary sampling point and instruments are to be made available with working condition.
• Lab analysis should be carried out for fuel, flue gas and water in coordination with lab personnel.
• The steam table, psychometric chart, calculator are to be arranged for computation of boiler efficiency.
1.6.4 Boiler Efficiency by Indirect Method - Calculation Procedure and Formula

In order to calculate the boiler efficiency by indirect method, all the losses that occur in the boiler must be
established.
Conversion formula for proximate analysis to ultimate analysis

%C = 0.97 + 0.7(VM+0.1A) –M(0.6-0.01M)
%H2 = 0.036C + 0.086 (VM – 0.1xA) – 0.00355M2 (1-0.02M)
%N2 = 2.10 – 0.020 VM
Where C = % of fixed carbon
A = % of ash
8/JNU OLE
VM = % of Volatile matter
M = % of moisture
These losses are conveniently related to the amount of fuel burnt. In this way, it is easy to compare the performance
of various boilers with different ratings.
However, it is suggested to get an ultimate analysis of the fuel fired periodically from a reputed laboratory.
Theoretical (stoichiometric) air fuel ratio and excess air supplied are to be determined first for computing the boiler
losses. The formula is given below for the same.
a) Theoretical air required for combustion = [(11.6 x C) + {34.8 x (H2-O2/8 )} + (4.35 x S)]/100 kg/kg
of fuel. [from fuel analysis]
Where C, H2, O2 and S are the percentage of Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen and Sulphur present in the fuel.
b) % Excess air supplied (EA) = O2%/ 21-O2% x 100 [From flue gas analysis]
Normally O2 measurement is recommended. If O2 mesurement is not available, use CO2 measurement.
7900 x [(CO2 %)t - (CO2%)a]/ (CO2)a%x[100-(CO2%)T] [From flue gas analysis]
Where, (CO2 %)t = Theoretical CO2
(CO2 %)a = Actual CO2%measured in flue gas
(CO2 %)t = Moles of C/Moles of N2+Moles of C
Moles of N2 = Wt of N2 in theorotical air/Mol. wt of N2+Wt of N2 in
fuel/Mol. Wt of N2
Moles of C = Wt of C in fuel/Molecular Wt of C
c) Actual mass of fuel supplied/kg of fuel = {1+EA/100} x theorotical air
(AAS)
Table 1.2 Theoretical (Stoichiometric) air fuel ratio
The various losses associated with the operation of a boiler are discussed below with required formula.
Heat loss due to dry flue gas
This is the greatest boiler loss and can be calculated with the following formula:
Note-1:
For Quick and simple calculation of boiler efficiency use the following.
Simple method can be used for determining the dry flue gas loss as given below.
Total mass of flue gas (m)/kg of fuel = mass of actual air supplied/kg of fuel + 1 kg of fuel
Note-2:
Water vapour is produced from Hydrogen in fuel, moisture present in fuel and air during the combustion. The losses
due to these components have not been included in the dry flue gas loss since they are separately calculated as a
wet flue gas loss.
9/JNU OLE
Heat loss due to evaporation of water formed due to H2 in fuel (%)

The combustion of hydrogen causes a heat loss because the product of combustion is water. This water is converted
to steam and this carries away heat in the form of its latent heat.
L1 = mxCyp x (Tf – Ta) X 100

GCV of fuel
Where L1 = % Heat loss due to dry flue gas
m = Mass of dry flue gas in Kg/Kg of fuel
= Combustion products from fuel: CO2 + SO2 + Nitrogen in fuel +
Nitrogen in actual mass of air supplied+ O2 in flue gas
(H2O/Water vapor in flue gas should not be considered)
Cp = Specific heat of flue gas in KCal/Kg
Tf = Flue gas temperature in 0C
T1 = Ambient temperature in 0C
L2 = 9xH2x(584+Cp(Tf–Ta)}
X100
GCV of fuel
Where
L2 =% kg of hydrogen present in fuel on 1kg basis
Cp = Specific heat of superheated steam in kCal/kg0C
Tf = Flue gas temperature in 0C
Ta = Ambient temperature in 0C
584 = Latent heat corresponding to partial pressure of water vapour
Heat loss due to moisture present in fuel

Moisture entering the boiler with the fuel leaves as a superheated vapour. This moisture loss is made up of the sensible
heat to bring the moisture to boiling point, the latent heat of evaporation of the moisture, and the superheat required
bringing this steam to the temperature of the exhaust gas. This loss can be calculated with the following formula
where,
M = kg of moisture in fuel in 1 kg basis
Cp = Specific heat of superheated steam in kCal/kg oC
Tf = Flue gas temperature in oC
Ta = Ambient temperature in oC
584 = Latent heat corresponding to partial pressure of water vapour
Heat loss due to moisture present in air

Vapour in the form of humidity in the incoming air, is superheated as it passes through the boiler. Since this heat
passes up the stack, it must be included as a boiler loss. To relate this loss to the mass of coal burned, the moisture
content of the combustion air and the amount of air supplied per unit mass of coal burned must be known. The mass
of vapour that air contains can be obtained from stoichometric charts and typical values are included below:
Dry-Bulb Wet Bulb Relative Humidity Kilogram water per

Temp oC TempoC (%) Kilogram dry air
(Humidity Factor)
20 20 100 0.016
20 14 50 0.008
30 22 50 0.014
40 30 50 0.024
Table 1.3 Heat loss due to moisture
10/JNU OLE
where,
AAS = Actual mass of air supplied per kg of fuel
Humidity factor = kg of water/kg of dry air
Cp = Specific heat of superheated steam in kCal/kg oC
Tf = Flue gas temperature in oC
Ta = Ambient temperature in oC (dry bulb)
Heat loss due to incomplete combustion

Products formed by incomplete combustion could be mixed with oxygen and burnt again with a further release of
energy. Such products include CO, H2 and various hydrocarbons and are generally found in the flue gas of the boilers.
Carbon monoxide is the only gas whose concentration can be determined conveniently in a boiler plant test.
Where,
L5 = % Heat loss due to partial conversion of C to CO
CO = Volume of CO in flue gas leaving economizer (%)
CO2 = Actual Volume of CO2 in flue gas (%)
C = Carbon content kg / kg of fuel
Or,
When CO is obtained in ppm during the flue gas analysis,
CO formation (MCo) = CO (in ppm) x 10-6 x Mf x 28
Mf = Fuel consumption in kg/hr
L5 = MCo x 5744*
*Heat loss due to partial combustion of carbon
Heat loss due to radiation and convection
L6 = 0.548 x [(Ts/55.55)4 –(Ta/55.55)4] + 1.957 x (Ts–Ta)1.25 x sq.rt of [(196.85Vm + 68.9)/68.9]

Where
L6 = Radiation loss in W/m2
Vm = Wind velocity in m/s
Ts = Surface temperature (K)
Ta = Ambient temperature (K)
The other heat losses from a boiler consist of the loss of heat by radiation and convection from the boiler casting
into the surrounding boiler house.
Normally, surface loss and other unaccounted losses is assumed based on the type and size of the boiler as given
below;
for industrial fire tube / packaged boiler = 1.5 - 2.5%
for industrial water tube boiler = 2 - 3%
for power station boiler = 0.4 - 1%
However, it can be calculated if the surface area of boiler and its surface temperature are known as given below:
Heat loss due to unburned carbon in fly ash and bottom ash
Small amounts of carbon will be left in the ash and this constitutes a loss of potential heat in the fuel. To assess
these heat losses, samples of ash must be analyzed for carbon content. The quantity of ash produced per unit of fuel
must also be known.
11/JNU OLE
Heat loss due to unburnt in fly ash (%)
Heat loss due to unburnt in bottom ash (%)
1.7 Heat Balance

Having established the magnitude of all the losses mentioned above, a simple heat balance would give the efficiency
of the boiler. The efficiency is the difference between the energy input to the boiler and the heat losses calculated.
Boiler Heat Balance
Input/Output Parameter kCal / kg of %

fuel
Heat Input in fuel 100
Various Heat losses in boiler
Dry flue gas loss = 1
Loss due to hydrogen in fuel = 2
Loss due to moisture in fuel = 3
Loss due to moisture in air = 4
Partial combustion of C to CO = 5
Surface heat losses = 6
Loss due to Unburnt in fly ash = 7
Loss due to Unburnt in bottom ash = 8
Total Losses
Boiler efficiency = = 100 – (1+2+3+4+5+6+7+8)
Table 1.4 Boiler heat balance
Example: Boiler Efficiency Calculation

For Coal fired Boiler
The following are the data collected for a boiler using coal as the fuel. Find out the boiler efficiency by indirect
method.
12/JNU OLE
Fuel firing rate = 5599.17 kg/hr
Steam generation rate = 21937.5 kg/hr
Steam pressure = 43 kg/cm2(g)
Steam temperature = 3770C
Feed water temperature = 960C
%CO2 in Flue gas = 14
%CO in flue gas = 0.55
Average flue gas temperature = 1900C
Ambient temperature = 310C
Humidity in ambient air = 0.0204 kg/kg dry air
Surface temperature of boiler = 700C
Wind velocity around the boiler = 3.5 m/s
Total surface area of boiler = 90 m2
GCV of Bottom ash = 800 kCal/kg
GCV of fly ash = 452.5 kCal/kg
Ratio of bottom ash to fly ash = 90 : 10
Fuel Analysis (in %)
Ash content in fuel = 8.63
Moisture in coal = 31.6
Carbon content = 41.65
Hydrogen content = 2.0413
Nitrogen content = 1.6
Oxygen content = 14.48
GCV of Coal = 3501 kCal/kg
13/JNU OLE
14/JNU OLE
15/JNU OLE
16/JNU OLE
17/JNU OLE
18/JNU OLE
1.7.1 Summary of Heat Balance for Coal Fired Boiler
Input/Output Parameter kCal / kg of coal % loss

Heat Input 3501 100
Losses in Boiler
Dry Flue Gas L1 275.88 7.88
Loss due to Hydrogen in fuel L2 120.43 3.44
Loss due to moisture in fuel L3 206.91 5.91
Loss due to moisture in air L4 10.15 0.29
Partial combustion of C to CO in L5 90.32 2.58
Surface heat losses, L6 8.75 0.25
Loss due to Unburnt fly ash, L7 3.85 0.11
Loss due to Unburnt bottom ash, L8 61.97 1.77
Boiler Efficiency = 100 –
( L 1+ L 2+ L 3+ L 4+ L 5+ L 6+ L 7+ L 8) =
77.77%
Boiler Efficiency = 100 – (L1 + L2+ L3+
L4+ L5+ L6+ L7+ L8) = 77.77 %
Table 1.5 Boiler efficiency calculation

Note: For quick and simple calculation of boiler efficiency use the following:
Simple method can be used for determining the dry flue gas loss as given below.
Total mass of flue gas (m) = mass of actual air supplied (ASS)+ mass of fuel supplied
= 21.49 + 1=22.49
1.8 Factors Affecting Boiler Performance

The various factors affecting the boiler performance are listed below:
• periodical cleaning of boilers
• periodical soot blowing
• proper water treatment programme and blow down control
• draft control
• excess air control
• percentage loading of boiler
• steam generation pressure and temperature
• boiler insulation
• quality of fuel
All these factors individually/combined, contribute to the performance of the boiler and reflected either in boiler
efficiency or evaporation ratio. Based on the results obtained from the testing further improvements have to be
carried out for maximizing the performance.
19/JNU OLE
The test can be repeated after modification or rectification of the problems and compared with standard norms.
Energy auditor should carry out this test as a routine manner once in six months and report to the management for
necessary action.
1.8.1 Data Collection Format for Boiler Performance Assessment

Sheet 1 - Technical specification of boiler
1 Boiler ID code and make

2 Year of make
3 Boiler capacity rating
4 Type of boiler
5 Type of fuel used
6 Maximum fuel flow rate
7 Efficiency by GCV
8 Steam generation pressure and superheat temperature
9 Heat transfer area in m2
10 Is there any waste heat recovery device installed
11 Type of draft
12 Chimney height in metre
Sheet 2 - Fuel analysis details

Fuel Fired
GCV of fuel
Specific gravity of fuel (Liquid)
Bulk density of fuel (Solid)
Proximate Analysis Date of Test
1 Fixed carbon %
2 Volatile matter %
3 Ash %
4 Moisture %
Ultimate Analysis Date of Test

1 Carbon %
2 Hydrogen %
3 Sulphur %
4 Nitrogen %
5 Ash %
6 Moisture %
7 Oxygen %
Water Analysis Date of Test

1 Feed water TDS ppm
2 Blow down TDS ppm
3 PH of feed water
4 PH of blow down
Flue gas Analysis Date of Test
1 CO2 %
2 O2 %
3 CO %
4 Flue gas temperature OC
20/JNU OLE
Sheet 3 – Format sheet for boiler efficiency testing
Date: ______________
Boiler Code No.:_________________
Sl. Time Ambient Air Fuel Stream Flue Gas Analysis Surface Temp. of
No. Boiler in oC
Dry Wet Flow Rate Temp. Flow Pressure Temp. O2 % CO2 CO % Temp
Bulb Bulb (kg/hr) (oC Rate (kg/cm2g) (oC) % (oC)
Temp. Temp. (m3/
(oC) (oC hr)
Boiler Supervisor________________ Energy Manager________________ Energy Auditor________________
Boiler Terminology
MCR
Steam boilers rated output is also usually defined as MCR (Maximum Continuous Rating). This is the maximum
evaporation rate that can be sustained for 24 hours and may be less than a shorter duration maximum rating
Boiler rating
Conventionally, boilers are specified by their capacity to hold water and the steam generation rate. Often, the capacity
to generate steam is specified in terms of equivalent evaporation (kg of steam / hour at 100oC).
Equivalent evaporation (“from and at” 100oC)

The equivalent of the evaporation of 1 kg of water at 100oC to steam at 100oC.
Efficiency
In the boiler industry there are four common definitions of efficiency.
Combustion efficiency
Combustion efficiency is the effectiveness of the burner only and relates to its ability to completely burn the fuel.
The boiler has little bearing on combustion efficiency. A well-designed burner will operate with as little as 15 to
20% excess air, while converting all combustibles in the fuel to useful energy.
Thermal efficiency
Thermal efficiency is the effectiveness of the heat transfer in a boiler. It does not take into account boiler radiation
and convection losses – for example from the boiler shell water column piping etc.
Boiler efficiency
The term boiler efficiency is often substituted for combustion or thermal efficiency. True boiler efficiency is the
measure of fuel to steam efficiency.
Fuel to steam efficiency

Fuel to steam efficiency is calculated using either of the two methods as prescribed by the ASME (American Society
for Mechanical Engineers) power test code, PTC 4.1. The first method is input output method. The second method
is heat loss method.
21/JNU OLE
Boiler turndown
Boiler turndown is the ratio between full boiler output and the boiler output when operating at low fire. Typical
boiler turndown is 4:1. The ability of the boiler to turndown reduces frequent on and off cycling. Fully modulating
burners are typically designed to operate down to 25% of rated capacity. At a load that is 20% of the load capacity,
the boiler will turn off and cycle frequently.
A boiler operating at low load conditions can cycle as frequently as 12 times per hour or 288 times per day.
With each cycle, pre and post purge airflow removes heat from the boiler and sends it out the stack. Keeping the
boiler on at low firing rates can eliminate the energy loss. Every time the boiler cycles off, it must go through a
specific start-up sequence for safety assurance. It requires about a minute or two to place the boiler back on line.
And if there is a sudden load demand the start up sequence cannot be accelerated. Keeping the boiler on line assures
the quickest response to load changes. Frequent cycling also accelerates wear of boiler components. Maintenance
increases and more importantly, the chance of component failure increases.
Boiler(s) capacity requirement is determined by much different type of load variations in the system. Boiler over
-sizing occurs when future expansion and safety factors are added to assure that the boiler is large enough for the
application. If the boiler is oversized the ability of the boiler to handle minimum loads without cycling is reduced.
Therefore capacity and turndown should be considered together for proper boiler selection to meet overall system
load requirements.
Primary air
That part of the air supply to a combustion system which the fuel first encounters.
Secondary air
The second stage of admission of air to a combustion system, generally to complete combustion initiated by the
primary air. It can be injected into the furnace of a boiler under relatively high pressure when firing solid fuels in
order to create turbulence above the burning fuel to ensure good mixing with the gases produced in the combustion
process and thereby complete combustion
Tertiary air
The third stage of admission of air to a combustion system, the reactions of which have largely been completed by
secondary air. Tertiary air is rarely needed.
Stoichiometric
In combustion technology, stoichiometric air is that quantity of air, and no more, which is theoretically needed to
burn completely a unit quantity of fuel. ‘Sub-stoichiometric’ refers to the partial combustion of fuel in a deficiency
of air
Balanced draught
The condition achieved when the pressure of the gas in a furnace is the same as or slightly below that of the atmosphere
in the enclosure or building housing it.
Gross Calorific Value (GCV)

The amount of heat liberated by the complete combustion, under specified conditions, by a unit volume of a gas or
of a unit mass of a solid or liquid fuel, in the determination of which the water produced by combustion of the fuel
is assumed to be completely condensed and its latent and sensible heat made available.
Net Calorific Value (NCV)

The amount of heat generated by the complete combustion, under specified conditions, by a unit volume of a gas
or of a unit mass of a solid or liquid fuel, in the determination of which the water produced by the combustion of
the fuel is assumed to remain as vapour.
22/JNU OLE
Absolute pressure
The sum of the gauge and the atmospheric pressure. For instance, if the steam gauge on the boiler shows 9 kg/cm2g
the absolute pressure of the steam is 10 kg/cm2(a).
Atmospheric pressure
The pressure due to the weight of the atmosphere. It is expressed in pounds per square inches in. or inches of mercury
column or kg/cm2. Atmospheric pressure at sea level is 14.7 lbs. / sq. inch. or 30 inch mercury column or 760mm
of mercury (mm Hg) or 101.325 kilo Pascal (kPa).
Carbon monoxide (CO)

Produced from any source that burns fuel with incomplete combustion, causes chest pain in heart patients, headaches
and reduced mental alertness.
Blow down
The removal of some quantity of water from the boiler in order to achieve an acceptable concentration of dissolved
and suspended solids in the boiler water.
Complete combustion
The complete oxidation of the fuel, regardless of whether it is accomplished with an excess amount of oxygen or
air, or just the theoretical amount required for perfect combustion.
Perfect combustion
The complete oxidation of the fuel, with the exact theoretical (stoichiometric) amount of oxygen (air) required.
Saturated steam:
It is the steam, whose temperature is equal to the boiling point corresponding to that pressure.
Wet steam
the saturated steam which contains moisture, is called wet steam.
Dry steam
Either saturated or superheated steam containing no moisture.
Superheated steam
Steam heated to a temperature above the boiling point or saturation temperature corresponding to its pressure.
Oxygen trims sensor measures flue gas oxygen and a closed loop controller compares the actual oxygen level to
the desired oxygen level. The air (or fuel) flow is trimmed by the controller until the oxygen level is corrected. The
desired oxygen level for each firing rate must be entered into a characterized set point curve generator. Oxygen Trim
maintains the lowest possible burner excess air level from low to high fire. Burners that don’t have Oxygen Trim
must run with Extra Excess Air to allow safe operation during variations in weather, fuel, and linkage.
Heat transfer mediums

There are different types of heat transfer medium e.g. steam, hot water and thermal oil. Steam and Hot water are
most common and it will be valuable to briefly examine these common heat transfer mediums and associated
properties.
Thermic fluid
Thermic Fluid is used as a heat transfer mechanism in some industrial process and heating applications. Thermic
Fluid may be vegetable or mineral based oil and the oil may be raised to a high temperature without the need for any
pressurization. The relatively high flow and return temperatures may limit the potential for flue gas heat recovery
unless some other system can absorb this heat usefully. Careful design and selection is required to achieve best
energy efficiency.
23/JNU OLE
Hot water
Water is a fluid with medium density, high specific heat capacity, low viscosity and relatively low thermal conductivity.
At relatively low temperature e.g. 70oC -90oC, hot water is useful for smaller heating installations.
Steam
When water is heated its temperature will rise. The heat added is called sensible heat and the heat content of the
water is termed its enthalpy. The usual datum point used to calculate enthalpy is 0oC.
When the water reaches its boiling point, any further heat input will result in some proportion of the water changing
from the liquid to the vapour state, i.e., changing to steam. The heat required for this change of state is termed the
'latent heat of evaporation' and is expressed in terms of a fixed mass of water. Where no change in temperature
occurs during the change of state, the steam will exist in equilibrium with the water. This equilibrium state is termed
'saturation conditions'. Saturation conditions can occur at any pressure, although at each pressure there is only one
discrete temperature at which saturation can occur.
If further heat is applied to the saturated steam the temperature will rise and the steam will become 'superheated'.
Any increase in temperature above saturated conditions will be accompanied by a further rise in enthalpy.
Steam is useful heat transfer medium because, as a gas, it is compressible. At high pressure and consequently density,
steam can carry large quantities of heat with relatively small volume.
24/JNU OLE
Summary
• This chapter explains performance of the boiler, like efficiency and evaporation ratio reduces with time, due to
poor combustion, heat transfer fouling and poor operation and maintenance.
• It states the British Standard BS845: 1987 that describes the methods and conditions under which a boiler should
be tested to determine its efficiency.
• It explains IS 8753 Indian standard for boiler efficiency testing methods that are direct and indirect methods.
• It also describes boiler efficiency calculations, examples and measurements required for performance assessment
testing.
• It gives a brief description of boiler performance and factors affecting boiler performance.
• It mentions that the boiler industry has four common definitions of efficiency that are combustion, thermal,
boiler and fuel to steam efficiency.
• Boiler turndown is the ratio between full boiler output and the boiler output when operating at low fire.
• At last it explains the concept Gross Calorific Value (GCV) and Net Calorific Value (NCV).
Recommended Reading
• Fredrick M. Steingress, Harold J. Frost, 2009, High Pressure Boilers, Amer Technical Publications, p 344.
• Sam G.Duleglow, The Control of Boilers, Instrument Society of America, p 412
• Mohammed Malek, Heating Boiler Operators Manual: Maintenance, Operation and Repair, McGraw-Hill
Professional, 1 edition, p 352.
25/JNU OLE
Self Assessment
1. The purpose of the _____________ is to determine the actual performance and efficiency of the boiler and
compare it with design values or standard norms.
a. performance test
b. efficiency test
c. reference standards
d. direct method
2. The British Standard BS845: 1987 describes the methods and conditions under which a boiler should
be__________ to determine its efficiency.
a. maintained
b. repaired
c. tested
d. preserved
3. Most standards for computation of boiler efficiency, including IS 8753 and BS845 are designed for spot
__________ of boiler efficiency.
a. measurement
b. reduction
c. expansion
d. variation
4.
a. 72.5%
b. 62.5%
c. 52.5%
d. 82.5%
5. ___________ requires few parameters for computation.

a. Indirect method
b. Efficiency test
c. Direct method
d. Reference standards
6. Which of the following is True?

a. Secondary supply is the air supply to a combustion system which the fuel first encounters.
b. Primary supply is the air supply to a combustion system which the fuel first encounters.
c. Tertiary supply is the air supply to a combustion system which the fuel first encounters.
d. Primary supply is the steam supply to a combustion system which the fuel first encounters.
26/JNU OLE
a. Steam boilers rated output is also usually defined as MCR.
b. Electric boilers rated output is also usually defined as MCR.
c. Steam boilers rated output is never defined as MCR.
d. Steam boilers rated output is also usually defined as MVR.

a. Indirect method needs few instruments for monitoring.
b. Direct method needs few instruments for monitoring.
c. Direct method needs many instruments for monitoring.
d. Direct method does not need any instruments for monitoring.

a. Fuel to steam efficiency is the effectiveness of the heat transfer in a boiler.
b. Combustion efficiency is the effectiveness of the heat transfer in a boiler.
c. Thermal efficiency is the effectiveness of the heat transfer in a boiler.
d. Boiler efficiency is the effectiveness of the heat transfer in a boiler.

a. Boiler efficiency is the effectiveness of the burner only and relates to its ability to completely burn the
fuel.
b. Thermal efficiency is the effectiveness of the burner only and relates to its ability to completely burn the
fuel.
c. Fuel efficiency is the effectiveness of the burner only and relates to its ability to completely burn the fuel.
d. Combustion efficiency is the effectiveness of the burner only and relates to its ability to completely burn
the fuel.
27/JNU OLE
Chapter II
Performance Assessment of Furnaces
Aim
• understand terms and definitions related to furnace performance
• observe direct and indirect methods of efficiency evaluation
• identify factors affecting furnace performance
Objectives
• recognize objectives of conducting a performance test
• identify parameters for measuring energy balance in an oil fired furnace
• understand field testing format for data collection
Learning outcome
At the end of this chapter students will be able to:
• determine direct and indirect methods of efficiency evaluation
• identify factors affecting furnace performance
• classify parameters for measuring energy balance in an oil fired furnace
28/JNU OLE
2.1 Industrial Heating Furnaces
Furnace by definition is a device for heating materials and therefore, a user of energy. Heating furnaces can be
divided into the following parts:
• Batch-type (job at stationary position)
• Continuous type (large volume of work output at regular intervals)
The types of batch furnace include box, bogie, cover, etc.

For mass production, continuous furnaces are used in general.
The types of continuous furnaces include pusher-type furnace (fig. 2.1), walking hearth-type furnace, rotary hearth
and walking beam-type furnace (fig.2.2).
The primary energy required for reheating / heat treatment (say annealing) furnaces are in the form of Furnace oil,
LSHS, LDO or electricity.
Fig. 2.1 Pusher-type 3-zone reheating furnace
Fig. 2.2 Walking beam-type reheating furnace
2.2 Purpose of the Performance Test

There are many factors affecting furnace performance such as capacity utilization of furnaces, excess air ratio,
final heating temperature etc. It is the key for assessing current level of performances and finding the scope for
improvements and productivity.
The prime purpose of performance test is to:

• find out the efficiency of the furnace
• find out the specific energy consumption
Other purposes of the performance test include:

• to determine efficiency of the furnace
• to determine specific energy consumption for comparing with design values or best practice norms
29/JNU OLE
Heat balance of a furnace

Heat balance helps us to numerically understand the present heat loss and efficiency and improve the furnace
operation using these data. Thus, preparation of heat balance is a pre-requirement for assessing energy conservation
potential.
Performance terms and definitions
Furnace efficiency =
Specific energy consumption =
Reference Standards
In addition to conventional methods, Japanese Industrial Standard (JIS) GO702, “Method of heat balance for
continuous furnaces for steel” is used for the purpose of establishing the heat losses and efficiency of reheating
furnaces.
2.3 Furnace Efficiency Testing Method

The energy required to increase the temperature of a material is the product of the mass, the change in temperature
and the specific heat.
i.e., Energy = Mass x Specific Heat x Rise in temperature
The specific heat of the material can be obtained from a reference manual and describes the amount of energy
required by different materials to raise a unit of weight through one degree of temperature.
If the process requires a change in state, from solid to liquid, or liquid to gas, then an additional quantity of energy is
required, called the latent heat of fusion or latent heat of evaporation and this quantity of energy needs to be added
to the total energy requirement. However, in this section melting furnaces are not considered.
The total heat input is provided in the form of fuel or power. The desired output is the heat supplied for heating the
material or process. Other heat outputs in the furnaces are undesirable heat losses.
The various losses that occur in the fuel fired furnace (fig.2.3) are listed below.
• heat loss through exhaust gases either as sensible heat or as incomplete combustion
• heat loss through furnace walls and hearth
• heat loss to the surroundings by radiation and convection from the outer surface of the walls
• heat loss through gases leaking through cracks, openings and doors
2.3.1 Furnace Efficiency

The efficiency of a furnace is the ratio of useful output to heat input. The furnace efficiency can be determined by
both direct and indirect method.
30/JNU OLE
2.3.2 Direct Method of Testing
The efficiency of the furnace can be computed by measuring the amount of fuel consumed per unit weight of material
produced from the furnace.
Fig. 2.3 Fuel Fired Furnace
Thermal Efficiency of the Furnace = (heat imparted to the stock/heat content of the fuel consumed)
Where,
heat imparted to the stock = m x Cp x (t2-t1)
Q = Quantity of heat in kCal
M = Weight of the material in kg
Cp = Mean specific heat, kCal/kg °C
t2 = Final temperature desired, °C
t1 = Initial temperature of the charge before it enters the furnace, °C
2.3.3 Indirect Method of Testing

Similar to the method of evaluating boiler efficiency by indirect method, furnace efficiency can also be calculated
by indirect method.
Furnace efficiency is calculated after subtracting sensible heat loss in flue gas, loss due to moisture in flue gas, heat
loss due to openings in furnace, heat loss through furnace skin and other unaccounted losses from the input to the
furnace.
In order to find out furnace efficiency using indirect method, various parameters that are required are hourly furnace
oil consumption, material output, excess air quantity, temperature of flue gas, temperature of furnace at various
zones, skin temperature and hot combustion air temperature. Efficiency is determined by subtracting all the heat
losses from 100.
2.4 Measurement Parameters

The following measurements are to be made for doing the energy balance in oil fired reheating furnaces (e.g. heating
furnace)
• weight of stock / number of billets heated
• temperature of furnace walls, roof etc.
• flue gas temperature
• flue gas analysis
• fuel oil consumption
Instruments like infrared thermometer, fuel consumption monitor, surface thermocouple and other measuring
devices are required to measure the above parameters. Reference manual should be referred for data like specific
31/JNU OLE
heat, humidity etc.
Example: Energy efficiency by iIndirect method

An oil-fired reheating furnace has an operating temperature of around 1340°C. Average fuel consumption is 400
litres/hr. The flue gas exit temperature after air preheater is 750°C. Air is preheated from ambient temperature of
40 - 190 °C through an air pre-heater. The furnace has 460mm thick wall (x) on the billet extraction outlet side,
which is 1m high (D) and 1m wide. The other data are as given below. Find out the efficiency of the furnace by
both indirect and direct method.
Flue gas temperature after air pre-heater = 750 °C

Ambient temperature = 40 °C
Preheated air temperature = 190 °C
Specific gravity of oil = 0.92
Average fuel oil consumption = 400 Litres / hr
= 400 x 0.92 =368 kg/hr
Calorific value of oil = 10000 kCal/kg
Average O2 percentage in flue gas = 12%
Weight of stock = 6000 kg/hr
Specific heat of Billet = 0.12 kCal/kg/0C
Surface temperature of roof and side walls = 122 °C
Surface temperature other than heating and soaking zone = 85 °C
Solution
Sensible Heat Loss in Flue Gas

Excess air = [O2 / (21-O2)] x 100
(where, O2 is the % of oxygen in flue gas = 12%)
= 12×100 / (21 – 12)
= 133% excess air
Theoretical air required to burn 1 kg of oil = 14 kg (Typical value for all fuel oil)
Total air supplied = Theoretical air x(1+excess air/100)
Total air supplied = 14 x 2.33 kg / kg of oil
= 32.62 kg / kg of oil
Sensible heat loss = m× x ΔT
m = Weight of flue gas
= Actual mass of air supplied / kg of fuel +
mass of fuel (1kg)
= 32.62 + 1.0 = 33.62 kg / kg of oil.
= Specific heat of flue gas
= 0.24 kCal/kg °C
ΔT = Temperature difference
Heat loss = m ×Cp x ΔT
= 33.62 x 0.24 x (750– 40)
= 5729 kCal / kg of oil
% Heat loss in flue gas = 5727 x 100/10000
= 57.29%
Loss due to evaporation of moisture present in fuel
% Loss =
Where,
M = % Moisture in 1 kg of fuel oil (0.15 kg/kg of fuel oil)
Tfg = Flue Gas Temperature
32/JNU OLE
Tamb = Ambient temperature
GCV = Gross Calorific Value of Fuel
% Loss =
=10000
= 1.36 %
Loss Due to Evaporation of Water Formed due to Hydrogen in Fuel
% Loss =
=
= 9.13 %
Where,
- % of in 1 kg of fuel oil= 0.1123 kg/kg of fuel oil
2.4.1 Heat Loss due to Openings

If a furnace body has an opening on it, the heat in the furnace escapes to the outside as radiant heat. Heat loss due to
openings can be calculated by computing black body radiation at furnace temperature, and multiplying these values
with emissivity (usually 0.8 for furnace brick work), and the factor of radiation through openings.
Factor for radiation through openings can be determined with the help of graph as shown in the below figure. The
black body radiation losses can be directly computed from the curves as shown in the fig. 2.5.
1.00 2.1 rectangular

0.90 opening
Very long
0.80 slot
Total radiation factor
Square opening
0.70
Round cylindrical
0.60 opening
0.50
0.40
0.30
0.20
0.10
0
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 2 3 4 5 6
Ratio= Diameter or least width - D

Thickness of wall x
Fig.2.4 Factor for determining the equivalent of heat release from
Openings to the Quality of Heat Release from Perfect Black Body
33/JNU OLE
110
Total black body radiation ( kCal/cm2/hr)

100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
300 500 700 800 1100 1300 1500 1700 1800
Temperature ( C )
0
Fig.2.5 Graph determining black body radiation at a particular temperature
The reheating furnace in example has 460mm thick wall (X) on the billet extraction outlet side, which is 1m high
(D) and 1m wide.
With furnace temperature 1340˚C of the quantity (Q) of radiation heat loss from the opening is calculated as
follows:
The shape of the opening is square and D/X = 1/0.46 = 2.17
The factor of radiation (Refer to fig. 2.4) = 0.71
Black body radiation corresponding to 1340 °C = 36.00 kCal/cm2/hr
(refer to fig.2.5 above)
Area of opening = 100 cm x 100 cm
= 10000 cm2
Emissivity = 0.8
Total heat loss = Black body radiation × Area of opening x
Factor of radiation x Emissivity
=36 × 10000 × 0.71 × 0.8
= 204480 kCal/hr
Equivalent Oil loss o = 204480/10,000
= 20.45 kg/hr
% of heat loss = 20.45 /368 x 100
= 5.56 %
2.4.2 Heat Loss Through Skin

Method 1: Radiation heat loss from surface of furnace
The quantity of heat loss from surface of furnace body is the sum of natural convection and thermal radiation. This
quantity can be calculated from surface temperatures of furnace. The temperatures on furnace surface should be
measured at as many points as possible, and their average should be used. If the number of measuring points is too
small, the error becomes large.
The quantity (Q) of heat release from a reheating furnace is calculated with the following formula:
where,
Q = Quantity of heat release in kCal/W/m2
a = factor regarding direction of the surface of natural convection ceiling; 2.8, side walls = 2.2,
hearth = 1.5
t1 = temperature of external wall surface of the furnace (°C)
34/JNU OLE
t2 = temperature of air around the furnace (°C)
E = emissivity of external wall surface of the furnace
The first term of the formula mentioned above, represents the quantity of heat release by natural convection, and
the second term represents the quantity of heat release by radiation.
Method 2: Radiation heat loss from surface of furnace

The following figure shows the relation between the temperature of external wall surface and the quantity of heat
release calculated with this formula.
2000
1800
Amb Temp - 30 deg C 2
1 - C ei l i n g
1600 Emissivity - 0.5 2- Sidewall
3- Heath
1400
1200 Quantity of heat loss

2
(kCal/m /h)
1000
3
800
600
400
200
40 60 80 100 120 140 160

Temperature of external surface
of Furnace (deg C)
Fig.2.6 Quantity of heat release at various temperatures
From the above figure, the quantities of heat release from ceiling, sidewalls and hearth per unit area can be found.
Heat loss through roof and sidewalls

Total average surface temperature = 122 °C
Heat loss at 122 °C = 1252 k Cal / m2 / hr
Total area of heating + soaking zone = 70.18
Heat loss = 1252 kCal / m2 / hr x 70.18
= 87865 kCal/hr
Equivalent oil loss (a) = 8.78 kg / hr
Total average surface temperature of area other than heating and soaking zone
= 85 °C
Heat loss at 85 °C = 740 kCal / m2 / hr
Total area = 12.6
Heat loss = 740 kCal / m2 / hr x 12.6
= 9324 kCal/hr
Equivalent oil loss (b) = 0.93 kg / hr
Total loss of fuel oil = a + b = 9.71 kg/hr
Total percentage loss = 9.71 / 368
= 2.64%
35/JNU OLE
2.4.3 Unaccounted Loss

These losses comprise of heat storage loss, loss of furnace gases around charging door and opening, heat loss by
incomplete combustion, loss of heat by conduction through hearth, loss due to formation of scales.
2.5 Furnace Efficiency (Direct Method)

Fuel input = 400 litres / hr
= 368 kg / hr
Heat Input = 368 x 10,000
=36,80,000 kCal
Heat output = m x Cp x ΔT
= 6000 kg x 0.12 x (1340 – 40)
= 936000 kCal
Efficiency = 936000 x 100 / (368 x 10000)
= 25.43 %
= 25% (app)
Total Losses = 75% (app)
2.6 Furnace Efficiency (Indirect Method)

Sensible heat loss in flue gas = 57.29%
Loss due to evaporation of moisture in fuel = 1.36 %
Loss due to evaporation of water formed from H2 in fuel = 9.13 %
Heat loss due to openings = 5.56 %
Heat loss through skin = 2.64%
Total losses = 75.98 %
Furnace Efficiency = 100 – 75.98
= 24.02 %
Specific Energy Consumption = 400 litre /hour (fuel consumption)
= 6Tonnes/hour (Wt of st °Ck)
= 66.6 Litre of fuel /tonne of material (st °Ck)
2.7 Factors Affecting Furnace Performance

The important factors, which affect the efficiency, are listed below for critical analysis. Under loading due to poor
hearth loading and improper production scheduling the following factors affect the performance of the furnace:
• improper design
• use of inefficient burner
• insufficient draft/chimney
• absence of waste heat recovery
• absence of instruments/controls
• improper operation/maintenance
• high stack loss
• improper insulation /refractories
36/JNU OLE
2.8 Data Collection Format for Furnace Performance Assessment
The field-testing format for data collection and parameter measurements are shown below:
Charged amount in Charging temperature Discharging temperature Discharge Material

furnace Burning loss temperature
Tons/hr 0
c 0
c Kg/ton
Table 2.1 Stock

Fuel Consumption Components of heavy oil Gross Temperature
type calorific
C H2 O2 N2 S Water content value
Kg/hr % % % % % % kCal/kg 0
C
Table 2.2 Fuel analysis
Temperature Composition of dry exhaust gas

CO2 O2 CO
0
C % % %
Table 2.3 Flue Gas Analysis
Amount of Water Inlet temperature Outlet temperature

kg/ton 0
C 0
C
Table 2.4 Cooling Water
Temperature of combustion air =

Ambient air temperature =
37/JNU OLE
Table 2.1 Heat Balance Table

Heat Input Heat Output
Item kCal/t % Item kCal/t %
Combustion heat Quantity of heat in steel
of fuel
Sensible heat in flue gas
Moisture and hydrogen loss of fuel
Heat loss by Incomplete combustion (CO loss)
Heat in cooling water
Sensible heat of scale
Heat Loss Due To Openings
Radiation and Other unaccounted heat loss
Total = 100 % Total = 100 %
Table 2.5 Heat Balance Table
The above table can be used to construct a heat balance for a typical heat treatment furnace
2.9 Useful Data

Radiation Heat Transfer
Heat transfer by radiation is proportional to the absolute temperature to the power 4. Consequently the radiation
losses increase considerably as temperature increases.
Table 2.6 Radiation Loss and Absolute Temperature
In practical terms, this means the radiation losses from an open furnace door at 1500 °C are 11 times greater than
the same furnace at 700 °C.
A good incentive for the iron and steel melters is to keep the furnace lid closed at all times and maintaining a
continuous feed of cold charge onto the molten bath.
Furnace Utilization Factor

Utilization has a critical effect on furnace efficiency and is a factor that is often ignored or under-estimated. If the
furnace is at an estimated temperature then standby losses of a furnace occur, whether or not a product is in the
furnace.
38/JNU OLE
Standby Losses
Energy is lost from the charge or its enclosure in the way of heat:
• conduction
• convection
• radiation
Furnace draft control

Furnace pressure control has a major effect on fuel fired furnace efficiency. Running a furnace at a slight positive
pressure reduces air ingress and can increase the efficiency.
Theoretical heat
Example of melting one tonne of steel from an ambient temperature of 20°C
Specific heat of steel = 0.186 Wh/kg/°C
Latent heat for melting of steel = 40 Wh/kg/°C
Melting point of steel = 1600°C
Theoretical Total heat = Sensible heat + Latent heat
Sensible Heat =1000 kg x 0.186 Wh /kg °C x (1600-20) °C
= 294 kWh/T
Latent heat = 40 Wh/ kg x 1000 kg
= 40 kWh/T
Total Heat = 294 + 40
= 334 kWh/T
So the theoretical energy needed to melt one tonne of steel from 20°C.
= 334 kWh
Actual Energy used to melt to 1600°C is 700 kWh
Efficiency =
= 48%
Typical Furnace Efficiency for reheating and forging furnaces (as observed in a few trials undertaken by an Energy
Auditing Agency on such furnaces)
Furnace Capacity Specific Fuel Consumption Thermal Efficiency Achieved

Upto 6 T/hr 40-45 litres/tonne 52%
7-8 T/hr 35-40 litres/tonne 58.5%
10-12 T/hr 33-38 litres/tonne 63%
15-20 T/hr 32-34 litres/tonne 66.6%
20 T/hr and above 30-32 litres/tonne 71%
Table 2.7 Pusher type billet reheating furnace (for rolling mills)
39/JNU OLE
Furnace Capacity Specific Fuel Consumption Thermal Efficiency Achieved

500-600 kg/hr 80-90 litres/tonne 26%
1.0 T/hr 70-75 litres/tonne 30%
1.5-2.0 T/hr 65-70 litres/tonne 32.5%
2.5-3.0 T/hr 55-60 litres/tonne 38%
Table 2.8 Pusher type forging furnace

The figures showing fuel consumption were valid only when the furnaces are expected to operate at their rated
capacities.
Note:
These are the trail figures and cannot be presumed as the standards for the furnaces in question.
40/JNU OLE
Summary
• Efficiency of furnaces varies over a wide range, depending upon the type of furnace, the temperature to which
the material is heated in the furnace, type of energy source, etc.
• Fuel fired furnaces following heat losses associated with them.
• Furnace efficiency can be evaluated by the Direct and Indirect methods as in the case of boilers.
• Heat losses due to various causes including those from openings in the indirect method while the total heat input
and the heat output (heat in the stock) are evaluated for the indirect method of efficiency evaluation.
• Several measurements are involved in the indirect method while very few measurements are involved in the
direct method of furnace efficiency testing.
• Typical parameters required to be measured for energy balance in oil fired furnace.
• The formats for data collection are also given in this chapter.
Recommended Reading
• Roger Vizi (1999), Forced Hot Air Furnaces: Troubleshooting and Repair, McGraw-Hill Professional. P344.
• James E. Brumbaugh(2004), Audel HVAC Fundamentals, Heating Systems, Furnaces and Boilers, 4 edition,
Audel, p720.
41/JNU OLE
Self Assessment
1. Furnace efficiency is calculated after ____________sensible heat loss in flue gas, loss due to moisture in flue
gas, heat loss due to openings in furnace, heat loss through furnace skin and other unaccounted losses from the
input to the furnace.
a. subtracting
b. adding
c. multiplying
d. dividing
2. Furnace______________ can be evaluated by the direct and indirect methods as in the case of boilers.
a. efficiency
b. working
c. condition
d. temperature
3. Furnace is by definition a device for _____________ materials and therefore a user of energy.
a. melting
b. cooling
c. heating
d. boiling
4. If a furnace body has an opening on it, the __________in the furnace escapes to the outside as radiant heat.
a. pressure
b. fluid
c. gas
d. heat
5. Heat transfer by radiation is proportional to the absolute temperature to the power _____
a. 2
b. 4
c. 5
d. 7
6. Which of the following is true?

a. Furnace pressure control has a major effect on fuel fired furnace fluid.
b. Furnace pressure control has a major effect on fuel fired furnace heat.
c. Furnace pressure control has a major effect on fuel fired furnace efficiency.
d. Furnace pressure control has a major effect on fuel fired furnace gas.
42/JNU OLE
a. A good incentive for the iron and steel melters is to keep the furnace lid closed at all times and maintaining
a continuous feed of cold charge onto the molten bath.
b. A good incentive for the iron and steel heaters is to keep the furnace lid closed at all times and maintaining
c. A good incentive for the iron and steel coolers is to keep the furnace lid closed at all times and maintaining
d. A good incentive for the iron and steel boilers is to keep the furnace lid closed at all times and maintaining

a. The quantity of heat loss from surface of furnace body is the product of natural convection and thermal
radiation.
b. The quantity of heat loss from surface of furnace body is the difference of natural convection and thermal
radiation.
c. The quantity of heat loss from surface of furnace body is the sum of natural convection and thermal
radiation.
d. The quantity of heat loss from surface of furnace body is the ratio of natural convection and thermal
radiation.

a. Heat balance helps us to numerically understand the present temperature gain and efficiency and improve
the furnace operation using these data.
b. Heat balance helps us to numerically understand the present temperature gain and efficiency and improve
the furnace operation using these data.
c. Heat balance helps us to numerically understand the present heat gain and efficiency and improve the furnace
operation using these data.
d. Heat balance helps us to numerically understand the present heat loss and efficiency and improve the furnace
operation using these data.

a. Furnace efficiency can be evaluated by the direct and indirect methods as in the case of solar heaters.
b. Furnace efficiency can be evaluated by the direct and indirect methods as in the case of heaters.
c. Furnace efficiency can be evaluated by the direct and indirect methods as in the case of coolers.
d. Furnace efficiency can be evaluated by the direct and indirect methods as in the case of boilers.
43/JNU OLE
Chapter III
Energy Performance Assessment of Cogeneration Systems with Steam and
GasTurbines
Aim
• understand cogeneration performance terms and definitions
• identify ways to find turbine cylinder efficiency
• recognize the purpose of the Performance Test
• observe field testing procedure
• estimate the overall plant heat rate
Objectives
The objective of this chapter is to:
• analyze ways to find turbine cylinder efficiency
• identify the purpose of the Performance Test
• study field testing procedure
Learning outcome
• describe ways to find turbine cylinder efficiency
• distinguish the purpose of the Performance Test
• interpret field testing procedure
• detect the overall plant heat rate
44/JNU OLE
3.1 Introduction
Cogeneration systems can be broadly classified as those using steam turbines, Gas turbines and DG sets. Steam
turbine cogeneration systems involve different types of configurations with respect to mode of power generation
such as extraction, back pressure or a combination of backpressure, extraction and condensing.
Gas turbines with heat recovery steam generators are another mode of cogeneration. Depending on power and steam
load variations in the plant the entire system is dynamic. A performance assessment would yield valuable insights
into cogeneration system performance and need for further optimization.

The purpose of the cogeneration plant performance test is to determine the power output and plant heat rate. In
certain cases, the efficiency of individual components like steam turbine is addressed specifically where performance
deterioration is suspected. In general, the plant performance will be compared with the base line values arrived at
for the plant operating condition rather than the design values. The other purpose of the performance test is to show
the maintenance accomplishment after a major overhaul. In some cases the purpose of evaluation could even be
for a total plant revamp.

Overall Plant Performance
Overall plant heat rate, kCal/kWh
*Total fuel consumption for turbine and steam Fuel consumption* in kg/hr
Steam Turbine Performance

Turbine Cylinder efficiency, %
Gas Turbine Performance

Air Compressor Efficiency, %
Heat Recovery Steam Generator (HRSG) Performance

Heat Recovery Steam Generator efficiency, % =
where,
45/JNU OLE
= Enthalpy of steam
= Enthalpy of feed water
= Inlet temperature of flue gas
= Outlet temperature of flue gas

Modern power station practices by British electricity International (Pergamon Press) ASME PTC 22 – Gas turbine
performance test.
3.5 Field Testing Procedure

The test procedure for each cogeneration plant will be developed individually taking into consideration the plant
configuration, instrumentation and plant operating conditions. A method is outlined in the following section for the
measurement of heat rate and efficiency of a co-generation plant. This part provides performance-testing procedure
for a coal fired steam based co-generation plant, which is common in Indian industries.
Test Duration
The test duration is site specific and in a continuous process industry, 8-hour test data should give reasonably
reliable data. In case of an industry with fluctuating electrical/steam load profile a set 24-hour data sampling for a
representative period.
Measurements and Data Collection

The suggested instrumentation (online/ field instruments) for the performance measurement is as under:
Steam flow measurement: Orifice flow meters
Fuel flow measurements: Volumetric measurements / Mass flow meters
Air flow / Flue gas flow: Venturi / Orifice flow meter / Ion gun / Pitot tubes
Flue gas Analysis: Zirconium Probe Oxygen analyser
Unburnt Analysis: Gravimetric Analysis
Temperature: Thermocouple
Cooling water flow: Orifice flow meter / weir /channel flow/non-contact flow meters
Pressure: Bourdon Pressure Gauges
Power: Trajectory meter / Energy meter
Condensate: Orifice flow meter
It is essential to ensure that the data is collected during steady state plant running conditions. Among others the
following are essential details to be collected for cogeneration plant performance evaluation.
Thermal Energy
Flow Pressure Temperature
1 Steam inlet to turbine   
2 Fuel input to Boiler /Gas turbine  - -
3 Combustion air   
4 Extraction steam to process   
5 Back pressure steam to process   
6 Condensing steam   
7 Condensate from turbine  - 
8 Turbine bypass steam  - -
9 Flue gas to HRSG -  
10 Exit flue gas - - + composition
11 Cooling water to condenser   
Table 3.1 Thermal energy checklist
46/JNU OLE
II. Electrical Energy
Total power generation for the trial period from individual turbines.
Hourly average power generation
Quantity of power import from utility (Grid)*
Quantity of power generation from DG sets*
Auxiliaries power consumption
* Necessary only when overall cogeneration plant adequacy and system optimization / up gradation are the objectives
of the study.
Calculations for Steam Turbine Cogeneration System

The process flow diagram for cogeneration plant is shown in fig. 3.1 below. The following calculation procedures
have been provided in this section.
• Turbine cylinder efficiency
• Overall plant heat rate
h1
h1
Boiler
Extraction cum
S
condensing
Turbine Power output
kW
h1
Boiler h2 H1
1 Extraction
nd
h 3 H2 h4 H3
2 Extraction
nd
Condenser
Fig. 3.1 Process Flow Diagrams for Cogeneration Plant
Step 1
Calculate the actual heat extraction in turbine at each stage;
• Steam Enthalpy at turbine inlet: h1 kCal / kg
• Steam Enthalpy at 1st extraction: h2 kCal / kg
• Steam Enthalpy at 2nd extraction: h3 kCal / kg
• Steam Enthalpy at Condenser: h4* kCal / kg
*Due to wetness of steam in the condensing stage, the enthalpy of steam cannot be considered as equivalent to
saturated steam. Typical dryness value is 0.88 – 0.92. This dryness value can be used as first approximation to
estimate heat drop in the last stage. However, it is suggested to calculate the last stage efficiency from the overall
turbine efficiency and other stage efficiencies.
• Heat extraction from inlet to stage –1 extraction (h5) : h1-h2 kCal / kg
• Heat extraction from 1st –2nd extraction (h6) :h2-h3 kCal / kg
• Heat extraction from 2nd Extraction – condenser (h7) :h3-h4 kCal / kg
Step 2
From Mollier diagram, (H-φ Diagram) estimate the theoretical heat extraction for the conditions mentioned;
• Plot the turbine inlet condition point in the Mollier chart – corresponding to steam pressure and temperature.
• Since expansion in turbine is an adiabatic process, the entropy is constant. Hence draw a vertical line from inlet
47/JNU OLE
point (parallel to y-axis) upto the condensing conditions.

• Read the enthalpy at points where the extraction and condensing pressure lines meet the vertical line drawn.
• Compute the theoretical heat drop for different stages of expansion.
Theoretical Enthalpy after 1st extraction : H1

Theoretical Enthalpy after 2nd extraction : H2
Theoretical Enthalpy at condenser conditions : H3
Theoretical heat extraction from inlet to stage 1 extraction, h8 : h1 – H1

Theoretical heat extraction from1st – 2nd extraction, h9 : H1-H2
Theoretical heat extraction from 2nd extraction – condensation, h10 : H2-H3
Step 3
Compute turbine cylinder efficiency
Step 4
Calculate plant heat rate*
where,
M = Mass flow rate of steam in kg/hr
h1 = Enthalpy of inlet steam in kCal/kg
h11 = Enthalpy of feed water in kCal/kg
P = Average Power generated in kW
*Alternatively the following guiding parameter can be utilised;
Plant heat consumption =
3.6 Example
Small Cogeneration Plant
A distillery plant having an average production of 40 kilolitres of ethanol is having a cogeneration system with a
backpressure turbine. The plant steam and electrical demand are 5.1 Tons/hr and 100 kW. The process flow diagram
is shown in fig. 3.2.Gross calorific value of Indian coal is 4000kCal/kg.
Steam to turbine
Q-5100 kg/hr
P - 15 kg/cm2g Back
Boiler T - 2500C Pressure
S
Coal Trurbine
1550kg/hr Power output
100kW
Process Steam
Q-5100 kg/hr
P - 2 kg/cm2g
T - 1300C
Fig.3.2 Process flow diagram for small cogeneration

Calculations
Step 1: Total heat of steam at turbine inlet conditions at 15kg / cm2 and 250°C, h1 =698kCal/kg
Step 2: Total heat of steam at turbine outlet conditions at 2 kg/cm2 and 130°C, h2 = 648kCal/kg
48/JNU OLE
Step 3: Heat energy input to turbine per kg of inlet steam, (h1- h2) = (698-648) = 50kCal/kg
Step 4:
Total steam flow rate, Q1 = 5100 kg/hr
Power generation = 100 kW
Equivalent thermal energy = 100 x 860
= 86,000 kCal /hr
Step 5:
Energy input to the turbine = 5100 x 50
= 2, 55,000 kCal/hr.
Step 6:
= 34%
Step 7:
Efficiency of the turbo alternator = 34%
Efficiency of Alternator = 92 %
Efficiency of gear transmission = 98 %
=0.38
Step 8:
Quantity of steam bypassing the turbine = Nil
Step 9:
Coal consumption of the boiler = 1550 kg/hr.
Step 10:
Overall plant heat rate, kCal/kWh, is calculated;
=34068 kCal/kWh*
*Note: The plant heat rate is in the order of 34000 kCal/kWh because of the use of backpressure turbine. This value
will be around 3000 kcal/kWh while operating on fully condensing mode. However with backpressure turbine, the
energy in the steam is not wasted, as it is utilised in the process.
Overall plant fuel rate including boiler = 1550/100

= 15.5 kg coal / kW
49/JNU OLE
Analysis of results
The efficiency of the turbine generator set is as per manufacturer design specification. There is no steam bypass
indicating that the power generation potential of process steam is fully utilized. At present the power generation
from the process steam completely meets the process electrical demand or in other words, the system is balanced.
Remarks: Similar steps can be followed for the evaluation of performance of gas turbine based cogeneration
system.
50/JNU OLE
Summary
• Steam turbines, gas turbines and DG sets provide good opportunities for incorporating the cogeneration
system.
• Performance assessment of the cogeneration system reveals the heat rate of the plant, and also efficiency of the
individual components with the base line data.
• Various parameters to be measured and the instruments required for the same are given.
• The cogeneration plant performance test is to determine the power output and plant heat rate.
• The performance test is to show the maintenance accomplishment after a major overhaul.
• The test procedure for each cogeneration plant will be developed individually taking into consideration the plant
configuration, instrumentation and plant operating conditions.
• The efficiency of the turbine generator set is as per manufacturer design specification. There is no steam bypass
indicating that the power generation potential of process steam is fully utilized.
Recommended Reading
• Rolf Kehlohofer, Frank Hannemann, Franz Stirnimann(2009), Energy performance assessment of cogeneration
systems with steam and gas turbines, PennWell Corp, p 430.
• Philip Kiameh, Power Generation Handbook : Selection, Applications, Operation, Maintenance, McGraw-Hill
Professional, 1edition, p 560.
• Meherwan P Boyce(2006), Power Generation Handbook : Selection, Applications, Operation, Maintenance,
Gulf Professional Publishing; 3 edition, p 962.
51/JNU OLE
Self Assessment
1. The cogeneration plant performance test is to determine the power output and plant ___________ rate.
a. heat
b. energy
c. temperature
d. steam
2. The __________________ is to show the maintenance accomplishment after a major overhaul.

a. performance test
b. presentation test
c. routine test
d. periodical test
3. The ______________ for each cogeneration plant will be developed individually taking into consideration the
plant configuration, instrumentation and plant operating conditions.
a. test procedure
b. test methodology
c. test requisites
d. test provisions
4. The efficiency of the turbine generator set is as per manufacturer design ______________.
a. specification
b. requisites
c. condition
d. plans
5. There is no steam bypass indicating that the power generation potential of process ___________is fully
utilized.
a. air
b. heat
c. temperature
d. steam
6. Total heat of steam at turbine inlet conditions at 15kg / cm2 and 250°C, h1 =________
a. 688kCal/kg
b. 698kCal/kg
c. 678kCal/kg
d. 638kCal/kg\
B] True or False
a. Cogeneration improves viability and profitability of manufacturing industries.
b. Cogeneration degrades losses of sugar industries.
c. Cogeneration degrades viability and profitability of sugar industries.
d. Cogeneration improves viability and profitability of sugar industries.
52/JNU OLE
a. There is no steam bypass indicating that the power generation potential of process heat is fully utilized.
b. There is no steam bypass indicating that the power generation potential of process air is fully utilized.
c. There is no steam bypass indicating that the power generation potential of process temperature is fully
utilized.
d. There is no steam bypass indicating that the power generation potential of process steam is fully utilized.

a. The cogeneration plant performance test is to determine the power output and plant heat rate.
b. The cogeneration plant performance test is to determine the power output and plant temperature rate.
c. The cogeneration plant performance test is to determine the power output and plant energy rate.
d. The cogeneration plant performance test is to determine the power output and plant steam rate.

a. The efficiency of the turbine generator set is as per manufacturer design specifications.
b. The efficiency of the turbine generator set is as per manufacturer design requisites.
c. The efficiency of the turbine generator set is as per manufacturer design conditions.
d. The efficiency of the turbine generator set is as per manufacturer design plans.
53/JNU OLE
Chapter IV
Energy Performance Assessment of Heat Exchangers
Aim
• understand terminology of heat exchangers and their performance
• analyze performance terms and definitions of heat exchangers
• identify methodology of Heat Exchanger Performance Assessment
• determination of heat transfer coefficient for Liquid-Liquid Heat exchangers, Surface condensers vaporisers
and Air Heaters
Objectives
• acquire performance terms and definitions of heat exchangers
• understand methodology of Heat Exchanger Performance Assessment
• observe determination of heat transfer coefficient for Liquid-Liquid Heat exchangers Surface condensers
vaporisers and Air Heaters
Learning outcome
• identify terminology of heat exchangers and their performance
• classify performance terms and definitions of heat exchangers
• specify methodology of Heat Exchanger Performance Assessment
54/JNU OLE
4.1 Introduction
Heat exchangers are equipments that transfer heat from one medium to another. The proper design, operation and
maintenance of heat exchangers will make the process energy efficient and minimize energy losses. Heat exchanger
performance can deteriorate over time, off design operations and other interferences such as fouling, scaling etc.
It is necessary to assess periodically the heat exchanger performance in order to maintain them at a high efficiency
level. This section comprises certain proven techniques of monitoring the performance of heat exchangers, coolers
and condensers from observed operating data of the equipment.

To determine the overall heat transfer coefficient for assessing the performance of the heat exchanger any deviation
from the design heat transfer coefficient will indicate occurrence of fouling.

Overall heat transfer coefficient, U
Heat exchanger performance is normally evaluated by the overall heat transfer coefficient U that is defined by the
equation.
Q=U× A ×LMTD
where,
Q = Heat transferred in kCal/hr
A = Heat transfer surface area in m2
LMTD = Log Mean Temperature Difference in 0C
U = Overall heat transfer Coefficient kCal/hr/m2/0C
When the hot and cold stream flows and inlet temperatures are constant, the heat transfer coefficient may be evaluated
using the above formula. It may be observed that the heat pick up by the cold fluid starts reducing with time.
Nomenclature
A typical heat exchanger is shown in fig. 4.1 with nomenclature.
Cold fluid in
Shell Hot fluid out
W , ti
W, Tc
Baffles Hot fluid in

Cold fluid out W,Ti
W, to
Fig. 4.1 Typical shell and tube heat exchanger
Heat duty of the exchanger can be calculated either on the hot side fluid or cold side fluid as given below;
Heat Duty for Hot fluid, Qh = w x Cph x (Ti-To) ………..Eqn-1
Heat Duty for Cold fluid, Qc = w x Cpc x (to-ti) ………...Eqn-2
If the operating heat duty is less than design heat duty, it may be due to heat losses, fouling in tubes, reduced flow
rate (hot or cold) etc. Hence, for simple performance monitoring of exchanger, efficiency may be considered as
factor of performance irrespective of other parameter. However, in industrial practice, fouling factor method is more
predominantly used.
55/JNU OLE
4.4 Methodology of Heat Exchanger Performance Assessment

4.4.1 Procedure for determination of Overall heat transfer Coefficient, U at field
This is a fairly rigorous method of monitoring the heat exchanger performance by calculating the overall heat transfer
coefficient periodically. Technical records are to be maintained for all the exchangers, so that problems associated
with reduced efficiency and heat transfer can be identified easily. The record should basically contain historical heat
transfer coefficient data versus time / date of observation. A plot of heat transfer coefficient versus time permits
rational planning of an exchanger-cleaning program.
The heat transfer coefficient is calculated by the equation;

U = Q / (A x LMTD)
Where,
Q = heat duty
A = heat transfer area of the exchanger
LMTD = temperature driving force
The step by step procedure for determination of Overall heat transfer Coefficient are described below
Step – A
Monitoring and reading of steady state parameters of the heat exchanger under evaluation are tabulated as below:
Parameters Units Inlet Outlet
Hot fluid flow,W kg/h
Cold fluid flow,w kg/h
Hot fluid Temp, T O
C
Cold fluid Temp,t O
C
Hot fluid Pressure,P bar g
Cold fluid Pressure, p bar g
Step – B
With the monitored test data, the physical properties of the stream can be tabulated as required for the evaluation
of the thermal data
Hot fluid density, ρh kg/m3
Cold fluid density, ρc kg/m3
Hot fluid Viscosity, μh MPas*
Cold fluid Viscosity, μc MPas
Hot fluid Thermal Conductivity, kh kW/(m. K)
Cold fluid Thermal Conductivity, kc kW/(m. K)
Hot fluid specific heat Capacity, Cph kJ/(kg. K)
Cold fluid specific heat Capacity, Cpc kJ/(kg. K)
* MPas – Mega Pascal Second
Density and viscosity can be determined by analysis of the samples taken from the flow stream at the recorded
temperature in the plant laboratory. Thermal conductivity and specific heat capacity if not determined from the
samples can be collected from handbooks.
Step – C
Calculate the thermal parameters of heat exchanger and compare with the design
Parameters Units Test Data Design Data
Heat Duty, Q kW
Hot fluid side pressure drop, ΔPh bar *
Cold fluid side pressure drop, ΔPc bar *
* denotes the pressure drop for the design flow can be rated with the relation
Pressure drop is proportional to flow (1.75)
56/JNU OLE
Step – D
The following formulae are used for calculating the thermal parameters:
Heat Duty, Q = qs + ql
where,
qs is the sensible heat and ql is the latent heat
For Senisble heat,
qs = wx Cph x(Ti- To)/1000/3600 in kW
Or,
qs = w x Cpc x (to-ti)/1000/3600 in kW
For Latent heat
ql = W x λh
where,
λh – Latent heat of Condensation of a hot condensing vapour
Or,
ql = w x λc
where,
λc - Latent heat of Vaporization
Hot Fluid Pressure Drop, ΔPh = Pi - Po
Cold fluid pressure drop, ΔPc = pi - po
Temperature range hot fluid, ΔT = Ti - To
Temperature range cold fluid, Δt = to – ti
Capacity ratio, R = W x CPh / w x Cpc (or) (Ti- To) / (to - ti)
Effectiveness, S = (to- ti) / (Ti – ti)
LMTD: Counter current Flow Co-current flow

LMTD Counter current Flow = ((Ti-to) – (To-ti)) / ln ((Ti-to)/(To-ti))
LMTD Co-current Flow = ((Ti-ti) – (To-to)) / ln ((Ti-ti)/(To-to))
Correction factor for LMTD to account for Cross flow
(R + 1)1/2 x ln ((1- SR)/ (1- S ))
F = ( 1 – R) x ln 2- S ( R + 1 – (R +1)1/2)
2- S ( R + 1 + (R +1)1/2)
Corrected LMTD = F x LMTD
Overall Heat Transfer Co-efficient, U = Q / (A x Corrected LMTD)
4.4.2 Examples
Liquid – Liquid Exchanger
A shell and tube exchanger of following configuration is considered being used for oil cooler with oil at the shell
side and cooling water at the tube side.
Tube Side = 460 Nos x 25.4mmOD x 2.11mm thick x 7211mm long
Pitch = 31.75mm
30o triangular
2 Pass
Shell Side = 787 mm ID
Baffle space = 787 mm
Pass
The monitored parameters are as below:
Hot fluid flow, W kg/h 719800 719800
Cold fluid flow, w kg/h 881150 881150
Hot fluid Temp, T O
C 145 102
Cold fluid Temp, t O
C 25.5 49
Hot fluid Pressure, P bar g 4.1 2.8
Cold fluid Pressure, p bar g 6.2 5.1
57/JNU OLE
Calculation of Thermal data:

Heat Transfer Area = 264.55 m2
Heat Duty, Q = qs + ql
Hot fluid, Q = 719800 x 2.847 x (145 –102) /3600 = 24477.4 kW
Cold Fluid, Q = {881150 x 4.187 x (49 – 25.5)}/3600 = 24083.4 kW
Hot Fluid Pressure Drop, = Pi – Po = 4.1 – 2.8 = 1.3 bar g
Cold Fluid Pressure Drop, = pi – po = 6.2 – 5.1 = 1.1 bar g
Temperature range hot fluid, ΔT = Ti – To = 145 – 102 = 43 OC
Temperature Range Cold fluid, Δt = to – ti = 49 – 25.5 = 23.5 0C
Capacity Ratio, R = (Ti-To) / (to-ti) = 43/1.83 =23.5
Effectiveness, S = (to – ti) / (Ti – ti) = (49 – 25.5)/(145-25.5)
= 23.5/119.5
= 0.20
LMTD
LMTD, Counter Flow = (96 – 76.5)/ ln (96/76.5) = 85.9 0C
Correction Factor to account for Cross flow = (R + 1)1/2 x ln ((1- SR)/ (1- S )
F = ( 1 – R) x ln 2- S ( R + 1 – (R +1)1/2)
=2- S ( R + 1 + (R +1)1/2)
F = 0.977
Corrected LMTD = F x LMTD = 0.977 x 85.9 = 83.9 oC.
Overall Heat Transfer Co-efficient, U = Q/ A ΔT
= 24477.4/ (264.55 x 83.9)
= 1.104 kW/m2. K
Comparison of Calculated data with Design Data
Duty, Q kW 24477.4 25623

Hot fluid side pressure drop, ΔPh Bar 1.3 1.34
Cold fluid side pressure drop, ΔPc Bar 1.1 0.95
Temperature Range hot fluid, ΔT O
C 43 45
Temperature Range cold fluid, Δt O
C 23.5 25
Capacity ratio, R ----- 1.83 0.556
Effectiveness, S ----- 0.20 0.375
Corrected LMTD, MTD O
C 83.8 82.2
Heat Transfer Coefficient, U kW/(m2. K) 1.104 1.178
Table 4.1 Calculated data vs design data
Inferences
Heat Duty:
Actual duty differences will be practically negligible as these duty differences could be because of the specific heat
capacity deviation with the temperature. Also, there could be some heat loss due to radiation from the hot shell
side.
58/JNU OLE
Pressure drop:
Also, the pressure drop in the shell side of the hot fluid is reported normal (only slightly less than the design figure).
This is attributed with the increased average bulk temperature of the hot side due to decreased performance of the
exchanger.
Temperature range:
As seen from the data the deviation in the temperature ranges could be due to the increased fouling in the tubes
(cold stream), since a higher pressure drop is noticed.
Heat Transfer coefficient: The estimated value has decreased due to increased fouling that has resulted in minimized
active area of heat transfer.
Physical properties:
If available from the data or Lab analysis can be used for verification with the design data sheet as a cross check
towards design considerations.
Troubleshooting:
Fouled exchanger needs cleaning.
Surface Condenser: A shell and tube exchanger of following configuration is considered being used for Condensing
turbine exhaust steam with cooling water at the tube side.
Dimensions:
Tube Side: 20648 Nos x 25.4mmOD x 1.22mm thk x 18300mm long
Pitch – 31.75mm 60o triangular
Pass
The monitored parameters are as below:
Hot fluid flow, W kg/h 939888 939888

Cold fluid flow, w kg/h 55584000 55584000
Hot fluid Temp, T O
C No data 34.9
Cold fluid Temp, t O
C 18 27
Hot fluid Pressure, P Bar g 52.3 mbar 48.3
Cold fluid Pressure, p Bar g 4 3.6
Table 4.2 Monitored parameters
Calculation of Thermal data

Area = 27871 m2
Duty, Q = qS + ql
Hot fluid, Q = 576990 kW
Cold Fluid, Q = 581825.5 kW
Hot Fluid Pressure Drop, Pi – Po = 52.3 – 48.3 = 4.0 mbar
Cold Fluid Pressure Drop = pi – po = 4 – 3.6 = 0.4 bar
Temperature range hot fluid
Temperature Range ΔT = Ti – To = No data
Temperature Range cold Fluid
Temperature Range Δt = ti – to = 27 – 18 = 9 OC.
Capacity Ratio, R = Not significance in evaluation here
Effectiveness, S = (to – ti) / (Ti – ti) = No significance in evaluation here
LMTD: Calculated considering condensing part only
59/JNU OLE
LMTD, Counter Flow =((34.9 – 18)-(34.9-27))/ ln ((34.9-18)/(34.9-27)) = 11.8 oC

Correction Factor to account for Cross flow, F = 1.0
Corrected LMTD, MTD = F x LMTD = 1.0 x 11.8 = 11.8 o C
Heat Transfer Co-efficient Overall HTC,
U = Q/ A ΔT = 576990/ (27871 x 11.8) = 1.75 kW/m2. K

Calculation of Thermal data:
Area = 27871 m2
Duty, Q = qS + qL
Hot fluid, Q = 576990 kW
Cold Fluid, Q = 581825.5 kW
Hot Fluid Pressure Drop, Pi – Po = 52.3 – 48.3 = 4.0 mbar
Cold Fluid Pressure Drop ,pi – po = 4 – 3.6 = 0.4 bar
Temperature range hot fluid, ΔT = Ti – To = No data
Temperature Range Cold Fluid, Δt = ti – to = 27 – 18 = 9 OC
Capacity Ratio, R = No significance in evaluation here
Effectiveness, S = (to – ti) / (Ti – ti) = Not significant in evaluation here
LMTD: Calculated considering condensing part only;

LMTD, Counter Flow =((34.9 – 18)-(34.9-27))/ ln ((34.9-18)/(34.9-27)) = 11.8 oC
Correction Factor to account for Cross flow, F = 1.0
Corrected LMTD, MTD = F x LMTD = 1.0 x 11.8 = 11.8 OC
Heat Transfer Co-efficient Overall HTC,
U = Q/ A ΔT = 576990/ (27871 x 11.8) = 1.75 kW/m2. K
Parameters Units Test data Design data
Duty, Q kW 576990 588430
Hot fluid side pressure drop, ΔPh mBar 4 3.7
Cold fluid side pressure drop, ΔPc Bar 0.4
Temperature Range hot fluid, ΔT O
C
Temperature Range cold fluid, Δt O
C (27-18) = 9 (28-19)=9
Capacity ratio, R -----
Effectiveness, S -----
Corrected LMTD, MTD O
C 11.8 8.9
Heat Transfer Coefficient, U kW/(m2. K) 1.75 2.37
60/JNU OLE
Summary
• Efficiency of heat transfer in a heat exchanger is monitored by evaluating Overall Heat Transfer coefficient ‘U'
of the exchanger.
• This factor deteriorates due to the fouling of the heat transfer surface in service.
• A periodic evaluation of ‘U' will enable the O and M personnel to plan their programme for defouling or cleaning
the heat exchanger.
• The operating parameters are measured and the data is used to compute the ‘U' factor.
• The evaluated ‘U' factor with the design value or the baseline value to assess the degree of fouling and plan for
taking corrective action.
• Portable or on-line instruments are used to measure the operating parameters while the physical properties and
chemical composition of the media are evaluated with the laboratory instruments.
Recommended Reading
• W. M. Kays(1998), Compact Heat Exchangers, Krieger Publishing Company; 3 Sub edition,p 335
• Sadik Kakac(2002),Heat Exchangers: Selection, Rating, and Thermal Design, 2 Edition, CRC Press, p 520
• H.S.Lee(2010), Thermal Design: Heat Sinks, Thermoelectrics, Heat Pipes, Compact Heat Exchangers, and
Solar Cells, Wiley; 1 edition, p 648
61/JNU OLE
Self Assessment
1. Q=_____________
a. U ×LMTD
b. A ×LMTD
c. U× A
d. U× A ×LMTD
2. If the operating duty is less than design ________ duty, it may be due to heat losses, fouling in tubes, reduced
flow rate (hot or cold) etc.
a. air
b. steam
c. pressure
d. heat
3. Technical records are to be maintained for all the exchangers, so that problems associated with reduced efficiency
and heat transfer can be identified easily.
a. air
b. steam
c. pressure
d. heat
4. Hot Fluid Pressure Drop, ΔPh = __________.

a. Pi – Po
b. P2 – Po
c. P8– Po
d. P7– Po
5. Cold fluid pressure drop, ΔPc = ____________.

a. p4- po
b. pi- po
c. p8- po
d. p10- po
6. Actual duty differences will be practically negligible as these duty differences could be because of the specific
heat capacity deviation with the __________.
a. temperature
b. steam
c. pressure
d. heat
62/JNU OLE
B] True or False
a. If the operating duty is less than design heat duty, it may be due to heat losses, fouling in tubes, reduced
b. If the operating duty is less than design air duty, it may be due to heat losses, fouling in tubes, reduced flow
rate (hot or cold) etc.
c. If the operating duty is less than design steam duty, it may be due to heat losses, fouling in tubes, reduced
d. If the operating duty is less than design pressure duty, it may be due to heat losses, fouling in tubes, reduced

a. Hot Fluid Pressure Drop, ΔPh = P7– Po
b. Hot Fluid Pressure Drop, ΔPh = P7– P2
c. Hot Fluid Pressure Drop, ΔPh = P7– P3
d. Hot Fluid Pressure Drop, ΔPh = P7– P6

a. Cold fluid pressure drop, ΔPc = p3-po.
b. Cold fluid pressure drop, ΔPc = pi-po.
c. Cold fluid pressure drop, ΔPc = pn-po.
d. Cold fluid pressure drop, ΔPc = p4-po.

a. Technical records are to be maintained for all the exchangers, so that problems associated with reduced
efficiency and air transfer can be identified easily.
b. Technical records are to be maintained for all the exchangers, so that problems associated with reduced
efficiency and steam transfer can be identified easily.
c. Technical records are to be maintained for all the exchangers, so that problems associated with reduced
efficiency and heat transfer can be identified easily.
d. Technical records are to be maintained for all the exchangers, so that problems associated with reduced
efficiency and pressure transfer can be identified easily.
63/JNU OLE
Chapter V
Energy Performance Assessment of Motors and Variable Speed Drives
Aim
• understand what is an energy efficient motor and how the losses in this type of motor are reduced
• recognize partially loaded motors consume more power and are less efficient
• identify effect of rewinding on motors
Objectives
• observe application of variable speed drives
• analyze performance evaluation of rewound motors
• identify format for data collection
• analyze various losses in a motor and how to estimate them
Learning outcome
• identify effect of rewinding on motors
• recognize format for data collection
• discriminate application of variable speed drives
• analyze various losses in a motor and how to estimate them
64/JNU OLE
5.1 Introduction
• The two important parameters in a motor are efficiency and power factor.
• The efficiencies of induction motors remain almost constant between 50-100% loading (refer fig 5.1).
• With motors designed to perform this function efficiently; the opportunity for savings with motors rests primarily
in their selection and use.
• When a motor has a higher rating than that required by the equipment, motor operates at part load. In this state,
the efficiency of the motor is reduced.
• Replacement of under loaded motors with smaller motors will allow a fully loaded smaller motor to operate at
a higher efficiency.
• This arrangement is generally the most economical for larger motors, and only when they are operating at less
than one-third to one-half capacity, depending on their size.
100
80
Percent efficiency
60
40
20
0
100
60
80
20
90
0
10
30
40
50
70
Percent load
Fig 5.1 Efficiency vs. loading
Efficiency
The efficiency of the motor is denoted by η = Pout/Pin
=1 – (PLoss/Pin)
where,
Pout – Output power of the motor
Pin – Input power of the motor
PLoss – Losses occurring in motor
Motor Loading
5.3 Efficiency Testing

While input power measurements are fairly simple, measurement of output or losses need a laborious exercise with
extensive testing facilities. The following testing standards are widely used.
Europe: IEC 60034-2, and the new IEC 61972 US: IEEE 112 - Method B Japan: JEC 37
Even between these standards the difference in efficiency value is up to 3%. For simplicity nameplate efficiency
rating may be used for calculations if the motor load is in the range of 50 -100 %.
65/JNU OLE
Field Tests for Determining Efficiency

(Note: The following section is a repeat of material provided in the chapter-2 on Electrical Motors)
No Load Test:
The motor is run at rated voltage and frequency without any shaft load. Input power, current, frequency and voltage
are noted. The no load P.F. is quite low and hence low PF watt meters are required. From the input power, stator I2R
losses under no load are subtracted to give the sum of Friction and Windage (F&W) and core losses. To separate core
and F & W losses, test is repeated at variable voltages. It is worthwhile plotting no-load input kW versus Voltage;
the intercept is F&W kW loss component.
F&W and core losses = No load power (watts) – (No load current)2 x Stator resistance
Stator and Rotor I2R Losses:

The stator winding resistance is directly measured by a bridge or volt amp method. The resistance must be corrected
to the operating temperature. For modern motors, the operating temperature is likely to be in the range of 100°C
to 120°C and necessary correction should be made. Correction to 75°C may be inaccurate. The correction factor is
given as follows:
R2 235 + t2 —– = ———– , where, t1 = ambient temperature, °C and t2 = operating temperature, °C.
R1 235+t1
The rotor resistance can be determined from locked rotor test at reduced frequency, but rotor I2R losses are measured
from measurement of rotor slip.
Rotor I2R losses = Slip x (Stator Input - Stator I2R Losses - Core Loss)
Accurate measurement of slip is possible by stroboscope or non-contact type tachometer. Slip also must be corrected
to operating temperature.
Stray Load Losses

These losses are difficult to measure with any accuracy. IEEE Standard 112 gives a complicated method, which is
rarely used on shop floor. IS and IEC standards take a fixed value as 0.5 % of output. It must be remarked that actual
value of stray losses is likely to be more. IEEE - 112 spec¬ifies values from 0.9 % to 1.8 %.
Points for User:

It must be clear that accurate determination of efficiency is very difficult. The same motor tested by different methods
and by same methods by different manufacturers can give a difference of 2 %.
Estimation of efficiency in the field can be summarized as follows:
a) Measure stator resistance and correct to operating temperature. From rated current value, I 2R losses are
calculated.
b) From rated speed and output, rotor I2R losses are calculated
c) From no load test, core and F & W losses are determined for stray loss.
The method is illustrated by the following example;

Example:
Motor Specifications
Rated power = 34 kW/45 HP
Voltage = 415 Volt
Current = 57 Amps
Speed = 1475 rpm
Insulation class =F
Frame = LD 200 L
Connection = Delta
No load test Data
66/JNU OLE
Voltage, V = 415 Volts
Current, I = 16.1 Amps
Frequency, F = 50 Hz
Stator phase resistance at 30°C = 0.264 Ohms
No load power, Pnl = 1063.74 Watts
Calculate iron plus friction and windage losses

Calculate stator resistance at 120°C, R2 = R1 X [(235+t2)/(235+t1)]
Calculate stator copper losses at operating temperature of resistance at 120°C
Calculate full load slip(s) and rotor input assuming rotor losses are slip times rotor input
Determine the motor input assuming that stray losses are 0.5 % of the motor rated power
Calculate motor full load efficiency and full load power factor
Solution
Let Iron plus friction and windage loss,Pi + fw
No load power, Pnl = 1063.74 Watts
Stator Copper loss, P st-30°C (Pst.cu)’
=3 x (16.1 / √3)2 x 0.264
= 68.43 Watts
Pi + fw = Pnl - Pst.cu
= 1063.74 – 68.43
= 995.3 W
Stator Resistance at 120°C
= 0.354 ohms per phase
Stator copper losses at full load, Pst.cu 120°C
= 3 x (57 / √3)2 x 0.354
= 1150.1 Watts
Full load slip

S = (1500 – 1475) / 1500
= 0.0167
Rotor input, Pr = Poutput/ (1-S)
= 34000 / (1-0.0167)
= 34577.4 Watts
Motor full load input power, P input
= Pr + Pst.cu 120°C + (Pi + fw) + Pstray
= 34577.4 + 1150.1 + 995.3 + (0.005* x 34000)
= 36892.8 Watts
*where, stray losses = 0.5% of rated output (assumed)
Motor efficiency at full load
Efficiency =
= 92.2%
Full Load PF =
=
= 0.90
67/JNU OLE
Comments
The measurement of stray load losses is very difficult and not practical even on test beds.
The actual value of stray loss of motors up to 200 HP is likely to be 1 % to 3 % compared to 0.5 % assumed by
standards.
The value of full load slip taken from the nameplate data is not accurate. Actual measure¬ment under full load
conditions will give better results.
The friction and windage losses really are part of the shaft output; however, in the above calculation, it is not added
to the rated shaft output, before calculating the rotor input power. The error however is minor.
When a motor is rewound, there is a fair chance that the resistance per phase would increase due to winding material
quality and the losses would be higher. It would be inter¬esting to assess the effect of a nominal 10 % increase in
resistance per phase.
5.4 Determining Motor Loading

By input power measurements
First measure input power Pi with a hand held or in-line power meter
Pi = Three-phase power in kW
Note the rated kW and efficiency from the motor name plate
The figures of kW mentioned in the name plate are for output conditions.
So corresponding input power at full-rated load is calculated below;
ηfl = Efficiency at full-rated load Pir = Input power at full-rated load in kW

The percentage loading can now be calculated as follows
Load = Pi/Pir x100%
Example
The nameplate details of a motor are given as power = 15 kW, efficiency η = 0.9. Using a power meter the actual
three phase power drawn is found to be 8 kW. Find out the loading of the motor.
Input power at full-rated power in kW, Pir = 15 /0.9 = 16.7 kW Percentage loading = 8/16.7 = 48 %
By Line Current Measurements

The line current load estimation method is used when input power cannot be measured and only amperage
measurements are possible. The amperage draw of a motor varies approximately lin¬early with respect to load,
down to about 75% of full load. Below the 75% load point, power factor degrades and the amperage curve becomes
increasingly non-linear. In the low load region, current measurements are not a useful indicator of load. However,
this method may be used only as a preliminary method just for the purpose of identification of oversized motors.
Slip Method
In the absence of a power meter, the slip method can be used which requires a tachometer. This method also does
not give the exact loading on the motors.
68/JNU OLE
where,
Load = Output power as a % of rated power
Slip = Synchronous speed - Measured speed in rpm
Ss = Synchronous speed in rpm at the operating frequency
Sr = Nameplate full-load speed
Example: Slip Load Calculation

Given:
Synchronous speed in rpm = 1500 at 50 HZ operating frequency.
(Synchronous speed = 120f/P) f: frequency, P: Number of poles
Nameplate full load speed = 1450
Measured speed in rpm = 1480
Nameplate rated power = 7.5 kW
Determine actual output power.
From the above equation, actual output power ic calculated to be;

40% x 7.5 kW = 3 kW
The speed/slip method of determining motor part-load is often favoured due to its simplicity and safety advantages.
Most motors are constructed such that the shaft is accessible to a tachometer or a strobe light.
The accuracy of the slip method, however, is limited. The largest uncertainty relates to the accuracy with which
manufacturers report the nameplate full-load speed. Manufacturers generally round their reported full-load speed
values to some multiple of 5 rpm. While 5 rpm is but a small percent of the full-load speed and may be considered
as insignificant, the slip method relies on the difference between full-load nameplate and synchronous speeds. Given
a 40 rpm "correct" slip, a seemingly minor 5 rpm disparity causes a 12% change in calculated load.
Slip also varies inversely with respect to the motor terminal voltage squared.
A voltage correction factor can, also, be inserted into the slip load equation.
The voltage compensated load can be calculated as shown below;
where,
Load = Output power as a % of rated power
Slip = Synchronous speed - Measured speed in rpm
Ss = Synchronous speed in rpm
Sr = Nameplate full-load speed
V = RMS voltage, mean line to line of 3 phases
Vr = Nameplate rated voltage
5.5 Performance Evaluation of Rewound Motors

Ideally, a comparison should be made of the efficiency before and after a rewinding. A relatively simple procedure
for evaluating rewind quality is to keep a log of no-load input current for each motor in the population. This Fig
increases with poor quality rewinds. A review of the rewind shop's procedure should also provide some indication
of the quality of work. When rewinding a motor, if smaller diameter wire is used, the resistance and the I2R losses
will increase.
69/JNU OLE
5.6 Format for Data Collection

The motor loading survey can be performed using the format given below:
The monitoring format for rewound motor is given below:
5.7 Application of Variable Speed Drives (VSD)

Although there are many methods of varying the speeds of the driven equipment such as hydraulic coupling, gear
box, variable pulley etc., the most possible method is one of varying the motor speed itself by varying the frequency
and voltage by a variable frequency drive.
5.7.1 Concept of Variable Frequency Drive

The speed of an induction motor is proportional to the frequency of the AC voltage applied to it, as well as the
number of poles in the motor stator. This is expressed by the equation:
70/JNU OLE
RPM = (f x 120) / p
Where f is the frequency in Hz, and p is the number of poles in any multiple of 2.
Therefore, if the frequency applied to the motor is changed, the motor speed changes in direct proportion to the
frequency change. The control of frequency applied to the motor is the job given to the VSD.
The VSD's basic principle of operation is to convert the electrical system frequency and volt¬age to the frequency
and voltage required to drive a motor at a speed other than its rated speed. The two most basic functions of a VSD
are to provide power conversion from one frequency to another, and to enable control of the output frequency.
VSD Power Conversion

As illustrated by fig 5.1, there are two basic components, a rectifier and an inverter, to accomplish power
conversion.
The rectifier receives the 50-Hz AC voltage and con¬verts it to direct current (DC) voltage. A DC bus inside the
VSD functions as a "parking lot" for the DC voltage. The DC bus energizes the inverter, which converts it back to
AC voltage again. The inverter can be controlled to produce an output frequency of the proper value for the desired
motor shaft speed.
Control
Overcurrent Dc bus
protection
Motor
Rectifier Inverter
3 - Phase power supply
Fig. 5.2 Components of a variable speed drive
5.7.2 Factors for Successful Implementation of Variable Speed Drives

a) Load Type for Variable Frequency Drives
The main consideration is whether the variable frequency drive application require a variable torque or constant
torque drive. If the equipment being driven is centrifugal, such as a fan or pump, then a variable torque drive will
be more appropriate. Energy savings are usually the pri¬mary motivation for installing variable torque drives for
centrifugal applications. For example, a fan needs less torque when running at 50% speed than it does when running
at full speed. Variable torque operation allows the motor to apply only the torque needed, which results in reduced
energy consumption.
Conveyors, positive displacement pumps, punch presses, extruders, and other similar type applications require
constant level of torque at all speeds. In which case, constant torque vari¬able frequency drives would be more
appropriate for the job. A constant torque drive should have an overload current capacity of 150% or more for one
minute. Variable torque variable frequency drives need only an overload current capacity of 120% for one minute
since cen¬trifugal applications rarely exceed the rated current.
If tight process control is needed, then you may need to utilize a sensor less vector, or flux vector variable frequency
drive, which allow a high level of accuracy in controlling speed, torque, and positioning.
71/JNU OLE
b) Motor Information
The following motor information will be needed to select the proper variable frequency drive:
Full Load Amperage Rating. Using a motor's horsepower is an inaccurate way to size vari¬able frequency drives.
Speed Range. Generally, a motor should not be run at any speed less than 20% of its specified maximum speed
allowed. If it is run at a speed less than this without auxiliary motor cooling, the motor will overheat. Auxiliary
motor cooling should be used if the motor must be operated at very slow speeds.
Multiple Motors. To size a variable frequency drive that will control more than one motor, add together the full-load
amp ratings of each of the motors. All motors controlled by a single drive must have an equal voltage rating.
c) Efficiency and Power Factor

The variable frequency drive should have an efficiency rating of 95% or better at full load.
Variable frequency drives should also offer a true system power factor of 0.95 or better across the operational speed
range, to save on demand charges, and to protect the equipment (especially motors).
d) Protection and Power Quality

Motor overload Protection for instantaneous trip and motor over current.
Additional Protection: Over and under voltage, over temperature, ground fault, control or microprocessor fault.
These protective circuits should provide an orderly shutdown of the VFD, provide indication of the fault condition,
and require a manual reset (except under voltage) before restart. Under voltage from a power loss shall be set to
automatically restart after return to normal. The history of the previous three faults shall remain in memory for
future review.
If a built-up system is required, there should also be externally-operated short circuit protec¬tion, door-interlocked
fused disconnect and circuit breaker or motor circuit protector (MCP)
To determine if the equipment under consideration is the right choice for a variable speed drive:
The load patterns should be thoroughly studied before exercising the option of VSD. In effect the load should be of
a varying nature to demand a VSD (refer fig 5.3 and 5.4).
25
Percent operating hours
20
15
10
0
30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100
Percent rated flow
Fig 5.3 Example of an excellent variable speed drive candidate
25
Percent operatin g hours
20
15
10
0
30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100
Percent rated flow
Fig 5.4 Example of a poor variable speed drive candidate
72/JNU OLE
The first step is to identify the number of operating hours of the equipment at various load conditions. This can be
done by using a Power analyzer with continuous data storage or by a simple energy meter with periodic reading
being taken.
5.7.3 Information needed to Evaluate Energy Savings for Variable Speed Application
• Method of flow control to which adjustable speed is compared to are:
• output throttling (pump) or dampers (fan)
• recirculation (pump) or unrestrained flow (fan)
• adjustable-speed coupling (eddy current coupling)
• inlet guide vanes or inlet dampers (fan only)
• two-speed motor
Pump or fan data

Head v's flow curve for every different type of liquid (pump) or gas (fan) that is handled
Pump efficiency curves.
Process information
• specific gravity (for pumps) or specific density of products (for fans)
• system resistance head/flow curve
• equipment duty cycle, i.e. flow levels and time duration
Efficiency information on all relevant electrical system apparatus:

• motors
• constant and variable speed
• variable speed drives
• gears
• transformers
If we do not have precise information for all of the above, we can make reasonable assump¬tions for points
2 and 4.
73/JNU OLE
Summary
• The losses in the motor include iron loss and copper loss. Both these can be estimated on the basis of no load
and blocked rotor test.
• However there are other losses, which need to be estimated on the basis of accepted standards and practices.
• These include Stray Load Losses, Friction and Windage losses, etc.
• Rewinding changes the stator resistance and hence all the associated losses are affected. Normally the efficiency
goes down after rewinding.
• Out of the losses, two major losses are Iron Loss called no load loss and Copper Loss depending on the load.
• When the motor is partially loaded the iron loss remains fixed and hence its share in the overall losses
increases.
• Thus, for a partial loaded motor the percentage of input power meeting these losses goes up and hence the
partially loaded motor has less efficiency compared to the fully loaded motor.
• Energy Efficient Motors are those whose efficiency does not vary more than 4% when the load is reduced from
100% to 75%.
• Thus, the efficiency of the motor remains practically constant between 75% and 100% of load. This is achieved
by better design, better quality of material, etc.
Recommended Reading
• Michael Brumbach(2005),Electronic Variable Speed Drives, Delmar Cengage Learning; 3 edition, p 312
• Malcolm Barnes CPEng(2003), Practical Variable Speed Drives and Power Electronics, Newnes; 1 edition,
p 304
• Bimal K Bose, Power Electronics and Variable Frequency Drives: Technology and Applications, Wiley-IEEE
Press, p 660.
74/JNU OLE
Self Assessment
A] Fill in the blanks
1. The efficiencies of induction motors remain almost constant between _____________loading.

a. 50% to 100%
b. 60% to 100%
c. 40% to 100%
d. 30% to 100%
2. When a motor has a _________________rating than that required by the equipment, motor operates at part
load.
a. higher
b. lower
c. constant
d. fluctuating
3. While input power measurements are fairly simple, measurement of output or losses need a laborious exercise
with extensive _____________facilities.
a. measuring
b. testing
c. calculating
d. observing
4. The measurement of stray load losses is very ______________and not practical even on test beds.
a. easy
b. difficult
c. simple
d. complex
5. Most motors are _____________such that the shaft is accessible to a tachometer or a strobe light.
a. constructed
b. designed
c. planned
d. calculated
B] True or False

a. The line current load estimation method is used when output power can be measured and only amperage
measurements are possible.
b. The line current load estimation method is used when output power cannot be measured and only amperage
c. The line current load estimation method is used when input power can be measured and only amperage
d. The line current load estimation method is used when input power cannot be measured and only amperage
75/JNU OLE

a. The speed/slip method of determining motor part-load is often not favoured due to its simplicity and safety
advantages.
b. The speed/slip method of determining motor part-load is often favoured due to its complexity.
c. The speed/slip method of determining motor part-load is often favoured due to its simplicity and safety
advantages.
d. The speed/slip method of determining motor part-load is often neglected due to its simplicity and safety
advantages.

a. The measurement of stray load losses is very difficult and not practical even on test beds.
b. The measurement of stray load gains is very difficult and not practical even on test beds.
c. The measurement of stray load losses is very difficult and practical even on test beds.
d. The measurement of stray load losses is very easy and practical even on test beds.

a. The efficiencies of induction motors remain almost constant between 50% to 100% loading.
b. The efficiencies of induction motors remain almost irregular between 50% to 100% loading.
c. The efficiencies of induction motors remain almost irregular between 30% to 100% loading.
d. The efficiencies of induction motors remain almost constant between 70% to 100% loading.

a. Most motors are constructed such that the shaft is accessible to a tachometer or a strobe light.
b. Most motors are designed such that the shaft is accessible to a tachometer or a strobe light.
c. Most motors are planned such that the shaft is accessible to a tachometer or a strobe light.
d. Most motors are calculated such that the shaft is accessible to a tachometer or a strobe light.
76/JNU OLE
Chapter VI
Energy Performance Assessment of Fans and Blowers
Aim
The aim of the chapter is to:
• recognize fans behaviour at different loading conditions
• understand measures to achieve highest fan efficiencies
• interpret how damper control is inefficient compared to the Speed Control of Motor variable speed drive
• learn how to measure air flow in a fan
• state pitot tube and how it is used to measure flow
Objectives
The objective of the chapter is to:
• understand how damper control is inefficient compared to the Speed Control of Motor variable speed drive
• study how to measure air flow in a fan
• recognize pitot tube and how it is used to measure flow
Learning outcome
• distinguish fans behaviour at different loading conditions
• interpret measures to achieve highest fan efficiencies
• recognize how damper control is inefficient compared to the Speed Control of Motor variable speed drive
77/JNU OLE
6.1 Introduction
This section describes the method of testing a fan installed on site in order to determine the performance of the fan
in conjunction with the system to which it is connected.

• The purposes of such a test are to determine, under actual operating conditions, the volume flow rate, the power
input and the total pressure rise across the fan.
• These test results will provide actual value for the flow resistance of the air duct system, which can be compared
with the value specified by supplier.

Static Pressure: The absolute pressure at a point minus the reference atmospheric pressure
Dynamic Pressure: The rise in static pressure which occurs when air moving with specified velocity at a point is
bought to rest without loss of mechanical energy. It is also known as veloc¬ity pressure
Total Pressure: The sum of static pressures and dynamic pressures at a point
Fan Shaft Power: The mechanical power supplied to the fan shaft
Motor Input Power: The electrical power supplied to the terminals of an electric motor drive
6.4 Scope
The procedure describes field testing of centrifugal fans and blowers for assessing performance and efficiency.

British Standard, BS 848 - Fans for general purposes Part 1, Methods of testing performance.
6.6 Field Testing

6.6.1 Instruction for Site Testing
Before site tests are carried out, it should be ensured that:
• fan and its associated equipment are functioning properly, and at the rated speed
• operations are at stable conditions, e.g. steady temperatures, densities, system resistance etc.
6.6.2 Location of Measurement Planes

General:
The flow measurement plane shall be located in any suitable straight length, (preferably on the inlet side of the fan)
where the airflow conditions are substantially axial, symmetrical and free from turbulence. Leakage of air from or
into the air duct shall be negligible between the flow measuring plane and the fan. Bends and obstructions in an
air duct can disturb the airflow for a considerable distance downstream, and should be avoided for the purposes of
the test.
Test length:
That part of the duct in which the flow measurement plane is located, is termed the 'test length' and shall be straight,
of uniform cross section and free from any obstructions which may modify the airflow. It shall have a length equal
to not less than twice the equivalent diameter of the air duct (i.e. 2De). For rectangular duct, equivalent diameter,
De is given by 2 LW/ (L + W) where L, W is the length and width of the duct. For circular ducts De is the same as
diameter of the duct.
78/JNU OLE
Inlet side of the fan:
Where the 'test length' is on the inlet side of the fan, its downstream end shall be at a distance from the fan inlet
equal to at least 0.75De. See Fig 6.1. In the case of a fan having an inlet box, the downstream end of the test length
shall be at a distance from the nearest part of the inlet cone of the fan equal to at least 0.75De.
Outlet side of the fan:

Where the 'test length' is on the outlet side of the fan, the upstream end of the 'test length' shall be at a distance from
the fan outlet of at least 3De. See Fig 6.2. For this purpose, the fan outlet shall be considered as being the outlet of
any expander on the outlet side of the fan.
Location of the Flow Measurement Plane within the 'Test Length': The flow measurement plane shall be located
within the 'test length' at a distance from the downstream end of the 'test length' equal to at least 1.25De.
Location of Pressure Measurement Plane:

For the purpose of determining the pressure rise produced by the fan, the static pressure shall be measured at
planes on the inlet and/or the outlet side of the fan sufficiently close to it to ensure that the pressure losses between
the measuring planes and the fan are calculable in accordance with available friction factor data without adding
excessively to the uncertainty of fan pressure determination.
If conveniently close to the fan, the 'test length' selected for air flow measurement should also be used to pressure
measurement. Other planes used for pressure measurement should be no closer than 0.25De from the fan inlet and no
closer than 4De from the fan outlet. The plane of pressure measurement should be selected at least 4De downstream
of any bend, expander or obstruction which are likely to cause separated flow or otherwise interfere with uniformity
of pressure distribution.
6.6.3 Measurement of Air Velocity on Site

Velocity shall be measured by either pitot tube or a rotating vane anemometer. When in use, the pitot tube shall
be connected by means of airtight tubes to a pressure measuring instrument. The anemometer shall be calibrated
before the test.
Pitot Tube:
Note that separate static connections (A) and total pressure con¬nections (B) can be connected simultaneously across
a manometer (C). Since the static pressure is applied to both sides of the manometer, its effect is cancelled out and
the manometer indicates only the velocity pressure.
In practice this type of measurement is usually made with a Pitot tube which incorporates both static and total
pressure sensors in a single unit. Essentially, a Pitot tube consists of an impact tube (which receives total pressure
input) fastened concentrically inside a second tube of slightly larger diameter which receives static pressure input
from radial sensing holes around the tip. The air space between inner and outer tubes permits transfer of pressure
from the sensing holes to the static pres¬sure connection at the opposite end of the Pitot and then, through connecting
tubing, to the low or negative pressure side of a manometer. When the total pressure tube is connected to the high
pres¬sure side of the manometer, velocity pressure is indicated directly.
To ensure accurate velocity pressure readings, the Pitot tube tip must be pointed directly into (parallel with) the air
stream. As the Pitot tube tip is parallel with the static pressure outlet tube, the latter can be used as a pointer to align
the tip properly. When the Pitot tube is correctly aligned, the pressure indication will be maximum.
Traverse readings:
In practical situations, the velocity of the air stream is not uniform across the cross section of a duct. Friction slows
the air moving close to the walls, so the velocity is greater in the center of the duct.
To obtain the average total velocity in ducts of 100 mm diameter or larger, a series of velocity pressure readings must
be taken at points of equal area. A formal pattern of sensing points across the duct cross section is recommended.
These are known as traverse readings. Fig 6.6 shows recommended Pitot tube locations for traversing round and
rectangular ducts.
79/JNU OLE
In round ducts, velocity pressure readings should be taken at centers of equal concentric areas. At least 20 readings
should be taken along two diameters. In rectangular ducts, a minimum of 16 and a maximum of 64 readings are
taken at centers of equal rectangular areas. Actual velocities for each area are calculated from individual velocity
pressure readings. This allows the readings and velocities to be inspected for errors or inconsistencies. The velocities
are then averaged.
By taking Pitot tube readings with extreme care, air velocity can be determined within an accuracy of ± 2%. For
maximum accuracy, the following precautions should be observed:
Example-Traverse point determination for round duct
Round duct:
Let us calculate various traverse points for a duct of 1 m diameter. From Fig 6.4, for round duct of 1 m diameter
(D). The radius, R is 0.5 m. The various points from the port holes are given below:
Example-Traverse point determination for rectangular duct Rectangular duct: For 1.4 m x 0.8 m rectangular duct,
let us calculate the traverse points. 16 points are to be measured.
Dividing the area 1.4 x 0.8 = 1.12 m2 into 16 equal areas, each area is 0.07 m2. Taking dimensions of 0.35 m x 0.20
m per area, we can now mark the various points in the rectangu¬lar duct as follows:
0.350 0.175
0.1
0.20
0.8 m
0.2
0.35
1.4 m
Fig. 6.1 Traverse point determination for round duct
In small ducts or where traverse operations are otherwise impossible, an accuracy of ± 5% can frequently be achieved
by placing Pitot in center of duct.
Calculation of Velocity: After taking velocity pressures readings, at various traverse points, the velocity corresponding
to each point is calculated using the following expression.
Anemometer: The indicated velocity shall be measured at each traverse point in the cross section by holding the
anemometer stationary at each point for a period of time of not less than 1 minute. Each reading shall be converted
to velocity in m/s and individually corrected in accor¬dance with the anemometer calibration. The arithmetic mean
of the corrected point velocities gives the average velocity in the air duct and the volume flow rate is obtained by
multiplying the area of the air duct by the average velocity.
80/JNU OLE
6.6.4 Determination of Flow
Once the cross-sectional area of the duct is measured, the flow can be calculated as follows:
Flow, (m3/s) = Area (m2) x Velocity (m/s)
6.6.5 Determination of Fan Pressure

General:
Precautions shall be taken so that the measurements of the static pressure on the inlet and outlet sides of the fan are
taken relative to the atmosphere pressure.
Measurement of Static Pressure:

This shall be done by using a manometer in conjunction with the static pressure connection of a pitot tube or a U
tube manometer.
When using a pitot tube it is necessary to carry out a traverse in the pressure measurement plane taking individual
point pressure readings in a manner similar to that for determining flow rate. In general, a smaller number of readings
will be found adequate where individual readings do not vary by more than 2% from each other. The average of
all the individual readings shall be taken as the static pressure of that section.
6.6.6 Determination of Power Input

Power Measurement:
The power measurements can be done using a suitable clamp- on power meter. Alternatively by measuring the amps,
voltage and assuming a power factor of 0.9 the power can be calculated as below:
P = √3 X V X I X CosΦ
Transmission Systems:
The interposition of a transmission system may be unavoidable introducing additional uncertainties. The following
values shall be used as a basis for transmis¬sion efficiency in the case of drives rated at 20 kW and above unless
other reliable information is available:
Other Prime Movers:

When the fan forms one unit with a non-electric prime mover it is rec¬ommended that the fuel consumption (oil,
steam, compressed air etc.) should be specified and determined in place of the overall power.
81/JNU OLE
Summary
• Fans have an operating curve given by the manufacturer. These are based on the design.
• The fans form part of a system and the system also has its own curve called the system curve.
• These two curves are plotted on a common graph and the best operating point for the fan is worked out.
• But in practice, process conditions do not remain the same and depending on the situations the fan has to be
operated under different loading conditions.
• Once the operating point gets shifted, the performance of the fan changes as per the affinity laws.
• One of the most important features is attending to leakages in the system. Other measures include proper
maintenance, flow control by the most appropriate method.
• From the system curves it is clear that reducing the damper opening the fan flow gets reduced but the power
does not reduce in that proportion.
• Where as if the same flow control if achieved through speed reduction, the power input also goes down
considerably.
• How to measure air flow in a fan A pitot tube is used to convert the velocity head into a differential pressure
across the manometer.
• This is converted into a flow by using formulae.
Recommended Reading
• Frank Bleier(1997), Fan Handbook: Selection, Application, and Design, McGraw-Hill Professional; 1 edition,
p 640
• William Cory, Fans and Ventilation: A practical guide, Elsevier Science; 1 edition, p 424
82/JNU OLE
Self Assessment

1. ___________pressure is the absolute pressure at a point minus the reference atmospheric pressure.
a. Static
b. Dynamic
c. Total
d. Fan shaft
2. ____________ pressure is the sum of static pressures and dynamic pressures at a point.
a. Static
b. Dynamic
c. Total
d. Fan shaft
3. _______________ pressure is the rise in static pressure which occurs when air moving with specified velocity
at a point is bought to rest without loss of mechanical energy. It is also known as velocity pressure.
a. Static
b. Dynamic
c. Total
d. Fan shaft
4. The flow measurement plane shall be located within the 'test length' at a distance from the downstream end of
the 'test length' equal to at least_________.
a. 1.25De
b. 1.35De
c. 1.45De
d. 1.15De
5. Dynamic pressure is also known as ____________ pressure.

a. static
b. velocity
c. total
d. fan shaft
B] True or False

a. In practical situations, the velocity of the air stream is uniform across the cross section of a duct.
b. In practical situations, the velocity of the air stream is not uniform across the cross section of a duct.
c. In practical situations, the velocity of the water stream is not uniform across the cross section of a duct.
d. In practical situations, the velocity of the heat stream is not uniform across the cross section of a duct.
83/JNU OLE

a. Friction slows the air moving close to the walls, so the velocity is less at the sides of the duct.
b. Friction slows the air moving close to the walls, so the velocity is greater in the centre of the duct.
c. Friction slows the air moving close to the walls, so the velocity is less in the centre of the duct.
d. Friction slows the air moving close to the walls, so the velocity is greater at the sides of the duct.

a. Fan shaft power is the mechanical power supplied to the fan shaft
b. Motor input power is the mechanical power supplied to the fan shaft
c. Dynamic pressure is the mechanical power supplied to the fan shaft
d. Total pressure is the mechanical power supplied to the fan shaft

a. Fan shaft power is the electrical power supplied to the terminals of an electric motor drive.
b. Motor input power is the electrical power supplied to the terminals of an electric motor drive.
c. Dynamic pressure is the electrical power supplied to the terminals of an electric motor drive.
d. Static pressure is the electrical power supplied to the terminals of an electric motor drive.

a. Static pressure is the absolute pressure at a point minus the reference atmospheric pressure.
b. Dynamic pressure is the absolute pressure at a point minus the reference atmospheric pressure.
c. Total pressure is the absolute pressure at a point minus the reference atmospheric pressure.
d. Fan shaft pressure is the absolute pressure at a point minus the reference atmospheric pressure.
84/JNU OLE
Chapter VII
Energy Performance Assessment of Water Pumps
Aim
• learn various losses in motor and understand how to estimate them
• understand performance terms and definitions of water pumps
• analyze effect of rewinding on motors
• determine how partially loaded motors consume more power and are less efficient
• analyze energy efficient motor and learn how the losses in this type of motor are reduced
Objectives
• recognize performance terms and definitions of water pumps
• examine effect of rewinding on motors
• learn how partially loaded motors consume more power and are less efficient
• study energy efficient motor and learn how the losses in this type of motor are reduced
Learning outcome
• describe various losses in motor and understand how to estimate them
• interpret performance terms and definitions of water pumps
• determine effect of rewinding on motors
• verify how partially loaded motors consume more power and are less efficient
85/JNU OLE
7.1 Introduction
Pumping is the process of addition of kinetic and potential energy to a liquid for the purpose of moving it from
one point to another. This energy will cause the liquid to do work such as flow through a pipe or rise to a higher
level. A centrifugal pump transforms mechanical energy from a rotating impeller into a kinetic and potential energy
required by the system.
The most critical aspect of energy efficiency in a pumping system is matching of pumps to loads. Hence even if an
efficient pump is selected, but if it is a mismatch to the system then the pump will operate at very poor efficiencies.
In addition efficiency drop can also be expected over time due to deposits in the impellers. Performance assessment
of pumps would reveal the existing operating efficiencies in order to take corrective action.

Determination of the pump efficiency during the operating condition
Determination of system resistance and the operating duty point of the pump and compare the same with design.

Pump Capacity, Q = Volume of liquid delivered by pump per unit time, m3/hr or m3/sec Q is proportional to N,
where N- rotational speed of the pump
Total developed head, H = the difference of discharge and suction pressure
The pump head represents the net work done on unit weights of a liquid in passing from inlet of the pump to the
discharge of the pump.
There are three heads in common use in pumps namely;

• Static head
• Velocity head
• Friction head
The frictional head in a system of pipes, valves and fittings varies as a function (roughly as the square) of the
capacity flow through the system.
System resistance: The sum of frictional head in resistance and total static head.
Pump efficiency = Hydraulic power Ph

X 100
Power input to the pump shaft
Where,
Hydraulic power Ph (kW) = Q x (hd - hs) x p x g / 1000
Q = Volume flow rate (m3 / s), p = density of fluid (kg/m3), g = acceleration due to gravity (m/s2),
(hd-hs) = Total head in meters
Pump Efficiency: Fluid power and useful work done by the pump divided by the power input in the pump shaft.
7.4 Field Testing for Determination of Pump Efficiency

To determine the pump efficiency, three key parameters are required: Flow, Head and Power. Of these, flow
measurement is the most crucial parameter as normally online flow meters are hardly available, in a majority of
pumping system. The following methods outlined below can be adopted to measure the flow depending on the
availability and site conditions.
86/JNU OLE
7.4.1 Flow Measurement, Q
The following are the methods for flow measurements:
• Tracer method BS5857
• Ultrasonic flow measurement
• Tank filling method
• Installation of an on-line flow meter
Tracer method
The Tracer method is particularly suitable for cooling water flow measurement because of their sensitivity and
accuracy.
This method is based on injecting a tracer into the cooling water for a few minutes at an accurately measured constant
rate. A series of samples is extracted from the system at a point where the tracer has become completely mixed with
the cooling water. The mass flow rate is calculated from:
qcw = q1 x C1/C2
where qcw = cooling water mass flow rate, kg/s
q1 = mass flow rate of injected tracer, kg/s
C1 = concentration of injected tracer, kg/kg
C2 = concentration of tracer at downstream position during the 'plateau' period of constant concentration, kg/kg
The tracer normally used is sodium chloride.
Ultrasonic flow meter

Operating under Doppler effect principle these meters are non-invasive, meaning measurements can be taken without
disturbing the system. Scales and rust in the pipes are likely to impact the accuracy.
Ensure measurements are taken in a sufficiently long length of pipe free from flow disturbance due to bends, tees
and other fittings.
The pipe section where measurement is to be taken should be hammered gently to enable scales and rusts to fall
out.
For better accuracy, a section of the pipe can be replaced with new pipe for flow measurements.
Tank filing method

In open flow systems such as water getting pumped to an overhead tank or a sump, the flow can be measured by
noting the difference in tank levels for a specified period during which the outlet flow from the tank is stopped.
The internal tank dimensions should be preferable taken from the design drawings, in the absence of which direct
measurements may be resorted to.
Installation of an on-line flow meter

If the application to be measured is going to be critical and periodic then the best option would be to install an on-
line flow meter which can get rid of the major problems encountered with other types.
7.4.2 Determination of Total Head, H

Suction head (hs)
This is taken from the pump inlet pressure gauge readings and the value to be converted in to meters (1kg/cm2 =
10. m). If not the level difference between sump water level to the center-line of the pump is to be measured. This
gives the suction head in meters.
Discharge head (hd)

This is taken from the pump discharge side pressure gauge. Installation of the pressure gauge in the discharge side
is a must, if not already available.
7.4.3 Determination of Hydraulic Power (Liquid Horse Power),

Hydraulic power Ph(kW) = Q x (hd – hs) x ρ x g / 1000
87/JNU OLE
Q = Volume flow rate (m3/s)

ρ = density of the fluid (kg/m3)
g = acceleration due to gravity (m/s2)
(hd - hs) = Total head in metres
7.4.4 Measurement of Motor Input Power

The motor input power Pm can be measured by using a portable power analyser.
7.4.5 Pump Shaft Power

The pump shaft power Ps is calculated by multiplying the motor input power by motor efficiency at the existing
loading.
Ps = Pm x ηMotor
7.4.6 Pump Efficiency

This is arrived at by dividing the hydraulic power by pump shaft power
ηPump=
Example of pump efficiency calculation

Illustration of calculation method outlined.
A chemical plant operates a cooling water pump for process cooling and refrigeration applications. During the
performance testing the following operating parameters were measured;
Measured data
• Pump flow, Q 0.40 m3/ s
• Power absorbed, P 325 kW
• Suction head (Tower basin level), h1 +1 M
• Delivery head, h2 55 M
• Height of cooling tower 5 M
• Motor efficiency 88 %
• Type of drive Direct coupled
• Density of water 996 kg/ m3
Pump efficiency
• Flow delivered by the pump 0.40 m3/s
• Total head, h2 – (+h1) 54 M
• Hydraulic power 0.40 x 54 x 996 x 9.81/1000 = 211 kW
• Actual power consumption 325 kW
• Overall system efficiency (211 x 100) / 325 = 65 %
• Pump efficiency 65/0.88 = 74 %
7.5 Determining the System Resistance and Duty Point

Determination of the system resistance curve and imposing the pump curve over it will give an idea of the operating
efficiency of the pump and also the drop in efficiencies when the system curve changes from normal / design. The
example following from the earlier example outlines the method of constructing a system curve.
Example:
Location of equipments
The Refrigeration plant is located at +0.00 level and the Process plant condensers are located at +15 M level. One
cooler having a design pressure drop of 1.9 kg/cm2 is located at the 0.00 level (ground level). Other relevant data
can be inferred from the earlier section. See schematic in Fig.7.1.
88/JNU OLE
7.6 Determining the System Resistance and Duty Point
Condenser
hc = 5 he = 15
Reactor
5m hc = 5 he = 5
Cooler
hc = 19 he = 0
hc = Static head he = Equipment pressure drop
Fig. 7.1 System resistance and duty point
The step-by-step approach for determining system resistance curve is given below;
Step-1 Divide system resistance into Static and dynamic head
Find static head;
Static head (Condenser floor height); 15M
Find dynamic head;
Dynamic Head = Total Head – Static Head
Dynamic head = (54–15) = 39 M
Step-2 Check the maximum resistance circuit

Resistance in the different circuits is as under
S. no System Condenser loop Reactor loop Cooler loop

resistance, M resistance, M resistance, M
1. Supply line from 15 10 15
pump
2. Static head 15 5 Nil (cooler at
ground level)
3. Equipment 5 5 19
4. Return line from 15 10 15
equipment to CT
5. Tower head - - 5
6. Total 50 30 54
Table 7.1 Resistance in the different circuits
It can be noted that at full load the condenser and cooler circuits offer the maximum resis¬tance to flow.
89/JNU OLE
Step -3 Draw system resistance curve

Choose the condenser loop as it offers maximum resistance and is also having a static head component
Static head: 15 M
Dynamic head at full load; 39 M
Compute system resistance at different flow rates
Sr. No. Flow % Dynamic Head = 39 Static Head (M) Total Head (M)
X (%flow)
1. 100 39 15 54
2. 75 21.9 15 36.9
3. 50 9.75 15 24.75
4. 25 2.44 15 17.44
Table 7.2 System resistance at different flow rates
Step - 4
Plot the system resistance against flow in the pump efficiency curves provided by the vendor and compares actual
operating duty point and see whether it operates at maximum efficiency. In the example provided it is found that
the pump system efficiency is lower by 4 % due to change in operating conditions.
60
50
40
Head (M)
30
20
10
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Flow (%)
Fig. 7.2 System resistance curve
90/JNU OLE
Summary
• Pumps can be classified into two categories viz centrifugal and reciprocating. Centrifugal pumps are normally
preferred for low pressure and high flow requirements whereas, reciprocating pumps provide higher pressure
and low flow.
• The affinity laws are relations between Power, Pressure, Flow and Speed.
• System resistance is an obstruction to flow. This is mainly caused by various components like pipes, valves,
flanges, bends, etc.
• Each of them presents resistance in the form of a pressure drop across it and consumes energy. Hence it is
essential to reduce the system resistance to a bare minimum possible.
• The flow can be controlled by various methods. The best method depends on the type of the application and
the operating point.
• The strategy should be well planned so that maximum efficiency can be achieved.
• Many opportunities exist for energy savings in pumping systems.
• These include reduction in system resistance, preventing leakages, checking foot valve, impeller trimming, and
speed control.
• Again speed control can be by pulley change, dual speed motor, variable speed drive, etc.
• The best operating point for a pump is the intersection of Pump Performance Curves and the operating
characteristics of the Pump as given by the manufacturer.
Recommended Reading
• James Rishel, Water Pumps and Pumping Systems , McGraw-Hill Professional; 1 edition, p 912
• Arthur Williams(2004), Pumps as Turbines: A User's Guide, Practical Action; 2nd edition, p 80
91/JNU OLE
Self Assessment
Fill in the blanks.
1. Pumping is the process of _________________ of kinetic and potential energy to a liquid for the purpose of
moving it from one point to another.
a. addition
b. subtraction
c. division
d. multiplication
2. Pump efficiency is fluid power and useful work done by the pump divided by the power__________ in the
pump shaft.
a. input
b. output
c. entered
d. produced
3. The _______________ is particularly suitable for cooling water flow measurement because of their sensitivity
and accuracy.
a. tank filling method
b. tracer method
c. pump capacity
d. system resistance
4. The tracer normally used is _________________.

a. hydrogen chloride
b. sodium chloride
c. calcium chloride
d. potassium chloride
5. A chemical plant operates a _______________ water pump for process cooling and refrigeration
applications.
a. cooling
b. heating
c. boiling
d. temperature
B] True or False
a. A centrifugal pump transforms mechanical energy from a rotating impeller into a thermal and solar energy
b. A centrifugal pump transforms mechanical energy from a rotating impeller into a kinetic and potential energy
c. A centrifugal pump adds mechanical energy from a rotating impeller into a kinetic and potential energy
d. A centrifugal pump transforms thermal energy from a rotating impeller into a kinetic and potential energy
92/JNU OLE
a. The motor output power Pm can be measured by using a portable power analyser.
b. The motor input power Pm can be measured by using a portable power analyser.
c. The motor input power Pm cannot be measured by using a portable power analyser.
d. The motor output power Pm cannot be measured by using a portable power analyser.

a. The pump head represents the net work done on unit weights of a steam in passing from inlet of the pump
to the discharge of the pump.
b. The pump head represents the net work done on unit weights of a liquid in passing from outlet of the pump
c. The pump head represents the net work done on unit weights of a steam in passing from inlet of the pump
d. The pump head represents the net work done on unit weights of a liquid in passing from inlet of the pump

a. Total developed head, H = the subtraction of discharge and suction pressure.
b. Total developed head, H = the multiplication of discharge and suction pressure.
c. Total developed head, H = the addition of discharge and suction pressure.
d. Total developed head, H = the difference of discharge and suction pressure.

a. Pump efficiency=fluid power and useful work done by the pump subtracted by the power input in the pump
shaft.
b. Pump efficiency=fluid power and useful work done by the pump added by the power input in the pump
shaft.
c. Pump efficiency=fluid power and useful work done by the pump divided by the power input in the pump
shaft.
d. Pump efficiency=fluid power and useful work done by the pump multiplied by the power input in the pump
shaft.
93/JNU OLE
Chapter VIII
Energy Performance Assessment of Compressors
Aim
• understand purpose of the performance test of compressor
• analyze performance terms and definitions of compressor
• recognize concept of field testing
• identify calculation procedure for nozzle method

Objectives
• recognize purpose of the performance test of compressor
• examine performance terms and definitions of compressor
• identify concept of field testing

Learning outcome
• describe performance terms and definitions of compressor
• recognize concept of field testing
• identify calculation procedure for nozzle method
94/JNU OLE
8.1 Introduction
The compressed air system is not only an energy intensive utility but also one of the least energy efficient. Over
a period of time, both performance of compressors and compressed air system reduces drastically. The causes are
many such as poor maintenance, wear and tear etc. All these lead to additional compressors installations leading to
more inefficiency. A periodic performance assessment is essential to minimize the cost of compressed air.

Purpose of the Performance Test is to find out the following:
• Actual Free Air Delivery (FAD) of the compressor
• Isothermal power required
• Volumetric efficiency
• Specific power requirement
The actual performance of the plant is to be compared with design / standard values for assessing the plant energy
efficiency.

Compression ratio:
Absolute discharge pressure of last stage
Isothermal power:
• It is the least power required to compress the air assuming isothermal conditions.
Isothermal efficiency:
• The ratio of Isothermal power to shaft power
Volumetric efficiency:
• The ratio of free air delivered to compressor swept volume
Specific power requirement:
• The ratio of power consumption (in kW) to the volume delivered at ambient conditions.
8.4 Field Testing

8.4.1 Measurement of Free Air Delivery (FAD) by Nozzle method
Principle:
If specially shaped nozzle discharge air to the atmosphere from a receiver getting its supply from a compressor, sonic
flow conditions sets in at the nozzle throat for a particular ratio of upstream pressure (receiver) to the downstream
pressure (atmospheric) i.e. Mach number equals one.
When the pressure in the receiver is kept constant for reasonable intervals of time, the airflow output of the compressor
is equal to that of the nozzle and can be calculated from the known characteristic of the nozzle.
8.4.2 Arrangement of Test Equipment

The arrangement of test equipment and measuring device shall confirm to Fig.8.1.
8.4.3 Nozzle Sizes

The following sizes of nozzles are recommended for the range of capacities indicated below:
95/JNU OLE
Nozzle size (mm) Capacity (m3/hr)

6 3–9
10 9 –30
16 27 –90
22 60 – 170
33 130 – 375
50 300 – 450
80 750 – 2000
125 1800 – 5500
Table 8.1 Flow nozzle: Flow nozzle with profile as desired in IS 10431:1994 and dimensions
8.4.4 Measurements and Duration of the Test

The compressor is started with the air from the receiver discharging to the atmosphere through the flow nozzle.
It should be ensured that the pressure drop through the throttle valve should be equal to or twice the pressure
beyond the throttle. After the system is stabilized the following measurements are carried out:
• Receiver pressure
• Pressure and temperature before the nozzle
• Pressure drop across the nozzle
• Speed of the compressor kW, kWh and amps drawn by the compressor.
The above readings are taken for the 40%, 60%, 100% and 110% of discharge pressure values. The various measuring
instruments required for test include:
Thermometers or Thermocouple
Pressure gauges or Manometers
Differential pressure gauges or Manometers
Standard Nozzle
Psychomotor
Tachometer/stroboscope
Electrical demand analyser
P1 T1 P2
Filter
Air Receiver
Compressor
P4 P3 T3
Throttle
valve
Nozzle
P3 P4 Flow
Discharge to straightener
atmosphere Bypass
Fig 8.1 Test Arrangement for measurement of compressed air flow
96/JNU OLE
8.5 Calculation Procedure for Nozzle Method
Step I.
k : Flow coefficient – as per IS
d : Nozzle diameter M
T1 : Absolute inlet temperature oK
P1 : Absolute inlet pressure kg/cm2
P3 : Absolute Pressure before nozzle kg/cm2
T3 : Absolute temperature before nozzle oK
Ra : Gas constant for air 287.1 J/kg k
P3-P4 : Differential pressure across the nozzle kg/cm2
Step II.
Isothermal Efficiency = Isothermal power / Input power
P1 = Absolute intake pressure kg/ cm2

Qf = Free air delivered m3/hr.
r = Pressure ratio P2/P1
Step III.
Step IV.
D = Cylinder bore, metre

L = Cylinder stroke, metre
S = Compressor speed rpm
χ = 1 for single acting and 2 for double acting cylinders
n = No. of cylinders
8.6 Example
Calculation of Isothermal Efficiency for a Reciprocating Air Compressor
Step I: Calculate Volumetric Flow Rate

k : Flow coefficient (Assumed as 1)
d : Nozzle diameter : 0.08 metre
P2 : Receiver Pressure - 3.5 kg / cm2 (a)
P1 : Inlet Pressure - 1.04 kg / cm2(a)
T1 : Inlet air temperature 30OC or 303oK
P3 : Pressure before nozzle – 1.08 kg / cm2
T3 : Temperature before the nozzle 40oC or 313oK
P3 – P4 : Pressure drop across the nozzle = 0.036 kg / cm2
Ra : Gas constant : 287 Joules / kg K
97/JNU OLE
= 0.391 m3/sec
= 1407.6 m3 / h.
Step II: Calculate Isothermal Power Requirement
P1 - Absolute intake pressure = 1.04 kg / cm2 (a)

Qf -Free Air Delivered = 1407.6 m3 / h.
Compression ratio,
Step III: Calculate Isothermal Efficiency

Motor input power = 100 kW
Motor and drive efficiency = 86 %
Compressor input power = 86 kW
Isothermal efficiency = Isothermal Power x 100
Compressor input Power
= 48.34 x 100 = 56%
86.0
8.7 Assessment of Specific Power requirement

Specific power consumption = Actual power consumed by the compressor
Measured Free Air Delivery
In the above example the measured flow is 1407.6 m3/hr and actual power consumption is 100 kW.
Specific power requirement = 100
1407.6
= 0.071 kW/m3/hr
8.8 Measurement of FAD by Pump Up Method

Another way of determining the Free Air Delivery of the compressor is by Pump Up Method - also known as receiver
filling method. Although this is less accurate, this can be adopted where the elaborate nozzle method is difficult to
be deployed.
Simple method of capacity assessment in shop floor

• Isolate the compressor along with its individual receiver being taken for test from main compressed air system
by tightly closing the isolation valve or blanking it, thus closing the receiver outlet.
• Open water drain valve and drain out water fully and empty the receiver and the pipeline. Make sure that water
trap line is tightly closed once again to start the test.
• Start the compressor and activate the stopwatch.
• Note the time taken to attain the normal operational pressure P2 (in the receiver) from initial pressure P1.
• Calculate the capacity as per the formulae given below:
98/JNU OLE
Actual Free air discharge
where,
P2 = Final pressure after filling (kg/cm2 a)
P1 = Initial pressure (kg/cm2a) after bleeding
P0 = Atmospheric Pressure (kg/cm2 a)
V = Storage volume in m3 which includes receiver, after cooler, and delivery piping
T = Time take to build up pressure to P2 in minutes
The above equation is relevant where the compressed air temperature is same as the ambient air temperature, i.e.,
perfect isothermal compression. In case the actual compressed air temperature at discharge, say t20C is higher than
ambient air temperature say t10C (as is usual case), the FAD is to be corrected by a factor (273 + t1) / (273 + t2).
Example
An instrument air compressor capacity test gave the following results (assume the final compressed air temperature
is same as the ambient temperature) – Comment?
Piston displacement: 16.88 m3/minute
Theoretical compressor capacity: 14.75 m3/minute @ 7 kg/cm2
Compressor rated rpm 750 : Motor rated rpm : 1445
Receiver Volume : 7.79 m3
Additional hold up volume, i.e., pipe / water cooler, etc., is : 0.4974 m3
Total volume : 8.322 m3
Initial pressure P1 : 0.5 kg/cm2
Final pressure P2 : 7.03 kg/cm2
Atmospheric pressure P0 : 1.026 kg/cm2,a
Compressor output m3/minute:
: = 13.17 m3/minute
Capacity shortfall with respect to 14.75 m3/minute rating is 1.577 m3/minute.

i.e., 10.69 %, which indicates compressor performance needs to be investigated further.
99/JNU OLE
Summary
• Compressed air is the costliest utility and hence wastage of this air is very expensive. Not only this, it should
be used only when necessary and for proper application. Its cost also depends on the investment done in the
compressor.
• Hence the cost of compressed air depends on the compressor that produces the compressed utility and hence
the utilization should be very judicious.
• But plant utility compressed air is costlier than that produced from a garage compressor. Hence for filling air
into vehicles which is a lower end application compressed air only from a garage compressor should be used.
• The various components such as filters, regulator, lubricator, pressure gauge, moisture trap and piping form
various components of the compressed air system.
• The performance of each of them does affect the overall performance of the system.
• The leakage test gives an idea about the load and no load timings and performance of the compressor.
• The utilization points of the compressed air are completely shut off and the compressor is started.
• Slowly the receiver tank starts building up the pressure. As soon as a preset value of pressure is reached, the
compressor goes into unload operation.
• This running time is noted. After meeting all the requirements of leakages, slowly the receiver pressure drops
and again at lower pressure the compressor comes into load operation.
• This time is noted as unload period. From these values, the specific energy consumption can be worked out by
noting electrical consumption in both cases.
• In load and unload operation, the motor continues to run whereas the compressor does not deliver the output.
In on/off operation, the motor itself is switched off.
• In olden days when soft starters were not available, the starting and stopping of a motor used to be more expensive
from the motor life point of view.
• But with the advent of the soft starter and the cost of no load consumption also becoming appreciable, most of
the installations prefer on/off operation.
• However, where the capacity is too small and retrofitting cost is high, still load and unload operation is
continued.
• The soft starter is a device which starts the motor smoothly and controls the starting current of a motor.
• It can be programmed to suit the requirements of the end user. There are two types of soft starters.
• One is without energy saving feature which is useful only in starting. The other with the energy saving feature
which is useful in starting as well as in running.
Recommended Reading
• Bloch, Calculation Procedure for Nozzle Method, Wiley-Interscience; 2 edition, p 590
• Royce Brown, Compressors, Third Edition: Selection and Sizing , Gulf Professional Publishing; 3 edition,
p640
• Anthony Giampaolo, Compressor Handbook: Principles and Practice, CRC Press; 1 edition, p300
100/JNU OLE
Self Assessment

1. A periodic performance assessment is essential to _________________the cost of compressed air.
a. minimize
b. maximize
c. reduce
d. exploit
2. Another way of determining the Free Air Delivery of the compressor is by Pump Up Method - also known as
____________________.
a. sender filling method
b. receiver filling method
c. receiver refilling method
d. sender refilling method
3. The compressed air system is not only an ____________intensive utility but also one of the least energy
efficient.
a. energy
b. heat
c. temperature
d. power
4. The compressor is ___________ with the air from the receiver discharging to the atmosphere through the flow
nozzle.
a. started
b. stopped
c. paused
d. closed
5. It should be ensured that the pressure drop through the throttle valve should be ________________the pressure
beyond the throttle.
a. equal to or thrice
b. equal to or twice
c. equal
d. twice
B] True or False

a. The compressor is started with the steam from the receiver discharging to the atmosphere through the flow
nozzle.
b. The compressor is started with the air from the receiver discharging to the atmosphere through the flow
nozzle.
c. The compressor is started with the heat from the receiver discharging to the atmosphere through the flow
nozzle.
d. The compressor is started with the energy from the receiver discharging to the atmosphere through the flow
nozzle.
101/JNU OLE

a. When the pressure in the receiver is kept irregular for reasonable intervals of time, the airflow output of
the compressor is equal to that of the nozzle and can be calculated from the known characteristic of the
nozzle.
b. When the pressure in the receiver is kept constant for reasonable intervals of time, the airflow output of
the compressor is equal to that of the nozzle and can be calculated from the known characteristic of the
nozzle.
c. When the pressure in the receiver is kept constant for reasonable intervals of time, the steam flow output
of the compressor is equal to that of the nozzle and can be calculated from the known characteristic of the
nozzle.
d. When the pressure in the receiver is kept constant for reasonable intervals of time, the steam flow output
of the compressor is not equal to that of the nozzle and can be calculated from the known characteristic of
the nozzle.

a. The compressor is started with the air from the receiver discharging to the atmosphere through the flow
nozzle.
b. The compressor is stopped with the air from the receiver discharging to the atmosphere through the flow
nozzle.
c. The compressor is started with the steam from the receiver discharging to the atmosphere through the flow
nozzle.
d. The compressor is started with the heat from the receiver discharging to the atmosphere through the flow
nozzle.

a. A periodic performance assessment is essential to exploit the cost of compressed air.
b. A periodic performance assessment is essential to reduce the cost of compressed air.
c. A periodic performance assessment is essential to maximize the cost of compressed air.
d. A periodic performance assessment is essential to minimize the cost of compressed air.

a. It should be ensured that the pressure drop through the throttle valve should be equal to or twice the pressure
b. It should be ensured that the pressure drop through the throttle valve should be equal to or thrice the pressure
c. It should be ensured that the pressure drop through the throttle valve should be equal the pressure beyond
the throttle.
d. It should be ensured that the pressure drop through the throttle valve should be twice the pressure beyond
the throttle.
102/JNU OLE
Chapter IX
Energy Performance Assessment of HVAC Systems
Aim
• recognize purpose of the performance test
• understand performance terms and definitions of Hvac Systems
• understand various parameters, particularly COP in the HVAC system
• identify various tests to be conducted while assessing the performance of the HVAC system
• classify energy saving opportunities in HVAC system
Objectives
• distinguish purpose of the performance test
• recognize performance terms and definitions of Hvac Systems
• identify various parameters, particularly COP in the HVAC system
• classify various tests to be conducted while assessing the performance of the HVAC system
Learning outcome
• interpret performance terms and definitions of Hvac Systems
• describe various parameters, particularly COP in the HVAC system
• describe various tests to be conducted while assessing the performance of the HVAC system
• classify energy saving opportunities in HVAC system
103/JNU OLE
9.1 Introduction
Air conditioning and refrigeration consume significant amount of energy in buildings and in process industries. The
energy consumed in air conditioning and refrigeration systems is sensitive to load changes, seasonal variations,
operation and maintenance, ambient conditions etc. Hence the performance evaluation will have to take into account
to the extent possible all these factors.

The purpose of performance assessment is to verify the performance of a refrigeration system by using field
measurements. The test will measure net cooling capacity (tons of refrigeration) and energy requirements, at the
actual operating conditions. The objective of the test is to estimate the energy consumption at actual load vis-à-vis
design conditions.

Tons of refrigeration (TR): One ton of refrigeration is the amount of cooling obtained by one ton of ice melting
in one day: 3024 kCal/h, 12,000 Btu/h or 3.516 thermal kW.
Net Refrigerating Capacity: A quantity defined as the mass flow rate of the evaporator water multiplied by the
difference in enthalpy of water entering and leaving the cooler, expressed in kCal/h, tons of Refrigeration.
kW/ton rating: Commonly referred to as efficiency, but actually power input to compressor motor divided by tons
of cooling produced, or kilowatts per ton (kW/ton). Lower kW/ton indicates higher efficiency.
Coefficient of Performance (COP): Chiller efficiency measured in Btu output (cooling) divided by Btu input (electric
power).
Energy Efficiency Ratio (EER): Performance of smaller chillers and rooftop units is frequently measured in EER
rather than kW/ton. EER is calculated by dividing a chiller's cooling capacity (in Btu/h) by its power input (in watts)
at full-load conditions. The higher the EER, the more efficient the unit.
9.4 Preparatory for Measurements

After establishing that steady-state conditions, three sets of data shall be taken, at a minimum of five-minute intervals.
To minimize the effects of transient conditions, test readings should be taken as nearly simultaneously.
9.5 Procedure
9.5.1 To determine the net refrigeration capacity
The test shall include a measurement of the net heat removed from the water as it passes through the evaporator
by determination of the following:
a. Water flow rate

b. Temperature difference between entering and leaving water
The heat removed from the chilled water is equal to the product of the chilled water flow rate, the water temperature
difference, and the specific heat of the water is defined as follows
The net refrigeration capacity in tons shall be obtained by the following equation:
Where,
m– mass flow rate of chilled water, kg/hr
cp - Specific heat, kcal/kg oC
tin – Chilled water temperature at evaporator inlet oC
tout - Chilled water temperature at evaporator outlet oC
The accurate temperature measurement is very vital in refrigeration and air conditioning and least count should be
at least one decimal.
104/JNU OLE
Methods of measuring the flow
In the absence of an on-line flow meter the chilled water flow can be measured by the following methods
• In case where hot well and cold well are available, the flow can be measured from the tank level dip or rise by
switching off the secondary pump.
• Non invasive method would require a well calibrated ultrasonic flow meter using which the flow can be measured
without disturbing the system
• If the waterside pressure drops are close to the design values, it can be assumed that the water flow of pump is
same as the design rated flow.
9.5.2 Measurement of Compressor Power

The compressor power can be measured by a portable power analyser which would give reading directly in kW.
If not, the ampere has to be measured by the available on-line ammeter or by using a tong tester. The power can
then be calculated by assuming a power factor of 0.9
Power (kW) = √3 x V x I x cosφ
9.5.3 Performance Calculations

The energy efficiency of chillers is commonly expressed in one of the three following ratios:
First calculate the kW/ton rating from the measured parameters.
a)
Use this data to calculate other energy efficiency parameters with the following relations
COP = 0.293 EER EER = 3.413 COP
kW/Ton = 12 / EER EER = 12 / (kW/Ton)
kW/Ton = 3.516 / COP COP = 3.516 / (kW/Ton)
* Source: American Refrigeration Institute
b)
c)
9.5.4 Performance Evaluation of Air Conditioning Systems

For centralized air conditioning systems the air flow at the air handling unit (AHU) can be measured with an
anemometer. The dry bulb and wet bulb temperatures can be measured at the AHU inlet and outlet. The data can
be used along with a psychometric chart (Fig. 9.1) to determine the enthalpy (heat content of air at the AHU inlet
and outlet)
m – mass flow rate of air, kg/hr

hin – enthalpy of inlet air at AHU, kJ/kg
hout – enthalpy of outlet air at AHU, kJ/kg
Heat load can also be calculated theoretically by estimating the various heat loads, both sensible and latent, in the
air-conditioned room (refer standard air conditioning handbooks). The difference between these two indicates the
losses by way of leakages, unwanted loads, heat ingress etc.
105/JNU OLE
9.6 Measurements to be Recorded During the Test

All instruments, including gauges and thermometers shall be calibrated over the range of test readings for the
measurement of following parameters.
Evaporator
a. Temperature of water entering evaporator
b. Temperature of water leaving evaporator
c. Chilled water flow rates
d. Evaporator water pressure drop (inlet to outlet)
Compressor
e. Power input to compressor electrical power, kW
9.7 Example
In a brewery chilling system, ethylene glycol is used a secondary refrigerant. The designed capacity is 40 TR. A
test was conducted to find out the operating capacity and energy performance ratios. The flow was measured by
switching off the secondary pump and measuring the tank level difference in hot well.
Measurements data
Temperature of ethylene glycol entering evaporator = (-) 1oC
Temperature of ethylene glycol leaving evaporator = (-) 4 oC
Ethylene glycol flow rates = 13200 kg/hr
Evaporator ethylene glycol pressure drop (inlet to outlet) = 0.7 kg/cm2
Power input to compressor electrical power, kW = 39.5 kW
Specific heat capacity of ethylene glycol = 2.34 kCal/kgoC
Calculations
= 30.65 TR
=3.516
1.29
=2.73
=12 / 1.29
=9.3
106/JNU OLE
Summary
• TR is a measure of refrigeration capacity.
• One TR means heat rate that will melt one ton of ice in 24 Hours. Remember this ton is the short ton and not
the metric tonne. Thus 1 TR means 3024 kCal/Hr.
• Various types of refrigeration systems and refrigerant used. These are vapour Compression Refrigeration,
Absorption Refrigeration.
• Energy Efficiency opportunities in these types of systems. The energy efficiency of such systems depends a lot
on the refrigerant used, leakages in the system, type and quality of insulation, etc.
• Each of them presents a number of ways and opportunities in energy savings.
• COP is coefficient of Performance. It is the ratio of the cooling effect in KW to the Power Input to the
Compressor.
Recommended Reading
• William Bobenhausen, Simplified Design of HVAC Systems, Wiley-Interscience; 1 edition, p 448
• David W. Bearg, Indoor Air Quality and HVAC Systems, CRC Press; 1 edition, p 240
• Robert McDowall, Fundamentals of HVAC Systems: SI Edition Hardbound Book, Elsevier Science; SI Ed
edition, p 240
107/JNU OLE
Self Assessment

1. Air conditioning and refrigeration consume significant amount of _____________in buildings and in process
industries.
a. energy
b. heat
c. temperature
d. fuel
2. One ton of refrigeration is the amount of cooling obtained by one ton of ice melting in one day:_____________,
12,000 Btu/h or 3.516 thermal kW.
a. 3034 kCal/h
b. 3024 kCal/h
c. 3084 kCal/h
d. 3054 kCal/h
3. A _____________defined as the mass flow rate of the evaporator water multiplied by the difference in enthalpy
of water entering and leaving the cooler, expressed in kCal/h, tons of Refrigeration.
a. quality
b. quantity
c. amount
d. value
4. Coefficient of Performance (COP) = Chiller efficiency measured in Btu output (cooling) _______________
Btu input (electric power).
a. multiplied by
b. divided by
c. subtracted by
d. added to
5. The compressor ___________can be measured by a portable power analyser which would give reading directly
in kW.
a. energy
b. heat
c. power
d. pressure
6. Power (kW) = √3 x V x I x cosφ

a. √2
b. √3
c. √4
d. √5
108/JNU OLE
7. Performance of smaller chillers and rooftop units is frequently measured in ________ ..
a. EER
b. kCal
c. kW/ton
d. COP
8. _________commonly referred to as efficiency, but actually power input to compressor motor divided by tons
of cooling produced, or kilowatts per ton (kW/ton)
a. EER
b. kCal
c. kW/ton rating
d. COP
9. Chiller efficiency measured in __________ output (cooling) divided by Btu input (electric power).
a. Btu
b. kCal
c. kW/ton rating
d. COP
10. In case where hot well and cold well are available, the flow can be measured from the tank level dip or rise by
switching off the __________ pump.
a. gear
b. secondry
c. tertiary
d. compresor
109/JNU OLE
Chapter X
Energy Performance Assessment of Lighting Systems
Aim
• understand performance terms and definitions of Hvac Systems
• identify the various types of illumination systems
• know how to assess the performance of an Illumination System
• recognize the various opportunities for energy savings in illumination systems
Objectives
• know performance terms and definitions of Hvac Systems
• recognize the various types of illumination systems
• discriminate how to assess the performance of an Illumination System
• be familiar with the various opportunities for energy savings in illumination systems
Learning outcome
• interpret performance terms and definitions of Hvac Systems
• classify the various types of illumination systems
110/JNU OLE
10.1 Introduction
Lighting is provided in industries, commercial buildings, indoor and outdoor for providing comfortable working
environment. The primary objective is to provide the required lighting effect for the lowest installed load i.e., highest
lighting at lowest power consumption.

Most interior lighting requirements are for meeting average illuminance on a horizontal plane, either throughout the
interior, or in specific areas within the interior combined with general lighting of lower value.
The purpose of performance test is to calculate the installed efficacy in terms of lux/watt/m² (existing or design)
for general lighting installation. The calculated value can be compared with the norms for specific types of interior
installations for assessing improvement options.
The installed load efficacy of an existing (or design) lighting installation can be assessed by carrying out a survey
as indicated in the following pages.

Lumen is a unit of light flow or luminous flux. The lumen rating of a lamp is a measure of the total light output of
the lamp. The most common measurement of light output (or luminous flux) is the lumen. Light sources are labelled
with an output rating in lumens.
Lux is the metric unit of measure for luminance of a surface. One lux is equal to one lumen per square meter.
Circuit Watts is the total power drawn by lamps and ballasts in a lighting circuit under assessment.
Installed Load Efficacy is the average maintained luminance provided on a horizontal working plane per circuit
watt with general lighting of an interior. Unit: lux per watt per square metre (lux/W/m²)
Lamp Circuit Efficacy is the amount of light (lumens) emitted by a lamp for each watt of power consumed by the
lamp circuit, i.e., including control gear losses. This is a more meaningful measure for those lamps that require
control gear. Unit: lumens per circuit watt (lm/W)
Installed Power Density

The installed power density per 100 lux is the power needed per square metre of floor area to achieve 100 lux of
average maintained illuminance on a horizontal working plane with general lighting of an interior.
Unit: watts per square metre per 100 lux (W/m²/100 lux)
Average maintained luminance is the average of lux levels measured at various points in a defined area.
Colour Rendering Index (CRI) is a measure of the effect of light on the perceived colour of objects. To determine
the CRI of a lamp, the colour appearances of a set of standard colour chips are measured with special equipment
under a reference light source with the same correlated colour temperature as the lamp being evaluated. If the lamp
renders the colour of the chips identical to the reference light source, its CRI is 100. If the colour rendering differs
from the reference light source, the CRI is less than 100. A low CRI indicates that some colours may appear unnatural
when illuminated by the lamp.
111/JNU OLE
10.4 Preparation
Before starting the measurements, the following care should be taken:
• All lamps should be operating and no luminaires should be dirty or stained.
• There should be no significant obstructions to the flow of light throughout the interior, especially at the measuring
points.
Accuracies of readings should be ensured by;

• using accurate luminance meters for measurements
• sufficient number and arrangement of measurement points within the interior
• proper positioning of luminance meter
• ensuring that no obstructions /reflections from surfaces affect measurement
Other precautions
If the luminance meter is relatively old and has not been checked recently, it should be compared with one that has
been checked over a range of luminances, e.g. 100 to 600 lux, to establish if a correction factor should be applied.
The number and arrangement of measurement points are sufficient and suitable to obtain a reasonablyaccurate
assessment of the average luminance throughout an interior. The procedure recommended in the
CIBSE Code for such site measurements is as follows:

The interior is divided into a number of equal areas, which should be as square as possible. The luminance at the
centre of each area is measured and the mean value calculated. This gives an estimate of the average luminance on
the horizontal working plane.
10.5 Procedure for Assessment of Lighting Systems

10.5.1 To Determine the Minimum Number and Positions of Measurement Points
Calculate the Room Index:
Where L = length of interior; W = width of interior; Hm = the mounting height, which is the height of the lighting
fittings above the horizontal working plane. The working plane is usually assumed to be 0.75m above the floor in
offices and at 0.85m above floor level in manufacturing areas.
It does not matter whether these dimensions are in metres, yards or feet as long as the same unit is used throughout.
Ascertain the minimum number of measurement points from Table10.1.
To obtain an approximately “square array”, i.e., the spacing between the points on each axis to be approximately
the same, it may be necessary to increase the number of points.
For example, the dimensions of an interior are:

Length = 9m, Width = 5m, Height of luminaries above working plane (Hm) = 2m
Calculate RI = 9 x 5 = 1.607
2(9 + 5)
As reflected in table 10.1 the minimum number of measurement points is 16
As it is not possible to approximate a “square array” of 16 points within such a rectangle it is necessary to increase
the number of points to say 18, i.e. 6 x 3. These should be spaced as shown below:
Table 10.1 Determination of Measurement Points
Therefore in this example the spacing between points along rows along the length of the interior = 9 ÷ 6 = 1.5m and
the distance of the 'end' points from the wall = 1.5 ÷ 2 = 0.75m.
Similarly the distance between points across the width of the interior = 5 ÷ 3 = 1.67m with half this value, 0.83m,
between the 'end' points and the walls.
If the grid of the measurement points coincides with that of the lighting fittings, large errors are possible and the
112/JNU OLE
number of measurement points should be increased to avoid such an occurrence.
10.6 ILER Assessment

Compare the calculated ILER with the information in Table 10.1. ILER Ratios of 0.75 or more may be considered to
be satisfactory. Existing installations with ratios of 0.51 - 0.74 certainly merit investigation to see if improvements
are possible. Of course there can be good reasons for a low ratio, such as having to use lower efficacy lamps or
less efficient luminaries in order to achieve the required lighting result –but it is essential to check whether there
is a scope for a more efficient alternative. Existing installations with an ILER of 0.5 or less certainly justify close
inspection to identify options for converting the installation to use more efficient lighting equipment.
Having derived the ILER for an existing lighting installation, then the difference between the actual ILER and the
best possible (1.0) can be used to estimate the energy wastage. For a given installation:
Table 10.3 Indicators of Performance
Annual energy wastage (in kWh) = (1.0 - ILER) x Total load (kW) x annual operating hours (h)
This process of comparing the installed load efficacy (ILE) with the target value for the Room Index and type of
application can also be used to assess the efficiency of designs for new or replacement general lighting installations.
If, when doing so, the calculated ILE (lux/W/m²) is less than the target value then it is advisable to ascertain the
reasons. It may be that the requirements dictate a type of luminaries that is not as efficient as the best, or the surface
reflectance’s are less than the normal maxima, or the environment is dirty, etc., whatever the reasons, they should
be checked to see if a more efficient solution is possible.
10.7 Example of ILER Calculation

Referring to table 3, ILER of 0.7 means that there is scope for review of the lighting system.
Annual energy wastage = (1 – ILER) x watts x no. of operating hours
= (1 – 0.7) x 990 x 8 hrs/day x 300 days
= 712 kWh/annum
10.8 Areas for Improvement

Look for natural lighting opportunities through windows and other openings.
In the case of industrial lighting, explore the scope for introducing translucent sheets.
Assess scope for more energy efficient lamps and luminaries.
Assess the scope for rearrangement of lighting fixtures.
10.9 Other Useful Information

10.9.1 IES - Recommendations
The Illuminating Engineering Society (IES) has published illuminance recommendations for various activities.
These tables cover both generic tasks (reading, writing etc), and 100's of very specific tasks and activities (such as
drafting, parking, milking cows, blowing glass and baking bread).
All tasks fall into 1 of 9 illuminance categories, covering from 20 to 20,000 lux, (2 to 2000 foot candles). The categories
are known as A - I, and each provide a range of 3 illuminance values (low, mid and high). See Table 10.1.
A-C for illuminances over a large area (i.e., lobby space)
D-F for localized tasks
G-I for extremely difficult visual tasks
10.9.2 Example Using IES Recommendations

Let us determine the appropriate light level for a card file area in a library.
Step 1:
The visual task is reading card files in a library. A number of tasks are accomplished in the room. In such a cases, a
category is chosen based on the generic descriptions in the IES Illuminance Category and Illuminance table discussed
113/JNU OLE
in step 3. For example, offices will usually require Category E: 500-750-1000 lux.
Step 2:
More detailed task descriptions are given in the recommended illuminance level tables in the IES Handbook. (For
an intensive lighting survey) Under the task category "Libraries," subheading "Card files," the illuminance category
is E.
Step 3:
From the IES Illuminance Category and Ranges table, find category E and choose 500-750-1000 lux for the range
of illuminance recommended. The first column in the table is illuminance values in units of lux, the metric version
of foot-candle. Notice that categories A through C are for general illumination throughout the area, but D through
I are for illuminance on the task. Categories G through I would require a combination of general lighting and task
lighting.
Step 4:
Use the weighting factors to decide which of the values in the illuminance range to use. Since libraries are public
facilities, there may be many individuals over 55 years of age so select the category ‘Over 55’ for a weighting factor
of +1.
Next, decide whether the demand for speed and accuracy is not important, important or critical. Filing of cards
correctly is not a critical activity, so the weighting factor of zero (0) is selected. An example of critical might be
drafting work. The task background reflectance for black type on a white page is 85%. So choose "greater than 70
percent" for a weighting factor of -1. The total weighting factor is 0. So use the middle recommended illuminance,
or 750 lux.
For more detailed information on this the IES handbook may be referred.
10.10 Characteristics of Different Types of Lamps
Type of Lamp Lumens Lamp Choke Life of Lamp Capacitor Rating Color
Lamp Wattage Efficiency Rating (Hours) Required (Micro Rendering
(Watts) (Lumens/ (Watts) farads) Index
Watt)
HPSV 70 5600 80 13 15000 - 20000 0.2 - 0.39 12
HPSV 150 14000 93 20 15000 - 20000 0.2 - 0.39 20
HPSV 250 25000 100 20 15000 - 20000 0.2 - 0.39 32
HPSV 400 47000 118 40 15000 - 20000 0.2 - 0.39 45
HPSV 70 --- --- --- --- --- ---
Super
HPSV 100 9500 95 18 15000 - 20000 0.2 - 0.39 ---
Super
HPSV 150 15500 103 20 15000 - 20000 0.2 - 0.39 ---
Super
HPSV 250 30000 120 25 15000 - 20000 0.2 - 0.39 ---
Super
HPSV 400 54000 129 40 15000 - 20000 0.2 - 0.39 ---
Super
HPSV 600 --- --- --- --- --- ---
Super
HPMV 80 3400 43 9 4000 - 5000 0.6 - 0.69 8
HPMV 125 6300 50 12 4000 - 5000 0.6 - 0.69 10
HPMV 250 13000 52 16 4000 - 5000 0.6 - 0.69 18
114/JNU OLE
HPMV 400 22000 55 25 4000 - 5000 0.6 - 0.69 18
Metal 70 4200 84 26 10000 0.9 - 0.93 ---
Halide
Metal 150 10500 70 20 10000 0.9 - 0.93 ---
Halide
Metal 250 19000 76 25 10000 0.9 - 0.93 ---
Halide
Metal 400 31000 76 60 10000 0.9 - 0.93 ---
Halide
Metal 1000 80000 80 65 10000 0.9 - 0.93 ---
Halide
FTL 40 2400 60 15 4400 0.8 - 0.89 3.2 - 3.8
FTL 36 3250 90 5 14000 0.8 - 0.89 3.2 - 3.8
Super
Table 10.1 Characteristics of different types of lamps
115/JNU OLE
Summary
• The various terms used in Illumination Engineering include Incandescent lamps, Reflector Lamps, Gas Discharge
Lamps, Luminaire, Control Gear, Ballast, Ignitors, Illuminance, Lux, Luminous Efficacy, Colour Rendering
Index.
• Incandescent Lamps, Flourescent Lamps, Compact Flourescent Lamps, High Pressure Mercury Vapour Lamps,
Halogen Lamps, High Pressure Sodium Vapor Lamps, Low Pressure Sodium Vapour Lamps.
• A step by step approach can be obtained to assess the performance of the Illumination System.
• The methodology includes measurement of lux levels and comparing with the standards. Apart from this there
are so many steps involved.
• The biggest opportunity is the replacement of conventional copper wound chokes with electronic ballasts.
• The other opportunities include designing buildings to give maximum sunlight during the day time. There are
many such opportunities.
116/JNU OLE
Self Assessment

1. Lighting is provided in industries, commercial buildings, indoor and outdoor for providing _________________
working environment.
a. on edge
b. comfortable
c. luxurious
d. unpleasant
2. ____________ is a unit of light flow or luminous flux. The lumen rating of a lamp is a measure of the total light
output of the lamp.
a. Lumen
b. Lux
c. Watts
d. Ampere
3. _____________________ is the average maintained illuminance provided on a horizontal working plane per
circuit watt with general lighting of an interior.
a. Installed Load Efficacy
b. Lux
c. Circuit Watts
d. Lamp Circuit Efficacy
4. _____________ is the metric unit of measure for illuminance of a surface. One lux is equal to one lumen per
square meter.
a. Lumen
b. Lux
c. Watts
d. Ampere
5. _________________ is the total power drawn by lamps and ballasts in a lighting circuit under assessment.
a. Lumen
b. Lux
c. Circuit Watts
d. Ampere
6. ___________________ is the amount of light (lumens) emitted by a lamp for each watt of power consumed by
the lamp circuit, i.e. including control gear losses.
a. Lumen
b. Lux
c. Circuit Watts
d. Lamp Circuit Efficacy
117/JNU OLE
True or False
a. Colour Rendering Index (CRI) is a measure of the effect of light on the perceived color of objects.
b. Installed Load Efficacy is a measure of the effect of light on the perceived color of objects.
c. Colour Rendering Index (CRI) is a measure of the effect of heat on the perceived color of objects.
d. Colour Rendering Index (CRI) is a measure of the effect of steam on the perceived color of objects.

a. Average maintained luminance is the average of lumen levels measured at various points in a defined
area.
b. Average maintained luminance is the average of lux levels measured at various points in a defined area.
c. Average maintained luminance is the average of circuit watts levels measured at various points in a defined
area.
d. Average maintained luminance is the average of lamp circuit efficacy levels measured at various points in
a defined area.

a. The installed power density per 1000 lux is the power needed per square metre of floor area to achieve 100
lux of average maintained luminance on a horizontal working plane with general lighting of an interior.
b. The installed power density per 100 lux is the power needed per square metre of floor area to achieve 100
c. The installed power density per 100 lux is the power needed per square metre of floor area to achieve 1000
d. The installed power density per 100 lux is the power needed per square metre of floor area to achieve 100
lux of average maintained luminance on a vertical working plane with general lighting of an interior.

a. Colour Rendering Index is the average maintained luminance provided on a horizontal working plane per
b. Average maintained luminance is the average maintained luminance provided on a horizontal working plane
per circuit watt with general lighting of an interior.
c. Installed Load Efficacy is the average maintained luminance provided on a horizontal working plane per
d. Installed Load Efficacy is the average maintained luminance provided on a horizontal working plane per
circuit ampere with general lighting of an interior.
118/JNU OLE
Chapter- XI
Financial Analysis, Application of Non-conventional, Renewal Energy Sources
and Waste Minimisation
Aim
The aim of the chapter is to:
• understand fixed and variable costs
• recognize ways of interest charges
• identify factors affecting analysis
• observe financial issues associated with capital investment in energy saving projects
• examine cash flow techniques of net present value and internal rate of return
• study the concept of renewable energy
• explain the causes of waste
• enrich students with the concepts of waste minimisation and resource conservation
Objectives
The objectives of the chapter are to:
• recognize fixed and variable costs
• know ways of interest charges
• observe cash flow techniques of net present value and internal rate of return
• study the features of renewable energy
• understand the forms of renewable energy
• enrich students with wind energy and bio energy technologies
• understand the causes of waste
Learning outcome
• understand fixed and variable costs
• recognize ways of interest charges
• examine cash flow techniques of net present value and internal rate of return
• understand the application of non-conventional and renewable energy sources
• understand the importance and methods of waste minimisation and resource conservation
119/JNU OLE
11.1 Introduction
• When planning an energy efficiency or energy management project, the costs involved should always be
considered. Therefore, as with any other type of investment, energy management proposals should show the
likely return on any capital that is invested.
• Consider the case of an energy auditor who advises the senior management of an organisation that capital should
be invested in new boiler plant.
• Inevitably, the management of the organisation would ask: How much will the proposal cost? How much money
will be saved by the proposal?
• These are, of course, not unreasonable questions, since within any organisation there are many worthy causes,
each of which requires funding and it is the job of senior management to invest in capital where it is going to
obtain the greatest return.
• In order to make a decision about any course of action, management needs to be able to appraise all the costs
involved in a project and determine the potential returns. This however, is not quite as simple as it might first
appear.
• The capital value of plant or equipment usually decreases with time and it often requires more maintenance as
it gets older.
• If money is borrowed from a bank to finance a project, then interest will have to be paid on the loan.
• Inflation too will influence the value of any future energy savings that might be achieved. It is therefore important
that the cost appraisal process allows for all these factors, with the aim of determining which investments should
be undertaken, and of optimising the benefits achieved.
• To this end a number of accounting and financial appraisal techniques have been developed which help energy
managers and auditors make correct and objective decisions.
• The financial issues associated with capital investment in energy saving projects are investigated in this
chapter.
• In particular, the discounted cash flow techniques of net present value and internal rate of return are discussed
in detail.
11.2 Fixed and Variable Costs

• When appraising the potential costs involved in a project it is important to understand the difference between
fixed and variable costs.
• Variable costs are those which vary directly with the output of a particular plant or production process, such
as fuel costs.
• Fixed costs are those costs, which are not dependent on plant or process output, such as site-rent and
insurance.
• The total cost of any project is therefore the sum of the fixed and variable costs.
Example:
The below mentioned example illustrates how both fixed and variable costs combine to make the total operating
cost. The capital cost of the DG set is Rs.9,00,000, the annual output is 219 MWh, and the maintenance cost is
Rs.30,000 per annum. The cost of producing each unit of electricity is 3.50 Rs./kWh. The total cost of a diesel
generator operating over a 5-year period, taking into consideration both fixed and variable cost is:
120/JNU OLE
Item Type of cost Calculation Cost
Capital cost of Fixed -- 9,00,000
generator
Annual maintenance
Fixed 30,000 x 5
(years)
1,50,000
Fuel cost Variable 219,000 x 3.50 38,32,500

x5
Total cost 48,82,500
Table 11.1 Fixed and variable costs

From the above example, it can be seen that the fixed costs represent almost 21.5% of the total cost. In fact, the
annual electricity output of 219 MWh assumes that the plant is operating with an average output of 50 kW. If this
output were increased to an average of 70 kW, then the fuel cost would become Rs. 53,65,500 with the result that
the fixed costs would drop to 16.37% of the total. Thus the average unit cost of production decreases as output
increases. The concept of fixed and variable costs can be used to determine the break-even point for a proposed
project. The break-even point can be determined by using the following equation.
UCutil X Wav, xn= FC+(UCProd x Wav x n)

where,
UCutil is the unit cost per kWh of energy bought from utility (Rs./kWh)
UCProd is the unit cost per kWh of produced energy (Rs./kWh)
FC is the fixed costs (Rs.)
Wav is the average power output (or consumption) (kW)
n is the number of hours of operation (hours)
11.3 Interest Charges

• In order to finance projects, organizations often borrow money from banks or other leading organizations.
• Projects financed in this way cost more than similar projects financed from organisation’s own funds, because
interest charges must be paid on the loan. It is therefore important to understand how interest charges are
calculated.
• Interest charges can be calculated by lending organization in two different ways: simple interest and compound
interest.
Simple interest:
If simple interest is applied, then charges are calculated as a fixed percentage of the capital that is borrowed. A fixed
interest percentage is applied to each year of the loan and repayments are calculated using the equation.
Total Repayment Value (TRV)= LV + (IR/100 + LV x P)
where,
TRV = the total repayment value (Rs.)
LV = the value of initial loan (Rs.)
IR = the interest rate (%)
P = the repayment period (years)
121/JNU OLE
Compound interest:
Compound interest is usually calculated annually (although this is not necessarily the case). The interest charged is
calculated as a percentage of the outstanding loan at the end of each time period. It is termed 'compound' because
the outstanding loan is the sum of the unpaid capital and the interest charges up to that point. The value of the total
repayment can be calculated using the equation.
TRV= LV + (1+IR/100)P
11.4 Simple Payback Period

• This is the simplest technique that can be used to appraise a proposal. The simple payback period can be defined
as 'the length of time required for the running total of net savings before depreciation to equal the capital cost
of the project'.
• In theory, once the payback period has ended, all the project capital costs will have been recoupled and any
additional cost savings achieved can be seen as clear 'profit'.
• Obviously, the shorter the payback period, the more attractive the project becomes.
• The length of the maximum permissible payback period generally varies with the business culture concerned.
• In some companies, payback periods in excess of 3 years are considered acceptable.
• The payback period can be calculated using the equation.
Simple payback period (Years) = Capital cost of the Project (Rs.)/Net Annual Savings (Rs.)
= PB= CC/AS
where,
PB = the payback period (years)
CC = the capital cost of the project (Rs.)
AS = the annual net cost saving achieved (Rs.)
The annual net cost saving (AS) is the least savings achieved after all the operational costs have been met.
11.5 Discounted Cash Flow Methods

• The payback method is a simple technique, which can easily be used to provide a quick evaluation of a proposal.
However, it has a number of major weaknesses:
The payback method does not consider savings that are accrued after the payback period has finished.
The payback method does not consider the fact that money, which is invested, should accrue interest as
time passes. In simple terms there is a 'time value' component to cash flows. Thus Rs.1000 today is more
valuable than Rs.1000 in 10 years' time.
• In order to overcome these weaknesses a number of discounted cash flow techniques have been developed,
which are based on the fact that money invested in a bank will accrue annual interest.
• The two most commonly used techniques are the 'net present value' and the 'internal rate of return' methods.
11.6 Net Present Value Method

• The net present value method considers the fact that a cash saving (often referred to as a 'cash flow') of Rs.1000
in year 10 of a project will be worth less than a cash flow of Rs.1000 in year 2.
• The net present value method achieves this by quantifying the impact of time on any particular future cash
flow. This is done by equating each future cash flow to its current value today, in other words determining the
present value of any future cash flow.
• The present value (PV) is determined by using an assumed interest rate, usually referred to as a discount rate.
Discounting is the opposite process to compounding.
122/JNU OLE
• Compounding determines the future value of present cash flows, where" discounting determines the present
value of future cash flows.
11.7 Internal Rate of Return Method

• It can be seen from Example 5 that both projects returned a positive net present value over 10 years, at a discount
rate of 8%. However, if the discount rate were reduced there would come a point when the net present value
would become zero.
• It is clear that the discount rate which must be applied, in order to achieve a net present value of zero, will be
higher for Project 2 than for Project 1. This means that the average rate of return for Project 2 is higher than for
Project 1, with the result that Project 2 is the better proposition.
• The discount rate which achieves a net present value of zero is known as the internal rate of return (IRR). The
higher the internal rate of return, the more attractive the project.
Profitability index
Another technique, which can be used to evaluate the financial viability of projects, is the profitability index. The
profitability index can be denoted as:
Profitability index = (Sum of the discounted net savings) / (Capital Costs)
The higher the profitability index, the more attractive the project.
11.8 Factors Affecting Analysis

In the financial analysis of projects, they do not allow for the following important considerations:
• The capital value of plant and equipment generally depreciates over time
• General inflation reduces the value of savings as time progresses. For example, Rs.1000 saved in 1 year’s time
will be worth more than Rs.1000 saved in 10 years time.
• The capital depreciation of an item of equipment can be considered in terms of its salvage value at the end of
the analysis period. The Example 8 illustrates the point.
11.9 Real Value

• Inflation can be defined as the rate of increase in the average price of goods and services.
• In some countries, inflation is expressed in terms of the retail price index (RPI), which is determined centrally
and reflects average inflation over a range of commodities. Because of inflation, the real value of cash flow
decreases with time.
• The real value of sum of money (S) realised in n years time can be determined using the equation.
RV =S x
where,
RV = the real value of S realized in n years time
S =the value of cash flow in n year’s time
R = the inflation rate (%)
As with the discount factor it is common practice to use an inflation factor when assessing the impact of inflation
on a project. The inflation factor can be determined using the equation;
IF =
The product of a particular cash flow and inflation factor is the real value of the cash flow.
RV=S x IF
123/JNU OLE
11.10 Application of Non-conventional and Renewable Energy Sources

• Concept of Renewable Energy
Renewable energy sources also called non-conventional energy, are sources that are continuously replenished
by natural processes. For example, solar energy, wind energy, bio-energy - bio-fuels grown sustain ably),
hydropower etc., are some of the examples of renewable energy sources.
• Features of Renewable Energy
A renewable energy system converts the energy found in sunlight, wind, falling-water, sea-waves, geothermal
heat, or biomass into a form, we can use such as heat or electricity.
Most of the renewable energy comes either directly or indirectly from sun and wind and can never be
exhausted, and therefore they are called renewable.
However, most of the world's energy sources are derived from conventional sources-fossil fuels such as
coal, oil, and natural gases. These fuels are often termed non-renewable energy sources.
Although, the available quantity of these fuels are extremely large, they are nevertheless finite and so will
in principle ‘run out’ at some time in the future
Renewable energy sources are essentially flows of energy, whereas the fossil and nuclear fuels are, in
essence, stocks of energy
• Various forms of renewable energy
Solar energy
Wind energy
Bio energy
Hydro energy
Geothermal energy Wave
Tidal energy
• In this focus is on application potential of commercially viable renewable energy sources such as solar, wind,
bio and hydro energy in India.
11.11 Solar Energy

• Solar energy is the most readily available and free source of energy since prehistoric times.
• It is estimated that solar energy equivalent to over 15,000 times the world's annual commercial energy
consumption reaches the earth every year.
• India receives solar energy in the region of 5 to 7 kWh/m2 for 300 to 330 days in a year. This energy is sufficient
to set up 20 MW solar power plant per square kilometre land area.
• Solar energy can be utilised through two different routes, as solar thermal route and solar electric (solar
photovoltaic) routes.
• Solar thermal route uses the sun's heat to produce hot water or air, cook food, drying materials etc. Solar
photovoltaic uses sun’s heat to produce electricity for lighting home and building, running motors, pumps,
electric appliances, and lighting.
124/JNU OLE
11.12 Solar Thermal Energy Application
• In solar thermal route, solar energy can be converted into thermal energy with the help of solar collectors and
receivers known as solar thermal devices.
• The Solar-Thermal devices can be classified into three categories
Low-Grade Heating Devices - up to the temperature of 100°C.
Medium-Grade Heating Devices -up to the temperature of 100°-300°C
High-Grade Heating Devices -above temperature of 300°C
• Low-grade solar thermal devices are used in solar water heaters, air-heaters, solar cookers and solar dryers for
domestic and industrial applications.
Solar water heaters

• Most solar water heating systems have two main parts: A solar collector and a storage tank. The most common
collector is called a flat-plate collector.
• It consists of a thin, flat, rectangular box with a transparent cover that faces the sun, mounted on the roof of
building or home.
• Small tubes run through the box and carry the fluid – either water or other fluid, such as an antifreeze solution
– to be heated.
Sunlight
Rooftop
solar collector
Air may be Water

used as a
medium in some
systems
Hot
water
tank/
storage Electric
pump
Rediator
Fig 11.1 Solar water heater
• The tubes are attached to an absorber plate, which is painted with special coatings to absorb the heat.
• The heat builds up in the collector, which is passed to the fluid passing through the tubes.
• An insulated storage tank holds the hot water. It is similar to water heater, but larger is size. In case of systems
that use fluids, heat is passed from hot fluid to the water stored in the tank through a coil of tubes.
• Solar water heating systems can be either active or passive systems. The active systems, which are most common,
rely on pumps to move the liquid between the collector and the storage tank.
• The passive systems rely on gravity and the tendency for water to naturally circulate as it is heated. A few
industrial application of solar water heaters are listed below:
125/JNU OLE
Hotels: Bathing, kitchen, washing, laundry applications

Dairies: Ghee (clarified butter) production, cleaning and sterilizing, pasteurization
Textiles: Bleaching, boiling, printing, dyeing, curing, ageing and finishing
Breweries and Distilleries: Bottle washing, wort preparation, boiler feed heating
Chemical /Bulk drugs units: Fermentation of mixes, boiler feed applications
Electroplating/galvanizing units: Heating of plating baths, cleaning, degreasing applications
Pulp and paper industries: Boiler feed applications, soaking of pulp
Solar cooker
• Solar cooker is a device, which uses solar energy for cooking, and thus saving fossil fuels, fuel wood and electrical
energy to a large extent. However, it can only supplement the cooking fuel, and not replace it totally.
• It is a simple cooking unit, ideal for domestic cooking during most of the year except during the monsoon
season, cloudy days and winter months
Box type solar cookers

• The box type solar cookers with a single reflecting mirror are the most popular in India.
• These cookers have proved immensely popular in rural areas where women spend considerable time for collecting
firewood.
• A family size solar cooker is sufficient for 4 to 5 members and saves about 3 to 4 cylinders of LPG every
year.
• The life of this cooker is up to 15 years. This cooker costs around Rs.1000 after allowing for subsidy.
• Solar cookers are widely available in the market.
Reflecting Mirror
Guide for
Double glass Adjustment of
lid Reflecting
Mirror
Thermal insulator
Handle
20 cm
60 cm
Cooking Pots 60 cm
Fig. 11.2 Solar cooker
126/JNU OLE
Parabolic concentrating solar cooker
• A parabolic solar concentrator comprises of sturdy Fibre Reinforced Plastic (FRP) shell lined with Stainless
Steel (SS) reflector foil or aluminised polyester film.
• It can accommodate a cooking vessel at its focal point. This cooker is designed to direct the solar heat to a
secondary reflector inside the kitchen, which focuses the heat to the bottom of a cooking pot.
• It is also possible to actually fry, bake and roast food. This system generates 500 kg of steam, which is enough
to cook two meals for 500 people. This cooker costs upward of Rs.50, 000.
sun rays sun's light rays
light reflects
to a focus point
parabolic curve
covered with aluminum
Fig 11.3 Parabolic concentrating solar cooker
Positioning of solar panels or collectors:

• It can greatly influence the system output, efficiency and payback.
• Tilting mechanisms provided to the collectors need to be adjusted according to seasons (summer and winter)
to maximise the collector efficiency.
• The period four to five hours in late morning and early afternoon (between 9 am to 3pm) is commonly called
the "Solar Window".
• During this time, 80% of the total collectable energy for the day falls on a solar collector.
• Therefore, the collector should be free from shade during this solar window throughout the year - Shading, may
arise from buildings or trees to the south of the location.
Solar Electricity Generation

Solar Photovoltaic (PV)
• Photovoltaic is the technical term for solar electric. Photo means "light" and voltaic means "electric".
Fig 11.4 Solar photovoltaic (PV)
127/JNU OLE
• PV cells are usually made of silicon, an element that naturally releases electrons when exposed to light.
• Amount of electrons released from silicon cells depend upon intensity of light incident on it.
• The silicon cell is covered with a grid of metal that directs the electrons to flow in a path to create an electric
current.
• This current is guided into a wire that is connected to a battery or DC appliance. Typically, one cell produces
about 1.5 watts of power.
• Individual cells are connected together to form a solar panel or module, capable of producing 3 to 110 Watts
power.
• Panels can be connected together in series and parallel to make a solar array, which can produce any amount
of Wattage as space will allow.
• Modules are usually designed to supply electricity at 12 Volts.
• PV modules are rated by their peak Watt output at solar noon on a clear day.
• Some applications for PV systems are lighting for commercial buildings, outdoor (street) lighting, rural and
village lighting etc.
• Solar electric power systems can offer independence from the utility grid and offer protection during extended
power failures.
• Solar PV systems are found to be economical especially in the hilly and far flung areas where conventional grid
power supply will be expensive to reach.
Fig. 11.5 Solar street light
Back-up
Back-up systems are necessary since PV systems only generate electricity when the sun is shining. The two most
common methods of backing up solar electric systems are connecting the system to the utility grid or storing excess
electricity in batteries for use at night or on cloudy days.
Performance
The performance of a solar cell is measured in terms of its efficiency at converting sunlight into electricity. Only
sunlight of certain energy will work efficiently to create electricity, and much of it is reflected or absorbed by the
material that makes up the cell. Because of this, a typical commercial solar cell has an efficiency of 15% only about
one-sixth of the sunlight striking the cell generates electricity. Low efficiencies mean that larger arrays are needed
and higher investment costs. It should be noted that the first solar cells, built in the 1950s, had efficiencies of less
than 4%.
128/JNU OLE
Solar Water Pumps
In solar water pumping system, the pump is driven by motor run by solar electricity instead of conventional electricity
drawn from utility grid. A SPV water pumping system consists of a photovoltaic array mounted on a stand and a
motor-pump set compatible with the photovoltaic array. It converts the solar energy into electricity, which is used
for running the motor pump set. The pumping system draws water from the open well, bore well, stream, pond,
canal etc.
11.13 Wind Energy

• Wind energy is basically harnessing of wind power to produce electricity.
• The kinetic energy of the wind is converted to electrical energy.
• When solar radiation enters the earth’s atmosphere, different regions of the atmosphere are heated to different
degrees because of earth curvature.
• This heating is higher at the equator and lowest at the poles. Since air tends to flow from warmer to cooler
regions, this causes what we call winds, and it is these airflows that are harnessed in windmills and wind turbines
to produce power.
• Wind power is not a new development as this power, in the form of traditional windmills -for grinding corn,
pumping water, sailing ships – have been used for centuries. Now wind power is harnessed to generate electricity
in a larger scale with better technology.
Wind Energy Technology

• The basic wind energy conversion device is the wind turbine. Although various designs and configurations exist,
these turbines are generally grouped into two types:
• Vertical-axis wind turbines, in which the axis of rotation is vertical with respect to the ground (and roughly
perpendicular to the wind stream)
• Horizontal-axis turbines, in which the axis of rotation is horizontal with respect to the ground (and roughly
parallel to the wind stream.)
Rotor
Diameter
Rotor
Blade
Gearbox
Rotor Generator
Diameter Nacelle Rotor
Hight
Fixed
Pitch
Rotor
Blade
Tower
Gearbox Generator
Horizontal Axis Vertical Axis
Fig. 11.6 Wind Tturbine configuration
129/JNU OLE
• The fig.11. 6 illustrates the two types of turbines and typical subsystems for an electricity generation
application.
• The subsystems include a blade or rotor, which converts the energy in the wind to rotational shaft energy; a
drive train, usually including a gearbox and a generator, a tower that supports the rotor and drive train, and other
equipment, including controls, electrical cables, ground support equipment, and interconnection equipment.
Wind electric generators (WEG)

• Wind electric generator converts kinetic energy available in wind to electrical energy by using rotor, gear box
and generator.
• There are a large number of manufacturers for wind electric generators in India who have foreign collaboration
with different manufacturers of Denmark, Germany, Netherlands, Belgium, USA, Austria, Sweden, Spain, and
U.K. etc. At present, WEGs of rating ranging from 225 kW to 1000 kW are being installed in our country.
Evaluating Wind Mill Performance

Wind turbines are rated at a certain wind speed and annual energy output
Annual Energy Output = Power x Time
11.14 Bio Energy

• Biomass is a renewable energy resource derived from the carbonaceous waste of various human and natural
activities. It is derived from numerous sources, including the by-products from the wood industry, agricultural
crops, raw material from the forest, household wastes etc.
• Biomass does not add carbon dioxide to the atmosphere as it absorbs the same amount of carbon in growing
as it releases when consumed as a fuel. Its advantage is that it can be used to generate electricity with the same
equipment that is now being used for burning fossil fuels.
• Biomass is an important source of energy and the most important fuel worldwide after coal, oil and natural
gas.
• Bio energy, in the form of biogas, which is derived from biomass, is expected to become one of the key energy
resources for global sustainable development.
• Biomass offers higher energy efficiency through form of Biogas than by direct burning.
Biogas plants
• Biogas is a clean and efficient fuel, generated from cow-dung, human waste or any kind of biological materials
derived through anaerobic fermentation process.
130/JNU OLE
• The biogas consists of 60% methane with rest mainly carbon-di-oxide. Biogas is a safe fuel for cooking and
lighting.
• By-product is usable as high-grade manure.
A typical biogas plant has the following components

A digester in which the slurry (dung mixed with water) is fermented, an inlet tank - for mixing the feed and
letting it into the digester, gas holder/dome in which the generated gas is collected, outlet tank to remove
the spent slurry, distribution pipeline(s) to transport the gas into the kitchen, and a manure pit, where the
spent slurry is stored.
Biomass fuels account for about one-third of the total fuel used in the country. It is the most important fuel
used in over 90% of the rural households and about 15% of the urban households.
Using only local resources, namely cattle waste and other organic wastes, energy and manure are derived.
Thus, the biogas plants are the cheap sources of energy in rural areas.
The types of biogas plant designs popular are

• Floating drum type
• Fixed dome-type
• Bag-type portable digester
Biomass Briquetting
• The process of densifying loose agro-waste into a solidified biomass of high density, which can be conveniently
used as a fuel, is called Biomass Briquetting.
• Briquette is also termed as "Bio-coal".
Fig 11.7 Biomass briquetting
• It is pollution free and eco- friendly.

• Some of the agricultural and forestry residues can be briquetted after suitable pre-treatment.
• A list of commonly used biomass materials that can be briquetted are given below:
Corncob
Jute stick
Sawdust
Pine needle
131/JNU OLE
Bagasse
Coffee spent
Tamarind
Coffee husk
Almond shell
Ground nutshells
Coir pith
Bagasee pith
Barley straw
Tobacco dust
Rice husk
Deoiled bran
Advantages
Some of advantages of biomass briquetting are high calorific value with low ash content, absence of polluting gases
like sulphur, phosphorus fumes and fly ash- which eliminate the need for pollution control equipment, complete
combustion, ease of handling, transportation and storage - because of uniform size and convenient lengths.
Application
Biomass briquettes can replace almost all conventional fuels like coal, firewood and lignite in almost all general
applications like heating, steam generation etc. It can be used directly as fuel instead of coal in the traditional
chulhas and furnaces or in the gasifier. Gasifier converts solid fuel into a more convenient-to-use gaseous form of
fuel called producer gas.
Biomass gasifier
Biomass gasifier convert the solid biomass (basically wood waste, agricultural residues etc.) into a combustible gas
mixture normally called as producer gas. The conversion efficiency of the gasification process is in the range of
60%–70%. The producer gas consists of mainly carbon-monoxide, hydrogen, nitrogen gas and methane, and has a
lower calorific value (1000–1200 kcal/Nm3)
Fig 11.8 Biomass gasifier
132/JNU OLE
High Efficiency Wood Burning Stoves
These stoves save more than 50% fuel wood consumption. They reduce drudgery of women saving time in cooking
and fuel collection and consequent health hazards. They also help in saving firewood leading to conservation of
forests. They also create employment opportunities for people in the rural areas.
Bio fuels
• Unlike other renewable energy sources, biomass can be converted directly into liquid fuels— bio fuels— for
our transportation needs (cars, trucks, buses, airplanes, and trains).
• The two most common types of bio fuels are ethanol and biodiesel.
• Ethanol is an alcohol, similar to that used in beer and wine.
• It is made by fermenting any biomass high in carbohydrates (starches, sugars, or celluloses) through a process
similar to brewing beer. Ethanol is mostly used as a fuel additive to cut down a vehicle's carbon monoxide
and other smog-causing emissions. Flexible-fuel vehicles, which run on mixtures of gasoline and up to 85%
ethanol, are now available.
• Biodiesel, produced by plants such as rapeseed (canola), sunflowers and soybeans, can be extracted and refined
into fuel, which can be burned in diesel engines and buses.
• Biodiesel can also make by combining alcohol with vegetable oil, or recycled cooking greases.
• It can be used as an additive to reduce vehicle emissions (typically 20%) or in its pure form as a renewable
alternative fuel for diesel engines.
Bio power
• Bio power, or biomass power, is the use of biomass to generate electricity. There are six major types of biopower
systems: direct-fired, cofiring, gasification, anaerobic digestion, pyrolysis, and small - modular.
• Most of the biopower plants in the world use direct-fired systems. They burn bio-energy feed stocks directly
in boiler to produce steam. This steam drives the turbo-generator. In some industries, the steam is also used
in manufacturing processes or to heat buildings. These are known as combined heat and power facilities. For
example, wood waste is often used to produce both electricity and steam at paper mills.
• Many coal-fired power plants use cofiring systems to significantly reduce emissions, especially sulfur dioxide
emissions.
• Cofiring involves using bio energy feedstock as a supplementary fuel source in high efficiency boilers.
• Gasification systems use high temperatures and an oxygen-starved environment to convert biomass into a gas
(a mixture of hydrogen, carbon monoxide, and methane).
• The gas fuels a gas turbine, which runs an electric generator for producing power.
• The decay of biomass produces methane gas, which can be used as an energy source.
• Methane can be produced from biomass through a process called anaerobic digestion.
• Anaerobic digestion involves using bacteria to decompose organic matter in the absence of oxygen.
• In landfills –scientific waste disposal site - wells can be drilled to release the methane from the decaying organic
matter.
• The pipes from each well carry the gas to a central point where it is filtered and cleaned before burning.
• Methane can be used as an energy source in many ways.
• Most facilities burn it in a boiler to produce steam for electricity generation or for industrial processes.
• Two new ways include the use of micro turbines and fuel cells.
• Micro turbines have outputs of 25 to 500 kilowatts. About the size of a refrigerator, they can be used where
there are space limitations for power production.
• Methane can also be used as the "fuel" in a fuel cell. Fuel cells work much like batteries, but never need
recharging, producing electricity as long as there is fuel.
• In addition to gas, liquid fuels can be produced from biomass through a process called pyrolysis.
133/JNU OLE
• Pyrolysis occurs when biomass is heated in the absence of oxygen.
The biomass then turns into liquid called pyrolysis oil, which can be burned like petroleum to generate
electricity.
• A biopower system that uses pyrolysis oil is being commercialized.
• Several biopower technologies can be used in small, modular systems.
• A small, modular system generates electricity at a capacity of 5 megawatts or less.
• This system is designed for use at the small town level or even at the consumer level.
• For example, some farmers use the waste from their livestock to provide their farms with electricity.
• Not only do these systems provide renewable energy, they also help farmers meet environmental regulations.
Biomass cogeneration
• Cogeneration improves viability and profitability of sugar industries. Indian sugar mills are rapidly turning to
Bagasse, the leftover of cane after it is crushed and its juice extracted, to generate electricity.
• This is mainly being done to clean up the environment, cut down power costs and earn additional revenue.
• According to current estimates, about 3500 MW of power can be generated from Bagasse in the existing 430
sugar mills in the country.
• Around 270 MW of power has already been commissioned and more is under construction.
Hydro energy
• The potential energy of falling water, captured and converted to mechanical energy by waterwheels, powered
the start of the industrial revolution.
• Wherever sufficient head, or change in elevation, could be found, rivers and streams were dammed and mills
were built.
• Water under pressure flows through a turbine causing it to spin.
• The Turbine is connected to a generator, which produces electricity.
Fig. 11.9 Hydro energy
134/JNU OLE
• In order to produce enough electricity, a hydroelectric system requires a location with the following features
Change in elevation or head

• 20 Feet @ 100 gal/min = 200 Watts. 100 feet head @ 20 gal/min gives the same output.
• In India the potential of small hydro power is estimated about 10,000 MW.
• A total of 183.45 MW small Hydro projects have been installed in India by the end of March 1999.
• Small Hydro Power projects of 3 MW capacities have been also installed individually and 148 MW project is
under construction.
11.15 Tidal and Ocean Energy

Tidal Energy
• Tidal electricity generation involves the construction of a barrage across an estuary to block the incoming and
outgoing tide.
• The head of water is then used to drive turbines to generate electricity from the elevated water in the basin as
in hydroelectric dams.
• Barrages can be designed to generate electricity on the ebb side, or flood side, or both.
• Tidal range may vary over a wide range (4.5-12.4 m) from site to site.
• A tidal range of at least 7 m is required for economical operation and for sufficient head of water for the
turbines.
Ocean Energy
• Oceans cover more than 70% of Earth’s surface, making them the world’s largest solar collectors.
• Ocean energy draws on the energy of ocean waves, tides, or on the thermal energy (heat) stored in the ocean.
• The sun warms the surface water a lot more than the deep ocean water, and this temperature difference stores
thermal energy.
• The ocean contains two types of energy: thermal energy from the sun’s heat, and mechanical energy from the
tides and waves.
Ocean thermal energy

• Ocean thermal energy is used for many applications, including electricity generation.
• There are three types of electricity conversion systems
Closed-cycle
Open cycle
Hybrid.
• Closed cycle systems use the ocean’s warm surface water to vaporize a working fluid, which has a low boiling
point, such as ammonia.
The vapour expands and turns a turbine.
The turbine then activates a generator to produce electricity.
Open-cycle systems actually boil the seawater by operating at low pressures.
This produces steam that passes through a turbine / generator.
The hybrid systems combine both closed-cycle and open-cycle systems.
135/JNU OLE
Ocean mechanical energy

• Ocean mechanical energy is quite different from ocean thermal energy.
• Even though the sun affects all ocean activity, tides are driven primarily by the gravitational pull of the moon,
and waves are driven primarily by the winds.
• A barrage (dam) is typically used to convert tidal energy into electricity by forcing the water through turbines,
activating a generator.
11.16 Waste Minimisation and Resource Conservation

• Traditionally, waste is viewed as an unnecessary element arising from the activities of any industry.
• In reality, waste is a misplaced resource, existing at a wrong place at a wrong time.
• Waste is also the inefficient use of utilities such as electricity, water, and fuel, which are often considered
unavoidable overheads.
• The costs of these wastes are generally underestimated by managers.
• It is important to realize that the cost of waste is not only the cost of waste disposal, but also other costs such
as:
Disposal cost
Inefficient energy use cost
Purchase cost of wasted raw material
Production cost for the waste material
Management time spent on waste material
Lost revenue for what could have been a product instead of waste
Potential liabilities due to waste
11.17 Waste Minimisation
Waste minimisation can be defined as "systematically reducing waste at source". It means:
• Prevention and/or reduction of waste generated
• Efficient use of raw materials and packaging
• Efficient use of fuel, electricity and water
• Improving the quality of waste generated to facilitate recycling and/or reduce hazard
• Encouraging re-use, recycling and recovery.
Waste minimisation is also known by other terms such as waste reduction, pollution prevention, source reduction
and cleaner technology. It makes use of managerial and/or technical interventions to make industrial operations
inherently pollution free
11.18 Classification of Waste Minimisation (WM) Techniques

The waste minimisation is based on different techniques. These techniques are classified as hereunder.
136/JNU OLE
WM T TECHNIQUES
SOURCE PRODUCT
RECYCLING
REDUCTION MODIFICATION
Onsite Creation Good

Process
recovery and of Useful House
Change
reuse byproducts Keeping
Input Better Equipment Technology

Material process modification change
change control
Fig. 11. 10 Classification of waste minimisation

Source reduction
Under this category, four techniques of WM are briefly discussed below:
Good Housekeeping
Systems to prevent leakages and spillages through preventive maintenance schedules and routine equipment
inspections. Also, well-written working instructions, supervision, awareness and regular training of workforce
would facilitate good housekeeping.
Process change
Under this head, four CP techniques are covered:
Input Material Change
Substitution of input materials by eco-friendly (non-toxic or less toxic than existing and renewable) material
preferably having longer service time.
Better process control

Modifications of the working procedures, machine-operating instructions and process record keeping in order to
run the processes at higher efficiency and with lower waste generation and emissions.
Equipment modification
Modification of existing production equipment and utilities, for instance, by the addition of measuring and controlling
devices, in order to run the processes at higher efficiency and lower waste and emission generation rates.
Technology change
Replacement of the technology, processing sequence and/or synthesis route, in order to minimise waste and emission
generation during production.
Recycling
On-site Recovery and Reuse - Reuse of wasted materials in the same process or for another useful application
within the industry.
• Production of Useful by-product - Modification of the waste generation process in order to transform the wasted
material into a material that can be reused or recycled for another application within or outside the company.
Product modification
Characteristics of the product can be modified to minimise the environmental impacts of its production or those of
the product itself during or after its use (disposal).
137/JNU OLE
11.19 Typical Causes of Waste

• Poor housekeeping
Leaking taps / valves / flanges
Spillages
Overflowing tanks
Worn out material transfer belts
• Operational and maintenance negligence

Unchecked water / air consumption
Unnecessary running of equipment
Sub optimal loading
Lack of preventive maintenance
Sub-optimal maintenance of process condition
Ritualistic operation
• Poor raw material quality

Use of substandard cheap raw material
Lack of quality specification
Improper purchase management system
Improper storage
• Poor process / equipment design

Mismatched capacity of equipment
Wrong material selection
Maintenance prone design
Adoption of avoidable process steps
Lack of information / design capability
• Poor layout
Unplanned / adhoc expansion
Poor space utilization plan
Bad material movement plan
• Bad technology
Continuation of obsolete technology
Despite product / raw material change
High cost of better technology
Lack of availability of trained manpower
Small plant size
Lack of information
138/JNU OLE
• Inadequately trained personnel
Increased dependence on casual / contract labour
Lack of formalized training system
Lack of training facilities
Job insecurity
Fear of losing trade secrets
Lack of availability of personnel
Understaffing hence work over pressure
• Employee Demotivation
Lack of recognition
Absence of reward
Emphasis only on production, not on people
Lack of commitment and attention by top management
139/JNU OLE
Summary
• Performing financial analysis is an important part of the Energy Manager's job. Although the manager may not
be a specialist in finance it is absolutely essential to know the basics. With the help of accounting experts he
can perform this task.
• The calculations are not very complicated but they are required, as finance is the basic of all activities. The
chapter gives with examples how to do it in practical cases.
• The fuel substitution example gives calculations for the project with the important aspect of sensitivity
analysis.
• Most of the projects are quite critical and it is essential to carry out sensitivity analyses so as to avoid pitfalls
after the execution of the project.
• With globalization and growing consumerism, the use of energy is on the increase and its effect on the environment
can't be regarded as trivial.
• The sun is the main source of energy from which the wind, solar, biomass and hydro energy can be
harnessed.
• Harnessing of non-conventional energy is one of the long term solutions to the problem of growing environmental
degradation.
• Batteries are going to play an important role in the coming years from the point of view of energy storage and
hence it is prudent to know the developments in this area.
• The chapter also deals in detail about bio-diesel which is going to be the alternate fuel in the years to come.
• What is happening on the global and the Indian scene is also been touched upon.
• Waste minimization and resource conservation are equally important.
• Waste is not waste but a resource. If we place the resource at wrong place, it becomes waste. However our
attitude has to change and it is absolutely essential to think in terms of resource rather than waste.
• In fact waste audit should be the essential part of an energy audit. It is also to be remembered that this is a
continual process and can't become one time exercise.
• With the growing proportion of urban solid waste need to harness energy is most essential part which has been
almost neglected so far.
Recommended Reading
• S. Rao, B.B. Parulekar, Energy Technology: Nonconventional, Renewable & Conventional, Khanna Publishers;
3rd edition, p 1144
• Erich Helfert, Financial Analysis Tools and Techniques: A Guide for Managers, McGraw-Hill; 1 edition, p
480
• George T. Friendlob(2002), Essentials of Financial Analysis, Wiley; 1 edition, p 288
140/JNU OLE
Self Assessment

1. __________________ are those which vary directly with the output of a particular plant or production process,
such as fuel costs.
a. Variable costs
b. Fixed costs
c. Total cost
d. Simple interest
2. ___________________ are those costs, which are not dependent on plant or process output, such as site-rent
and insurance.
a. Variable costs
b. Fixed costs
c. Total cost
d. Simple interest
3. __________________ sources also called non-conventional energy, are sources that are continuously replenished
by natural processes.
a. Continuously
b. One in a year
c. Twice in year
d. Sometimes
4. __________________ is the most readily available and free source of energy since prehistoric times.
a. Solar energy
b. Thermal energy
c. Electrical energy
d. Tidal wave energy
5. India receives solar energy in the region of 5 to 7 kWh/m2 for ________________ in a year.
a. 250 to 300 days
b. 300 to 330 days
c. 270 to 300 days
d. 200to 230 days
B] True or False

a. Interest charges can be calculated by lending organization in one way: simple interest
b. Interest charges can be calculated by borrowing organization in two different ways: simple interest and
compound interest.
c. Interest charges can be calculated by lending organization in two different ways: simple interest and
compound interest.
d. Interest charges can be calculated by lending organization in one way: compound interest.
141/JNU OLE

a. The value of the total repayment can be calculated using the equation.
TRV= LV + (IR/1000)P
b. The value of the total repayment can be calculated using the equation.
TRV= V + (1+IR/100)P
c. The value of the total repayment can be calculated using the equation.
TRV= L + (1+IR/100)P
d. The value of the total repayment can be calculated using the equation.
TRV= LV + (1+IR/100)P

a. Micro turbines have outputs of 25 to 500 kilowatts.
b. Micro turbines have outputs of 25 to 600 kilowatts.
c. Micro turbines have outputs of 25 to 100 kilowatts.
d. Micro turbines have outputs of 25 to 300 kilowatts.

a. Pyrolysis occurs when biomass is heated in the absence of carbon.
b. Pyrolysis occurs when biomass is heated in the absence of oxygen.
c. Pyrolysis occurs when biomass is heated in the presence of oxygen.
d. Pyrolysis occurs when biomass is heated in the absence of nitrogen.

a. Cogeneration improves viability and profitability of sugar industries.
b. Cogeneration degrades viability and profitability of sugar industries.
c. Cogeneration improves viability and profitability of manufacturing industries.
d. Cogeneration degrades viability and profitability of manufacturing industries.
142/JNU OLE
Case Study I
Install steam turbine to existing boiler to generate electricity from superheated
Steam
Yuanping city Chemical Co. Ltd is a middle-sized chemical plant with 1679 staff, located in
Shanxi Province in China and is Asia’s largest producers of oxalic acid, and also produced
Products like sodium format and formic acid.
During the plant assessment the Team found that the newly installed #9 boiler yields 35 tons
per hour (t/h) superheated steam (3.82MPa and 450°C), But that the superheated steam was
used only for process heating. This boiler therefore had a large potential for cogeneration.
Coincidentally, the company had also identified the cogeneration possibility and had
purchased a second-hand 3MW turbine. The total investment was US$ 1.43 million, annual
electricity generation was 20196 MWh and the annual savings were US$ 0.61 million. It was
calculated that approximately 1700 tons of coal can be saved each year because cogeneration
is more efficient than separate electricity and heat production. As a result, CO2 emission
reduction is 4260 tons per year.
During the assessment of the plant following points were observed:

• In addition to the newly installed boiler #9, the company has five saturated steam boilers (1.27 MPa) and three
superheated steam boilers (2.45 MPa, 400oC and 20t/h).
• The steam production rate is 130 t/h and only 40 t/h of the total steam generation (2.45MPa, 400°C) is used to
generate electricity (3MWh = 30% of all electricity used on site) through two non-condensing turbine generators,
and the exit steam from turbines (0.3MPa, 260°C) is used in process heating.
• The newly installed boiler #9 uses duns and coal slacks to produce 35 tons superheated steam (3.82 MPa and
450°C). However, the superheated steam is only used for process heating, this means that there is potential for
cogeneration.
The team proposed an option of using the steam from boiler #9 for cogeneration. A detailed feasibility analysis was
not necessary because the company also had identified this option prior to the assessment. The company installed
an older, second-hand 3MWhr (due to financial constraints) non-condensing turbine generator to generate electricity
with the 3.82MPa, 450°C superheated steam. The exit steam (0.7MPa, 250°C) from the turbine was used for process
heating. Cogeneration at boiler #9 started in February 2005.
Questions:
1. Is installation of steam turbine to existing boiler financial benefiting the company? If yes, then explain how?
Suggestions:
• The installation of stem turbine to existing boiler has definitely benefited the company financial, as the total
investment made is US 1.43 million, wherein the annual operation cost incurred is US 11/MWh. Here the annual
cost saving was US0.61 million with a payback period of 2.3 years.
2. Explain how installation of steam turbine to existing boiler benefits the environment?
Suggestions:
• The annual coal savings is 1700 tons, this was calculated based on a 27% efficiency gap between cogeneration
and separate production of electricity and heat. It has also been observed that the annual GHG emission reduction
to 4260tons CO2.
3. What benefit does the exit steam from turbine provide, which a superheated steam cannot?
Suggestions:
• Using the exit steam from turbine with a lower pressure and temperature instead of superheated steam, process
heating can improve the heat transfer rate and reduce the heating time
143/JNU OLE
Case Study II
Increase of Condensate Recovery from Boiler
TK Chemical Complex Ltd is a privately owned, medium size paper mill located in Chor Khyderpur near Chittagong
and produces office paper for the Bangladeshi market. Condensate recovery was increased from 70% to 90% by
improved management of condensate that was previously discharged into the sewer. There were no investment costs,
annual savings are US$ 8620 and the payback period was immediate. Each year, 12 kiloliters of fuel oil is saved,
which is equivalent to 32 tons CO2. In addition, the amount of make up water was reduced.
Condensate recovery was selected as a focus area because steam is mainly used for indirect heating in the paper
machine cylinders and it was considered that significant improvements in steam condensate recovery could be made.
Steam is mostly used for the drying process and is distributed through a 200 mm steam main line.
The Team observed that condensate recovery was approximately 70%, which is relatively low (ideal recovery rates
are around 90 – 95% of the steam used). The facilitators and the consultant were informed that a large proportion
of condensate that is not recovered is not lost in the process, but is drained during electrical failures and shut downs
and is then released into the sewer. As a result, water and furnace oil is wasted because new water must be heated
up in the boiler.
The Team proposed to increase the percentage of condensate recovery from the boiler. A tank is needed for the
collection of condensate that is currently discharged. An existing in-house condensate tank can be used or it can be
sourced locally from the ship-breaking yard. The installation of the tank and connection with the boiler does not
need any process or lay out modification and can be installed without production disruption.
However, the company managed to increase their condensate recovery from 70% to 90% by improving good
housekeeping practice to avoid condensate discharge. The company therefore managed to make savings without
investment costs.
Questions:
1. How can condensate recovery boiler be used in paper machine cylinders?
2. Explain the environmental benefits from condensate recovery from boiler?
3. What is the required steam recovery rate? How can one increase the condensate recovery rate?
144/JNU OLE
Case Study III
Increase of Inlet Duct Diameter of Circulating Air Fan to Reduce Flow Velocity and
Pressure Drop
Coromandel Cements Ltd., is a small OPC cement (Ordinary Portland Cement) manufacturing
plant in South India, presently producing around 460 tons per day of OPC. The company is
continuously striving to improve its operating efficiency and has benefited enormously after
adopting the methodology for resource and energy conservation in their plant. The unit plans to
modify and expand their plant system and equipment capacities gradually in two phases.
The first phase modifications that were planned and which are underway include installation of Gas
Conditioning Tower and Electro Static Precipitator, which would result in reduced power
consumption. In the second phase, modification of Precalcinator, Grate cooler, Cyclones and
Cement mills would take the plant capacity up to 900 TPD.
The coal is milled to a fine powder (45 mesh) and is conveyed to the storage hopper
pneumatically by air being sucked through the circulating air fan. Towards this the fan consumes
power which is dependant on quantity of material to be conveyed flow and the pressure drops it
has to encounter in this process. The duct diameter from dust collector outlet to CA fan inlet was
increased from 500 to 600mm, thereby decreasing the pressure drop and in turn achieving power
saving. This resulted in a reduction in power consumption by CA fan to the tune of 0.2 kW
totaling 744 kWH per year.
Questions:
1. Explain the two phases that the company acquired to expand their plant system and equipment capacities?
2. Suggest a substitute method to reduce flow velocity and pressure drop to the company?
3. How can we decrease the pressure drop and yet save power?
145/JNU OLE
Bibliography
References
• “Modern Power Station Practice” – British Electricity International- Volume – G; Chapter – 7 – Plant performance
and performance monitoring.
• “Process Heat Transfer” by D.Q.Kern, Edn. 1965.
• Alternate Energy Sources by T H Taylor.Adam Hilger Ltd, Bristol
• British Standard: BS 848 : Part 1 : 1980
• Compressor performance – Aerodynamics for the user by M Theodore Gresh-Butterworth Heinemann
• Coulsons & Richardson’s CHEMICAL ENGINEERING Volume 3 third edition
• Energy and Environmental Audit Reports of National Productivity Council
• Energy audit Reports of National Productivity Council
• Energy Cogeneration Handbook, George Polimeros, Industrial Press Inc.
• Energy Hand book, Second edition, Von Nostrand Reinhold Company - Robert L.Loftness
• Energy Management, Supply and Conservation, Dr. Clive Beggs, .Butterworth Heinemann
• Ganapathy. V, “Fouling factor estimated quickly”, O&G Journal, Aug 1992.
• Handbook of Energy Conservation for Industrial Furnaces, Japan Industrial Furnace Association.
• Improving furnace efficiency, Energy Management Journal
• Industrial boilers, Longman Scientific Technical 1999 www.boiler.com www.eng-tips.com www.worldenergy.
org
• Industrial Furnace, Volume 1 and Volume 2, John Wiley & Sons - Trinks
• IS 10431:1994: Measurement of airflow of compressors and exhausters by nozzles
• IS 5456:1985 code of practice for testing of positive displacement type air compressors and exhausters
• Liberman, Norman P, Trouble shooting Process Operations, Penwell Books, Tulsa, Oklahoma
• Modern Air Conditioning Practice by Norman C.Harris - McGraw-Hill International Edition.
• Motor challenge: Office of Industrial Technologies, Department of Energy, USA
• NPC report on ‘Assessing cogeneration potential in Indian Industries’
• Pump handbook by Karassik
• Refrigeration and Air Conditioning by Richard C.Jordan & Gayle B.Priester – Prentice Hall of India pvt.ltd
• Renewable Energy Sources for rural areas in Asia and Pacific, APO, Tokyo, 2000
• Scimod “ Scientific Modeling Software”, techno software International, India
• www.ireda.org
• www.windenergy.com
Recommended Reading
• Anthony Giampaolo, Compressor Handbook: Principles and Practice, CRC Press; 1 edition, p 300
• Arthur Williams(2004), Pumps as Turbines: A User's Guide, Practical Action; 2nd edition, p 80
• Bimal K Bose, Power Electronics and Variable Frequency Drives: Technology and Applications, Wiley-IEEE
Press, p 660
• Bloch, Calculation Procedure for Nozzle Method , Wiley-Interscience; 2 edition, p 590
• Erich Helfert, Financial Analysis Tools and Techniques: A Guide for Managers, McGraw-Hill; 1 edition, p
480
• Frank Bleier(1997), Fan Handbook: Selection, Application, and Design, McGraw-Hill Professional; 1 edition,
146/JNU OLE
p 640
• Fredrick M. Steingress, Harold J. Frost, 2009, High Pressure Boilers, Amer Technical Publications, p 344
• George T. Friendlob(2002), Essentials of Financial Analysis, Wiley; 1 edition, p 288
• H.S.Lee(2010), Thermal Design: Heat Sinks, Thermoelectrics, Heat Pipes, Compact Heat Exchangers, and
Solar Cells, Wiley; 1 edition, p 648
• James E. Brumbaugh(2004), Audel HVAC Fundamentals, Heating Systems, Furnaces and Boilers, 4 edition,
Audel, p 720.
• James Rishel, Water Pumps and Pumping Systems, McGraw-Hill Professional; 1 edition, p 912
• Malcolm Barnes CPEng(2003), Practical Variable Speed Drives and Power Electronics, Newnes; 1 edition,
p 304
• Meherwan P Boyce(2006), Power Generation Handbook : Selection, Applications, Operation, Maintenance,
Gulf Professional Publishing; 3 edition, p 962.
• Michael Brumbach(2005),Electronic Variable Speed Drives, Delmar Cengage Learning; 3 edition, p 312
• Mohammed Malek, Heating Boiler Operators Manual: Maintenance, Operation and Repair, McGraw-Hill
Professional, 1 edition, p 352
• Philip Kiameh, Power Generation Handbook : Selection, Applications, Operation, Maintenance, McGraw-Hill
Professional, 1edition, p 560.
• Roger Vizi (1999), Forced Hot Air Furnaces: Troubleshooting and Repair, McGraw-Hill Professional. p 344.
• Rolf Kehlohofer, Frank Hannemann, Franz Stirnimann(2009), Energy performance assessment of cogeneration
systems with steam and gas turbines, PennWell Corp, p 430.
• Royce Brown, Compressors, Third Edition: Selection and Sizing , Gulf Professional Publishing; 3 edition, p
640.
• S. Rao, B.B. Parulekar, Energy Technology: Nonconventional, Renewable & Conventional, Khanna Publishers;
3rd edition, p1144.
• Sadik Kakac(2002),Heat Exchangers: Selection, Rating, and Thermal Design, 2 Edition, CRC Press, p 520.
• Sam G.Duleglow, The Control of Boilers, Instrument Society of America, p 412.
• W. M. Kays(1998), Compact Heat Exchangers, Krieger Publishing Company; 3 Sub edition,p 335.
• William Cory, Fans and Ventilation: A practical guide, Elsevier Science; 1 edition, p 424.
147/JNU OLE
Self Assessment Answers

Chapter I
1. a
2. c
3. a
4. a
5. c
6. b
7. a
8. b
9. c
10. d
Chapter II
1. a
2. a
3. c
4. d
5. b
6. c
7. a
8. c
9. d
10. d
Chapter III
1. a
2. a
3. a
4. d
5. b
6. a
7. d
8. a
9. a
10. d
Chapter IV
1. d
2. d
3. d
4. a
5. b
6. a
7. a
8. b
9. c
10. d
148/JNU OLE
Chapter V
1. 0 a
2. 0 a
3. 0 b
4. 0 b
5. 0 a
6. 0 b
7. 0 c
8. 0 a
9. 0 a
10. 0 a
Chapter VI
1. a
2. c
3. b
4. a
5. b
6. b
7. b
8. a
9. b
10. a
Chapter VII
1. 0 a
2. 0 a
3. 0 b
4. 0 b
5. 0 a
6. 0 b
7. 0 b
8. 0 d
9. 0 d
10. 0 c
Chapter VIII
1. 0 a
2. 0 b
3. 0 a
4. 0 a
5. 0 b
6. 0 b
7. 0 b
8. 0 a
9. 0 d
10. 0 a
149/JNU OLE
Chapter IX
1. a
2. b
3. b
4. b
5. c
6. b
7. a
8. c
9. a
10. b
Chapter X
1. 0 b
2. 0 a
3. 0 a
4. 0 b
5. 0 c
6. 0 d
7. 0 a
8. 0 b
9. 0 b
10. 0 c
Chapter XI
1. a
2. b
3. a
4. a
5. b
6. c
7. d
8. a
9. b
10. a
150/JNU OLE

Energy Performance Assessment PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Energy Performance Assessment PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Energy Performance Assessment

This book is a part of the course by Jaipur National University, Jaipur.

The content in the book is copyright of JNU. All rights reserved.

II. List of Figures...........................................................IX

III. List of Tables............................................................ X

V. Case Study ............................................................. 143

VI. Bibliography.......................................................... 146

VII. Self Assessment Answers.................................... 148

11.10 Application of Non-conventional and Renewable Energy Sources.................................................. 124

• evaluate efficiency of coal fired and oil fired boilers

• understand boiler performance - terms and definitions

• identify methods of boiler efficiency evaluation - direct and indirect

• understand planning for efficiency evaluation

• understand boiler performance and factors affecting it

• detect efficiency of coal and oil fired boilers

• explain boiler performance

• analyse the British Standard BS845: 1987

1.2 Why Conduct a Performance Test

The purpose of the performance test is to:

1.3 Performance Terms and Definitions

Boiler Efficiency = (1)

1.4 Reference Standards

IS 8753: Indian Standard for Boiler Efficiency Testing

Boiler efficiency can be tested by the following methods:

1.5 The Direct Method of Testing

Fuel Input Boiler Flue

Fig. 1.1 Input-output method

1.5.2 Measurements required for direct method testing

1.5.2.1 Heat Input

For gaseous fuel

For liquid fuel

For solid fuel

1.5.2.2 Heat Output

1.5.3 Boiler Efficiency by Direct Method - Calculation and Example

Type of boiler: Coal Fired Boiler

Boiler Efficiency (η) =

1.5.4 Merits and Demerits of Direct Method

The demerits of direct method include:

1.6 The Indirect Method of Testing

In indirect method, 1% error in measurement of losses will result in;

Fig. 1.2 Heat losses in a boiler

Boiler Efficiency by indirect method =100-(L1+L2+L3+L4+L5+L6+L7+L8)

1.6.2 Measurements Required for Performance Assessment Testing

Flue gas analysis:

Instrument Type Measurements

Table 1.1 Typical instruments used for boiler performance assessment

1.6.3 Test Conditions and Precautions for Indirect Method of Testing

Blow down loss

Soot blower steam

Auxiliary equipment energy consumption

Preparations and pre-conditions for testing

• ensure the accuracy of fuel and ash analysis in the laboratory

Oxygen Test and Carbon Dioxide Test:

Carbon Monoxide Test

Planning for the testing

1.6.4 Boiler Efficiency by Indirect Method - Calculation Procedure and Formula

Conversion formula for proximate analysis to ultimate analysis

Table 1.2 Theoretical (Stoichiometric) air fuel ratio

Heat loss due to evaporation of water formed due to H2 in fuel (%)

L1 = mxCyp x (Tf – Ta) X 100

Heat loss due to moisture present in fuel

Heat loss due to moisture present in air

Dry-Bulb Wet Bulb Relative Humidity Kilogram water per

Boiler Supervisor Energy Manager Energy Auditor