MAHATMA GANDHI VIDYAMANDIR’S

K.B.H. DENTAL COLLEGE AND HOSPITAL

PANCHAVATI, NASHIK 422003

DEPARTMENT OF PROSTHODONTICS

Seminar on

COLOUR SCIENCE

Presented By: Guided By:

Dr. Ashlesha S. Marathe Dr. Sanjay Bhawsar

Dr. Priti Seluker

INTRODUCTION

Esthetics is the science of sensitive perception; in a narrower sense: the

science of beauty.According to Microsoft "Encarta 97" encyclopedia (1997)
esthetics is a branch of philosophy concerned with the essence and perception of
beauty and ugliness. A German philosopher Baumgarten introduced the term
esthetics in 1753, but the study of the nature of beauty had been pursued for
centuries.

Albert Einstein is reported to have said, "If you cannot explain it simply, then
you do not understand it well enough." This appears to be the problem regarding
color matching. In a time of growing interest in cosmetic dentistry, there is a need
for adequate training and communication for better and more life like results.

The first signs of man’s interest in the facial beauty were recorded more than
4000 years ago. Facial masks of "ideal" shape and proportions used to be the
hallmark of royalty even in the ancient Egypt as far as from 2600 to 2000 BC
(Mack, 1996). Shape and proportion, however, are not self-sufficient and they are
not the only parameters of beauty. Modern concepts of esthetics in dentistry
analyze this issue using a much wider approach. Dento-facial esthetics and various
factors of patients’ perception and expectations have become a very important part
of the prosthodontic treatment (Goldstein and Lancaster, 1984;; Bishop and
Priestley, 1996. The results of an examination of Albino et al. (1984) point out that
esthetics is the first demand of patients: 42% of the patients indicated that
appearance "very strongly" influenced their decision to obtain treatment; 19% put
forward functional problems as the major reason, while in 14% of cases the reason
was pain. When asked to list 14 characteristics of a denture ranking them by
importance, the patients ranked its lifelike appearance as number one.

Lombardi (1973) described principles of visual perception and their clinical

application to denture esthetics. When the term "esthetic"or "unaesthetic" is used it
usually means that something is perceived as pleasant or unpleasant. The
observer’s response to a physical stimuli is, in fact, his/her psychological and
physiological interpretation of that what he/she perceived. The stimulus, i.e. the
observed object on one hand and the response to that stimulus on the other are the
elements of the science of visual perception.
Tooth shape, size, position and color are classical determinants of esthetics in
prosthodontics, and color is probably most important. A number of experts point
out the outstanding need for a systematic and scientifically based approach to color
science in dental (especially prosthodontic) education, and its application in
clinical practice.

Prosthodontics is more concerned with color than other dental branches, so it

is logical to expect that a dentist who has been trained in prosthodontics should be
better in shade matching. It can also be expected that working experience exerts
positive impact on the shade matching quality.

According to Sproull (1974): "The technology of color is not a simple matter

that can be learned without study neither is it a complicated matter beyond the
comprehension of dentists". Many authors think that certain improvements in color
practice are an objective need of dentistry (Hayashi, 1967; Sproull, 1973 b;
Sorensen and Tores, 1987; Sorensen and Tores, 1988 a; Sorensen and Tores, 1988
b).most of the authors think that color science study should be included in the
undergraduate and postgraduate curriculum and/or in the prosthodontics training
program.

There is a lot of perplexity and confusion just as there are numerous

insufficiently explained questions in shade matching and reproduction procedures.
However, it is neither easy nor simple to answer these questions. In spite of
objective and subjective inadequacies of the shade matching and reproduction
method itself, dental material manufacturers could be blamed for certain problems
in this area. . The problem is that the majority of dental color standards lack a
logical sample arrangement order and adequate color distribution; moreover, they
do not match natural teeth color range. Since natural tooth color is not uniform,
harmonization of shade guide samples, dental materials and prefabricated artificial
teeth color composition with the color composition of natural teeth emerges as a
yet unresolved issue.

Color disharmony was found in some manufacturers ceramic masses

intended for certain ceramic layers (especially between opaque and dentin ceramic
powders). Also, it cannot be positively asserted whether (and to what extent)
manufacturers manage to standardize color in different batches of dental materials
and whether particle size differences influence color. Color reproduction for
porcelain-fused-to-metal (PFM) restorations is also a source of many questions,
such as: to what extent the final color of restoration is influenced by the type of
substrate, the application method, the thickness of ceramic layers, the number of
firings and the firing temperature.

Color matching can be performed using visual and/or instrumental methods. Visual
color matching methods are subjective, while instrumental methods are objective,
but still not widespread in dental practice. Precise and objective answers to most of
the questions mentioned could be obtained only by using instrumental color
matching techniques, because they allow numerical expression of results. A correct
interpretation of colorimetric results requires knowledge of the basic elements of
the color science.

Def: “ Color is light,modified by an object as percieved by an eye”.

COLOR SCIENCE

A need to overcome subjectivity, as the major disadvantage of the visual

shade matching method, induced the evolution of color science. Color science is
multidisciplinary and it encompasses elements of physics, chemistry, physiology
and psychology. In order to understand the science of color, one should be aware
of some physical aspects of light, as well as of both physiological and
psychological processes that enable color perception.

Webster: "Color is the sensation resulting from stimulation of the retina of the eye
by light waves of certain lengths".

Billmeyer and Saltzman: "Color is the result of the physical modification of light
by colorants as observed by the human eye and interpreted by the brain".

Color is a special type of psychophysical sensation provoked in the eye by the

influence of the visible light .That incident light, or so-called colored stimulus,
provokes the stimulation of high sensitive eye receptors, producing the nerve
impulse, which is transported to the brain. The brain is the interpreter that
recognizes those nerve impulses as a certain color.
To work with color, it is necessary to be acquainted with the physical,
physiological and psychological aspects of light as well as with the basic principles
of colorimetry.

Physical, physiological and psychological aspects of light

Psychophysics is a scientific discipline dealing with mathematical relations

between physical stimuli and the sensations they cause. Electromagnetic radiation
that can provoke a sensation of color is called stimulus. Stimulus is, speaking in
terms of physics, determined by the total flux of radiation, i.e. by the quantity of
energy transported to the retina in the function of time and distributed onto
different wavelengths (Lemiere and Burk, 1975; Prat, 1978; Birren, 1979;
Billmeyer and Saltzman, 1981).

The entire process starts with the light source, which justifies the saying: "Color
is light" (Saleski, 1972). What one recognizes as natural white light is daylight (not
direct sunlight, which is yellow, but sunlight reflected back from the sky). The
visible part of the spectrum comprises electromagnetic radiation falling between
wavelengths from 380 to 780 nm. The visible spectra range, is called
monochromatic light. White light can be separated into monochromatic
components if it passes through prism or diffraction bars . If the wavelength of the
electromagnetic radiation is less than 380 nm, it is called ultraviolet radiation and
if it exceeds 780 nm, it is called infrared radiation

Light source. Light source is any area or body emitting radiation in the visible
spectra range. According to one classification, light sources can be primary
(emitting their own radiation) and secondary (reflecting a part of the radiation from
some other light source), and according to another one, they are divided into
natural and artificial light sources. The Sun is the most important natural light
source.

The object. One seldom looks directly at the light source. The radiation flux that
reaches the eye is almost all the time reflected from some object, which indicates
that observed object influences color perception. The structure of the object (type
of material, texture) influences its optical properties.
The eye. Color, as well as all other visual sensations, is brought to the brain
through the eye. Visual perception occurs owing to the optical system in the
anterior and the retina in the posterior part of the eye.

The light reflected from the object is brought to the observer’s eye. Light enters
through the optical system and the image is focused onto the retina. The retina is a
complex mosaic of millions of nerve endings containing a chemical substance
which transforms the light stimulation into a nerve signal that is further transported
to the brain. There are two types of nerve endings, rods and cones. Rods only
record light, i.e. they see in black and white. They are connected together in
bunches before reaching the brain, the interpretive part of the system, so that they
achieve high sensitivity at the expense of fine resolution. At high levels of
illumination, they play a small part in the vision process. Cones are nerve endings
that enable color vision. Some seven million cones are placed in the centre of the
retina, in a small pit called fovea, subtending an angle of about 2° in the visual
field. Here, instead of the bunching found in the rod area, there is a "one-to-one"
connection with the optical system so that their resolving power is high.

This is the area of visual acuity, lying on the visual axis of the eye. Cones require
a higher level of illumination to be brought into action. This can be demonstrated
by a slow increase of illumination from complete darkness, through dim
illumination at which stage only shape can be distinguished (rod vision), allowing
only glimpses of color, up to the stage of full intensity of light when the function of
the cones is maximum. This experiment covers three stages of vision: scotopic,
when only rod vision is operating; mesopic, when the cones are only initially
stimulated and rods have not been flooded yet; photopic - full light color vision
(Chamberlin and Chamberlin, 1980).

Trichromatic character of vision. There are many complicated theories as to

how cones function, but the simplest and most commonly accepted is Thomas
Young theory, supported by Helmholz. It is based on the experimental fact that a
suitable mixture of three monochromatic radiations can match any color. This
trichromatic theory postulates three different types of cones, which are sensitive to
different bands of wavelengths. The "blue-sensitive" cones are brought into action
chiefly by light of short visible wavelengths, the second type responding chiefly to
light of wavelengths in the middle of the visible spectrum are called "green-
sensitive", while the third type, the "red-sensitive" cones, are most affected by light
of the longer visible wavelengths. The visible pigments responsible for these
various functions have not as yet been positively isolated.

The distribution of rods and cones changes as one travels outward from the fovea.
The central area (2° field), which receives the image from an object, is rod free and
color differentiation is the best in this area. Outwards, to a 4° field, there is a
mixture of rods and cones, the composition of which mixture can vary with
individuals. Outside of this area the cone population falls off rapidly. The
periphery of the eye is not color discriminating, although very sensitive to light
variations, movements etc. It is because of this varying distribution of rods and
cones between individuals that there arises the slight difference in color
discrimination between "color normal" observers, but they are surprisingly small
among more than 90% of people. Hence the statement: "Although all the people
have not the same sight, the majority of them see very similar"

The brain. Although an image may be formed on the retina, the observer cannot
be said to "seeunless that image is in some way conveyed to his consciousness. A
number of impulses are set in motion by the light, and these messages have to be
conveyed to, and interpreted by, the brain before perception occurs.

The electrical impulses set up in the rods and cones are programmed and sorted out
somewhere on the way to the brain, but there is no general agreement as to the
mechanism of sorting. There are different opinions if the commencement is made
with coding in the retina itself, or in the tissues and nerves immediately adjacent to
it, or at intermediate points where the nerve ganglions join to form bundles of
pathways. However, some form of message is eventually conveyed by the optic
nerve to the appropriate part of the brain. The messages from the rods are telling of
the light or no light, while the cone messages convey information that gives rise to
the sensation of color.

On reaching the brain, the messages are decoded and refereed, as in a computer, to
a bank of stored memories, which will connect the picture presented with
something previously experienced, and finally sensation of something "out there in
front" materializes in consciousness. All this operation is carried out at light speed.
When one is waking, he is presented with an avalanche of messages from the eyes.
Fortunately, the brain is selective, ignoring what is not relevant. One perceives
only the things he is interested in or which the brain automatically brings to his
notice of the built-in instinct for self-preservation (Chamberlin and Chamberlin,
1980).

The most frequent complications in color perception are chromatic adaptation,

metamerism and dichroism.

Chromatic adaptation is defined as a color constancy phenomenon of the

perceived color of the viewed scene. Going from daylight, into a room lit only by
incandescent lamps, one is seldom aware of the fact that the color of everything
has changed, although reason points out that this must be so.

Metamerism which occurs when the color of two objects looks identical when
observed under one light source but different under other light conditions

Dichroism refers to a situation when the color of an object, viewed by transmitted

light, may be different accordingto the thickness of the sample viewed. Blood is,
for example, yellow if viewed in an extremely thin film but is red in greater depth.

Color defining and/or measuring

Visual comparison is a comparison with some known physical standard accepted

as referral. There are numerous systems of visual comparison and description of
color. The easiest way is to produce some kind of systematized and precisely
repeatable catalogue. Such catalogues are called color atlases or color derivation
systems. The Munsell Book of Color, the Ostwald system and DIN (Deutches
Institut für Normung) system are the most famous color catalogs.

No matter what visual method is used, light source and viewing geometry should
be standardized in order to obtain valid results. In the case of instrument itself,
standardization is to be done by the manufacturer, but in case when color atlases or
some other samples are used, adequate conditions have to be provided.
Furthermore, in all cases of visual colorimetry before any real work starts it is
necessary to test whether the observer is color deficient. It has already been
emphasized that there are differences among so-called "color normal" observers,
but training and practice may reduce these differences to an acceptable level. If
some important examination is underway, it is recommended to use more than one
observer and take the mean value of their responses as a result.

Color Vision Testing

Pseudo-Isochromatic Plates frequently are used by eye specialists to get an idea

of one’s color efficiency or deficiency. To a color-deficient person, all the dots in
one or more of the plates will appear similar or the same—“isochromatic.” To a
person without a color deficiency, some of the dots will appear dissimilar enough
from the other dots to form a distinct figure (number) on each of the plates—
“pseudo-isochromatic.”

Light and Its Role in Dental Ceramics

Just as a musician must know the scales, dentists and ceramists must know the
principles of light. Without scales, there would be no music; without light, no
colour. To better appreciate the importance of light in dental ceramics, we must
learn some of its basic characteristics and how these, when combined with the
physical and chemical composition of natural teeth, influence our visual perception
of tooth colour.

Direct Light

When direct light falls upon an object, it is either absorbed, reflected, or

transmitted.

If all of the light is reflected, the object appears white.

If the light is entirely absorbed, the object appears black.

The larger the amount of light reflected by an object, the brighter the object will
appear.

Furthermore, the greater the intensity of the direct light source, the brighter the
object will appear.

The final effect depends greatly on whether the object is transparent, translucent or
opaque.
Teeth and porcelain have all these characteristics, however the differences in the
chemical and physical properties of teeth and porcelain require that these
characteristics be treated differently.

In duplicating tooth colour, we must produce a ceramic restoration that captures all
the colour dimensions found in the tooth despite the opacity produced by the gold
and opaque layer, rather than in conjunction with it. The opacity found in the
dentin is a chemical phenomenon rather then the physical one produced by the
metal in a ceramic restoration.

Light can be transmitted or passed through transparent and translucent substances.

A clear window glass through which an object can be seen distinctly is an example
of a transparent medium; it permits maximum transmission of light.

A frosted glass pane, through which light is visible but objects are seen
indistinctly, is an example of a translucent medium; it transmits diffused light.

A wooden door or brick wall is an opaque medium and permits no light

transmission

In both natural dentition and fabricated restorations, we are concerned with

translucent and opaque qualities rather than transparent ones. Of the three, teeth
have the least transparency; in a ceramic restoration, this is undesirable for it
serves no constructive purpose

Reflected Light

Reflected light describes light rays that are bounced back from the surface of the
object encountered instead of being transmitted through or absorbed by it.

Light rays that strike the surface of an object are called incident (falling upon) rays
and their point of contact is termed point of incidence.

Reflected light falls into two categories: specular and diffused.

Specular light travels in a single direction. When the incident light strikes a
perfectly smooth surface, it rebounds from the point of impact at exactly the same
angle as the incident ray.

Diffused light travels in more than one direction. If light rays strike an uneven
surface, they cannot be reflected at an even angle; the incident rays will be
reflected at various angles, making the light diffused

Color matching and reproduction

Color vision

Color matching is complicated with individual differences in color perception and

different color matching ability. According to Culipepper (1970), there are tooth
color matching differences among dentists themselves and it happens that the same
dentist may match different shades for the same tooth in different days. Hence, it
turns out to be necessary for dental students, dentists and dental technicians to
undergo a color vision test, particularly in view of the fact that approximately 8%
of men and 0.5% of women are color deficient (Barna, 1981; Paravina et al., 1997
a).

Color matching conditions

Tooth color is in the clinical practice matched under different illuminants.

Illumination for shade matching should be standardized and harmonized with the
laboratory illumination (Bergen and Mccasland, 1977; Preston et al., 1978;) While
performing tooth color matching, attention should be attached to the viewing
distance, viewing angle as well as to the impact of such factors as background and
environment. The color of the patient’s clothes, the color of the drapes, uniform,
equipment, office furniture, walls and ceiling are of great importance.

Dental color standards

Hall (1991) wrote: "Shade guides of all dental restorative materials are based on
the long established porcelain shade guides which evolved to represent the
available shades of porcelain teeth. The shades developed by a process of popular
selection by which shades perceived to be nearer tooth colour were added and the
least popular eliminated. This concept has not changed since the introduction of
porcelain over two hundred years ago".

A number of authorities in dental ceramics point at inadequacies of the commercial

shade guides (Sproull, 1967; Sorensen and Tores, 1987; Pizzamiglio, 1991). The
shades of the samples are not logically arranged, they are not equally placed in
color solid and do not cover the color range of the natural teeth (Hayashi, 1967;
Sproull, 1973 b;). The absence of darker shades in the majority of dental color
standards is caused by the compromise with the cosmetic demands for the "white"
teeth. The samples used for PFM restoration color matching are made of fired
ceramics, with no metal substrate and the anterior-posterior size of the ceramics is
considerably larger than the ceramic part of the final PFM restoration (Bergen,
1985. The color of the acrylic resin samples is changeable if kept in some
disinfectants, particularly in chlorine-containing disinfecting solutions (Cernavin,
1996).

The mentioned inadequacies gave rise to various propositions for the production of
new shade guides, and for the improvement of the sample arrangement order in the
existing color standards, or resulted in the production of different individual
(custom) shade guides

The manufacturers had ignored for decades the legitimate demands for the
production of new dental color standards based on the needs of dental practice,
color range of the natural teeth and the principles of the color science. Certain
progress in this area, however, was made not so long ago. Vita Zahnfabrik
Company (http) presented a new dental color standard, "Vitapan 3D Master". This
shade guide consists of 26 samples divided into groups according to lightness and
within those groups according to saturation (vertically) and hue (horizontally).
Despite the fact that the improvement in relation to the previous color standard of
this manufacturer (Vita "Lumin Vacuum") is obvious, certain disharmony in the
sample arrangement can be noticed in shade guide as a whole.

Color matching method

It is more than obvious that it is not simple to provide adequate shade matching
conditions. As for the shade matching method, there have been significant
improvements in this area, especially in the last ten years.

Shade matching should be performed at the beginning of the appointment

(Sorensen and Tores, 1988; Pizzamiglio, 1991) and the patient’s mouth should be
at the level of the dentist’s eye. A shade guide sample should be applied parallel
with the tooth whose shade is being matched, not in front of it, for it will appear
lighter, not behind it because it will appear darker. Some authors suggest that the
cervical part of samples should be removed because they are more saturated, which
could have a negative effect on the shade matching (Miller, 1993). Spencer (http)
suggests removal of the mesial and the distal third of the samples in order to enable
application of two shade guide samples next to the tooth whose color is being
matched.

If the sample and the tooth whose color is being matched have different surface
texture, both should be wet, in order to neutralize this difference. Tooth should not
be observed for more than five seconds at a time, and, in the meantime, it is
desirable to observe some blue surface for one minute (Pizzamiglio, 1991) in order
to increase the ability to differentiate yellow color (the dominant color of the
teeth). Owing to possible occurrence of metamerism, the choice should be verified
under different illuminants. Some authors’ attitude (Seluk and LaLonde, 1985,
Swepston and Miller, 1985) that esthetics can be improved if the dentist and the
dental technician use shade guides and relative porcelains of several manufacturers
is logical and acceptable. It is also suggested that extended shade guides should be
used (containing the samples of all ceramic masses used for the production of PFM
restorations), such as Vita "VMK - Shade Indicator" (Pizzamiglio, 1991; Miller,
1993).
Munsell color order system

Many color order systems are available, but for a variety of reasons, including
worldwide recognition, consistency, flexibility, and simplicity, the Munsell Color
Order System is the system of choice for color matching in dentistry. The attempt
to achieve equal visual (Perceptual) spacing in this system further recommends it.
The color tree (Plate I) is a representation of the tridimensional organization of the
colors within the Munsell System. The Munsell color solid can be likened to a
sphere or to a cylinder, as it is an irregular three dimensional figure that has
characteristics of both.

Although usually described as a sphere (Munshell’s original concept), for the

purpose of this article, it will be treated as a cylinder. The relationship of one color
to another becomes apparent when the organization of the colors within the three
dimensional solid is understood. A colorless or achromatic axis extends through
the center of the cylinder, pure white at the top, pure black at the bottom. A series
of grays, progressing from black to white in equal visual steps, connects these
extremities.

Colors (Hues) are arranged around this axis, and within each Hue, the colors are
arranged in scales according to their lightness/darkness (Value) and their purity or
strength (Chroma). (In the Munsell System, Hue Value, and Chroma are
capitalized). Light colors are toward the top of the cylinder; dark colors are
toward the bottom. The colors are purest on the outer skin of the cylinder and they
become progressively grayer as they approach the gray Value axis. Within each of
these scales of Hue, Value, and Chroma, the intervals were chosen to represent
equal visual spacing under a standard light source.

The cylinder may be considered as a series of wheels stacked one upon the other,
each wheel of ascending lightness as we progress to the tope of the cylinder. The
hub of each wheel represents the Value axis. The Hues are arranged sequentially
around the rim. The spokes represent the gradations of Chroma from the color less
axis to the purest Hues at the rim. In actually, as can be seen by examining plate I,
the Hues project unevenly beyond the surface of the solid, but this is one of the
advantages of the system. As technology permits the creation of purer colors, they
can easily to added to the periphery. These unequal extensions of the Chroma
spokes obviously make some of the wheels flat or lopsided, but basically we have a
cylinder, even if it is bent out of shape.

Dimensions of Color.

Hue, Value and Chroma, the dimensions of color, are just as descriptive in
describing color as length, width, and breadth are in describing form, once the
language is understood by those using it. Since it is so important in working with
color to understand thoroughly the three dimensional concept of color, a more
explicit description of each is presented.

Hue, Hue: the first dimension, is the easiest to understand, and in Munsell’s
words, “it is that quality by which we distinguish one color family from another, as
red from yellow, green from blue or purple.” The color wheel is a familiar form of
this dimension and consists of the Hues that are arranged sequentially around the
central axis of the Munsell color Solid (Plate II, C). The refer to a Hue in the
Munsell system, the initials are used; R for red, YR for yellow red, Y for yellow,
and so on. Each Hue is subdivided into ten segments, equally spaced visually (by
psychologic criteria) from each other. The color wheel cut and placed in a
horizontal strip.

Value and Chroma are more difficult to understand and are often confused with
one another. Special attention must be focused on these dimensions.

Value: Value “is that quality by which we distinguish a light color from a
dark color”, and this is related to the achromatic (colorless) polar axis going
through the Munsell color solid. The value of a color is determined by which gray
on the Value scale it matches in lightness/darkness. The black of the Value scale is
assigned a Value of zero, the white a Value of 10. An infinite number of
gradations of gray is possible as we go from black to white, but only nine Value
(gray) steps are used in the Munsell system. Pure white (10) and pure black (0) are
unattainable. Fractional numbers are used when a finer evaluation is needed.
“Low” values refer to dark colors : “high” values to light colors.

We perceive Value differences when we watch a black and white television

picture. The actual scene is full of color, but only the lightness/darkness (Value) of
a color is transmitted, a blue, red or yellow could all be transmitted as the same
indistinguishable gray if they are of the same Value (a part of the same Value
“wheel’). Colors of high Value would be transmitted as light grays, and those of
low Value as dark grays, regardless of the Hue or chroma. It could be said that the
Value of a color is the gray it would match if it were seen on a black and white
television screen. Tab c in Plate II, B, and all the tabs directly to its left have the
same Value and would, therefore, transmit as the same indistinguishable gray.

Chroma : Chroma, the remaining dimension, “is that quality by which we

distinguish a strong color from a weak one; the departure of a color sensation from
that of white or gray; the intensity of a distinctive Hue; color intensity. Chroma
describes the amount of Hue in a color. The gradations of Chroma were referred to
as the spokes of our wheels. The concept of painting a box will help to clarify this
dimension. Suppose it is desired to paint one side of box pure red. If an amount of
gray paint is added to the bucket before the second side is painted, the red on the
second side will be perceived as less than a pure red; the Chroma will be reduced.
If additional gray paint is added to the bucket before each additional side is
painted, the paint will come closer and closer to being perceived as a gray.

Plate II, B, is from the Munsell Book of Color, and studying this illustration will
aid in the understanding of these points. If the red to the extreme right at Value
level 4 (tab c) is considered as the original color of the paint, the red to the left of
this would represent the paints of reduced Chroma. Adding a gray always reduces
the Chroma and theoretically will not affect the Hue. The change in Value of the
original color depends upon the Value of the gray added to it. If a gray of higher
Value than that of the original color is used, the resulting color will be of the same
Hue, lessened Chroma, and higher value (tab a could represent such a result).

If a gray of the same Value is used, only the Chroma will be affected (lessened).
(e.g., tab d). If a gray of a lower Value is used, only the Chroma will be lessened,
and the Value will be lowered (e.g. tab b). Emphasis is placed on this point in
order to dispel the confusing statements seen in some dental literature to the effect
that Value depends upon the relative amount of gray in a Hue and that adding gray
always lowers the Value.

The need to refer to gray in describing both Value and Chroma is a major factor
in the confusion concerning these two dimensions. To think of Value in relation to
the television picture and Chroma in relation to the painting of the box will provide
a simple, easily recalled memory aid.

SURFACE TEXTURE

Matching the surface texture and outline form is an important as matching the
shade of a tooth. This statement does not diminish the importance of the shade but
emphasizes the importance of reproducing surface texture and outline form in
establishing esthetic harmony of a ceramic restoration.

Regardless of whether a tooth is flat or irregular, the surface is viewed as being

rough or smooth. A smooth surface will reflect most of the incident light back to
the observer. A roughened surface randomly scatters the reflection of light in
many different directions. In the process of determining the character of light
reflection, the surface texture of a crown must be designed to simulate the
reflectance pattern of adjacent teeth. Properly blending the effects of light
reflection and absorption in a crown creates a natural appearance that hides slight
color differences.

Many dentists have discussed the manipulation of surface texture to conceal

color differences in ceramic restorations. Obregon et al, found that increased
roughness of porcelain samples decreased the Value level. Burk, in a pilot study,
observed that modifying surface texture altered the appearance of porcelain in
terms of Hue, Value, and Chroma, and even affected the degree of translucency.

On eruption, teeth have their roughest surface texture. Undulating vertical ridges
are formed by the fusion of developmental lobes transversed by fine horizontal
lines.
 These numerous small transverse lines on the surface of enamel are perikymata
produced during the incremental formation of enamel. In general, with advancing
age these surface features are gradually obliterated through attrition from tooth
brushing or occlusal wear.

This process of progressive enamel wear corresponding with advancing age can
be characterized. Through many years of brushing and the process of natural
abrasion, the lines become less defined and the tooth surface acquires more
stippled appearance. As the wear process continues into the later years of life, all
signs of the perikymata are lost and only the gentle undulations of the
developmental lobes are observed. Finally, the definition of the developmental
lobes is obliterated and the tooth appears smooth with a highly reflecting glassy
surface.

The teeth with a highly reflectively glassy surface. The teeth of a younger
individual will most likely have the perikymata and developmental lobes intact.
Emulating the surface characteristic for a particular age group facilitates
achievement of a life like restoration. Failure to reproduce surface detail
accurately will result in light reflection different from that of the contra lateral
teeth. This result will suggest artificially, despite correct color and contour
matching.

To create the surface texture of a young individual, the developmental lobes and
vertical undulations are first defined with a cone shaped diamond bur. Next, a
rotating football shaped diamond bur moved mesiodistally defines perikymata.
The crown is fired to a light autoglaze to hear surface flaws. Finally, diamond
polishing paste on a 1 inch felt wheel creates the desired surface shine.

The smooth surface of an older tooth resulting from heavy abrasion, is first
prepared by defining any developmental lobes. Ridges and heights of contour are
polished with a rubber wheel. The crown is held at glazing temperature for a
longer period to achieve a smoother autoglaze. The final finish is accomplished by
polishing with Brasso cleaner (French Household products, Rochester, N.Y.) and
pumice on a high speed lathe with a large felt wheel to the desired smoothness.
Wear facets can be created by further selective polishing with a rubber wheel.
 Although study casts are helpful in demonstrating major features such as
developmental ridges, surface texture is inadequately reproduced by a stone cast.
The use of a resin replica has been suggested for better reproduction of surface
detail.

A tooth tab actually demonstrating surface texture provides much more detail
than a written prescription or a study cast. We have developed a system of using
extracted teeth with varying degrees of surface texture. The teeth are sterilized,
numbered for easy identification, and retained on a ring. By having several sets of
surface texture tabs available, the dentist match and record the appropriate surface
texture tab and include the tab with the preparation dies. Preparation of various
surface texture on porcelain tabs is an alternative to the use of extracted teeth. The
identification tab, which will be discussed, can also be textured for communication
with the ceramist. The identification tabs can be prepared with a range of surface
texture and degrees of luster.

Although final chairside adjustment is always necessary, the ceramic restoration

produced by the ceramist will require less adjustment and be closer to the desired
finished result. Because the surface texture of the crown is similar to that the
natural teeth to be matched, it allows rapid evaluation of suitability of color match.

SHADE SELECTION PROCEDURE:

CLARK SAID, "Color, like form, has three dimensions, but they are not in
general use. Many of us have not been taught neither names, nor the scales of their
measurement. In other words, we as dentists are not educationally equipped to
approach a color problem."

This statement is, unfortunately, still true. Dentists have had little or no training
in vision physiology or color science. A 1967 survey revealed that 23 out of 112
dental schools had some sort of color education in their curriculum. A survey
conducted the following year, reported that 3 of 115 dental schools taught a formal
course in color. Thirty years later, comprehensive color training continues to be a
missing part in the dental school curriculum. If any training at all is given in dental
school, it is cursory or simplistic and usually consists of presenting an incomplete
explanation of three abstract concepts of the Munsell Notation:4 hue, value and
chroma.
 The increase in newer types of ceramic restorations and the improving quality of
esthetics means the dentist of the 21st century must be trained to detect differences
in color and shades in individual teeth, select a shade that reflects the color and
exact shade, transmit this information to a dental technician, and then be able to
make any necessary adjustments to the restoration. However, there are a number of
factors that stand in the way of properly selecting a color match. Subjective faults
range from differences in color perception to ocular fatigue and lack of education
regarding the basic principles of color. Metamerism may occur if proper lighting is
not used during shade selection in the dental office and laboratory Finally, existing
shade guides are limited and require a more extensive range of shades.

Therefore, it is no surprise that color matching for crowns and dentures can be a
frustrating and discouraging experience for the dentist, technician and patient. The
breakdown in communication over matters ranging from shade guide to laboratory
prescriptions must be addressed. This study will review the problems of color
matching and will attempt to guide the reader toward enhancing his or her
techniques regarding shade selection and communication with the ceramist.

Tooth vs. Porcelain

Prior to shade matching, the dentist must have an understanding that the human
tooth and dental porcelain transmit light waves differently It is their physical
composition that determines the differences in light-wave transmission, absorption,
reflection, refraction, scattering and surface gloss. The manner in which light
strikes an object determines the total appearance of the material. Transparent
materials allow for the passage of light with little change. Translucent materials
scatter, transmit and absorb light. Opaque materials reflect and absorb; however
they do not transmit. Surface characteristics, such as gloss, curvature and texture,
will affect the degree of light diffusion when striking the particular object.

A vital tooth is both naturally translucent and transparent. Enamel rods are
transparent and therefore refract and reflect light. Light that strikes the incisal
edges of an anterior tooth passes through with maximum transmission because of a
high degree of translucency.

Porcelain, however, is a heterogeneous material. It contains transparent

properties and metallic oxides that act as opacifiers. These porcelains modify light
by absorption, transmission and reflection. Absorption is largely responsible for
color. It occurs when light passes through the layers of the porcelain. Scattering
occurs when light encounters interfaces between the materials (i.e., pigments and
glass). The smaller the pigment size, the less light that is absorbed, resulting in less
detectable color. The larger the pigment size, the more reflection that occurs as
light scatters at the particle surfaces. Scattering light is necessary in dental
porcelains to simulate the prismatic effect of enamel. Yet, one must keep in mind
that too much dispersed reflection through internal scattering will create an
unnatural looking prosthesis.

Light Sources

One of the questions asked when selecting a shade is, what light source should be
used? Shade determination should be performed under color corrected fluorescent
lighting, which contains a balance of the entire visible spectrum. The operatory
should be lit using a luminous ceiling with translucent diffusing panels that are
simple to maintain. Clean watt saver lamps having a color temperature of 4200K or
higher is advocated. Shade selection should not be made using daylight, because
daylight is subject to constant changes.

One must also be concerned with the phenomenon of metamerism, which occurs
when the color of two objects looks identical when observed under one light source
but different under other light conditions.Metamerism occurs only when two
objects have different wavelength distribution and therefore reflect different
spectra.

The color of the operatory can also affect shade selection. Colors should be kept
at a low saturation level. Walls and cabinets should be glossy enough to maintain
brightness without causing a glare. It is recommended that the color of the walls
and ceiling be white or off-white.

The dentist should be concerned with "blue fatigue:' this occurs when the eye is
unable to differentiate between the various shades of blue. However, blue fatigue
increases sensitivity to yellow therefore, to improve shade selection in the yellow
range, the operator should stare at a blue card or patient napkin between shade
comparisons.

It has been suggested that dentists use natural north daylight for shade matching.
Many dental offices have been designed to face the north to enhance the selection
process. However, daylight is not at a constant throughout the day and therefore
must not be used as the only light source for shade matching.

The Problem with Shade Guides

Shade guides have become the standard for selecting shade, yet there have been
many errors associated with the use of commercial shade guides. Problems that
may arise include the following:

1. Porcelains do not match the shade guides that they are being compared to.

2. Shade variations occur between different die lots of porcelain from the same
manufacturer.

3. Shade guide tabs are 4-5 mm thick compared to the thin 1.5 mm piece of
porcelain used for the restoration.

4. Shade guides are not always made with fluorescent porcelain, which causes
inconsistencies in color matching.

5. It is difficult to predict the final shade after the layering of opaque, dentin and
enamel.

6. Guide tabs lack a metal backing when using porcelain-fused to-metal

restorations.

7. Shade tabs are condensed differently than porcelain used for final restorations.

Now that the reader understands the potential problems that arise when selecting
shade, it is imperative that the dentist have a proper education in color. However,
we must assume that not every dentist will seek out the proper courses. The latter
portion of this article will be a review of numerous methods for enhancing
laboratory communication between the dentist and the dental technician, to assure
the success of proper shade matching. The dentist must then decide for himself or
herself how much information is enough to guarantee the replication of the
restored teeth.

Shade Selection Guidelines

The dentist must have a working knowledge of the basic principles of color. This
allows for accurate shade selection. Munsell described the three dimensions of
color as hue, value and chroma.

Hue is the property of color that is determined by wavelength, which

distinguishes one color from another. Value is a quantity of brightness. It is a
qualitative term related to lightness or blackness of color and not the quantity of
the color gray Chroma is the saturation of color.

Matching the proper shade is not carried out just by holding up a guide tab to the
tooth in question. There are a number of methods that can be employed to intensify
the shade selection. They are as follows:

1. If patient is wearing bright clothing, drape him or her with a neutral colored
cover.

2. Have patient remove lipstick or other make-up.

3. Clean the teeth and remove all stains and debris.

4. Have patient's mouth at dentist's eye level.

5. Determine shade at the beginning of the appointment to avoid ocular fatigue.

6. Shade comparisons should be performed at five-second intervals so as not to

fatigue the cone cells of the retina.

7. Obtain value levels by squinting.

8. Compare shade under varying conditions (i.e., wet vs. dry lips; retracted lip vs.
pulled down lip).

9. Use the canine as a reference for shade because of the highest chroma of the
dominant hue of the teeth."
10. If unable to precisely match shade, select a shade of lower chroma and higher
value.

11. Grind off the necks of the shade tabs because they tend to be darker than the
rest of the shade tab.

Custom Shade Guides

To properly start the shade matching process the dentist should acquire a custom
shade guide. This guide is the beginning of improving communication with the
laboratory Each custom shade guide should include the ceramists metal, porcelain,
staining kits, equipment and techniques. It should also contain pointers as to what
to look for when selecting a shade. The technician needs to send a chart along with
the guide for jotting down any additional information that will allow for a better
understanding of the particular shade. The dentist may choose to create a luster tab
and send it to the laboratory with the prescription. The technician will then have a
visual aid for what he must fabricate. Numerous techniques regarding custom
shade guides have been noted in the literature.

Procedure for shade selection:

The first step is to select the hue .this is a delicate step since thereis not much
difference among the hues .because different chromas of the same hue are close to
each other in the manufacturers arrangement of the shade guide there can be
confusion.for this reason pizzamiglio used “the four hues technique”. In the vita
shade guide there are only four hues ,A B C andD. The maximum chromas of each
hue A4,B4,C4,andD4 are removed from the shade guide and put in a vita VMK-
individualskala kit . this allows one to visualize the difference in hue more
effectively because chroma is more intense . the lamp is set at a distance of 20cm
from the dental arch and, with the shade guide arranged with the four hues ,two
passes from the beginning to the end of the guide are quickly made close to the
teeth . it is important to determine the hue by observing the shade guide against the
cervical part of the tooth .
 Looking toward the cervical part increases the perceived chroma where as
looking toward the incisal part decreases the perceived chroma ,making it more
difficult to distinguish the hues. When the canine is present ,it is the best tooth on
which to choose hue because it has the highest chroma. This step should be
performed within 5 sec,otherwise the ability to recognize the desired hue decreases
. the eyes are then rested by gazing at a blue background. Suppose that the hue
chosen is A. once this is done the other three hues (B,CandD) are set aside .next
all of the different chromas of the selected hue are put in the Vita VMK-
Individualskakala kit .an example that would be A1,A2,A3,A3.5andA4. At this
point we have different chromas of the selected Hue in the shade guide to match
with the tooth.

Again working quickly(less than 5 sec),the dentist selects the chroma by

comparing the shade guide against the tooth . This is much easier because now we
have only different chromas chromas of the same hue , the eyes are rested by
gazing at a blue background for 1 min . Suppose that the selected chroma is A2.
Through the shade indicator chart .,we know the number of the dentin (in the case
of A1, it is 541). The chroma is again checked with a ring arranged by the dentin
colour .it is of the necessary to make corrections . the number of the dentin chroma
that has been chosen is recorded. The blue background is again used to rest the
eyes . Next the enamel is chosen with enamel colours . in this case the observation
should be done at the incisal part of the teeth where the enamel is thicker .

The second shade guide arranged according to the value , is used to select the
value. An important part of this procedure is to squint the eyes . squinting causes
the black and white sensitive rods in the eye to become more active than the colour
sensitive cones. The rods are responsible for helping to determine the value. It is
important to avoid consideration of the hue and chroma when selecting the value.
The value that has been selected is used to choose the opaque porcelain. If the
value is wrong ,the effect will be particularly unpleasant in the cervical region
where the thickness of PFM is less.

Shade Guides

Because an important factor in restorations is the shade determination, it is

imperative that guides are available to assist in the correct shade matching.
 VITA Lumin Vacuum Shade Guide contains porcelains that are pre-fired set out
in the colour tones that the company has available. They are arranged on porcelain
pins that can be removed individually for maximum shade matching. The main
tones groups are rose-brown, rose-white, greytone, and rose-grey.

VITA VMK Individualised Shade Guide is a kit for the reproduction of

intermediate and individual shades, and therefore demonstrates the offering of a
multitude of possibilities of shade determination of the companies metal ceramics.
This is the main communication method of shade determination between dentist
and technician. The porcelains are layered onto a ceramic cap which corresponds
in colour to the oxidised metal. These are also excellent for practice.

Opaque Porcelain.

Success in duplicating depends greatly on proper opaquing procedures.

Reproduction of the colour tone of natural teeth is attainable with an understanding
of opaque porcelain. The opaque layer is the foundation of the ceramic portion of a
porcelain fused to metal restoration. This foundation provides an excellent bond
and consistent and precise shade control. Opaque should be mixed with Condenser
Liquid or distilled water to the consistency of heavy cream, which can be easily
applied with brush or spatula. The preferable method of applying opaque is with
two thin coats, fired individually to a total thickness of 0.2 - 0.3 mm. Opaque
porcelain should never be allowed to dry in application

Opaque porcelain

It masks the metal colour. Because teeth are translucent the body porcelain is
made transparent, so the opaque porcelain is used to mask the metal colour.

Success of the application of opaque depends of following 3 working

techniques:

brushing

moisture control

condensation of the opaque porcelain by vibration or other methods

 Liquids - Opaque, Modelling & Condenser

Opaque liquid is used for mixing and remoistening of opaque porcelains

Modelling liquids are used for mixing all dentine and enamel porcelains.

The use of Condenser Liquid, which is in effect a stronger form of modelling

liquid, allows the porcelain to stay wet longer, resulting in more working time. It is
ideal for larger restorations. It improves stability and considerably extends working
time. Some generic condenser liquids, when used with opaque powders, will result
in a pastier consistency, yielding a greater ease of application

Dentine Porcelain

Dentine is used to build the dental shape. It gives the opacity and the density of
the natural tooth dentin to the porcelain, for use in the anatomical shading.

These are the components for the build up of the crown. These are used to build
up the tooth after the opaque firing.

The definite shape of the tooth is constructed with dentine materials.

Dentine can be mixed with stains. .

Enamel Porcelains

Also known as incisal porcelains.

Display a degree of opalescence that makes it comparable to natural tooth

definition.

Acts as a transmitter of the underlying colour found in the dentine and is made
up of long rods that are surrounded by a prismatic substance and are perpendicular
to the dentin.

It is this fibre-optic arrangement that permits light to pass through the enamel,
strike the underlying colour in the dentin and reflect off in all directions giving the
opalescent appearance mentioned above.

Can be applied with the dentin or separately after the dentin has been fired.
 Translucency of the natural enamel (in true teeth) increases with age, and
therefore with age the natural tooth appears more transparent. So an understanding
of the role of enamel porcelain, as well as the body and colour of the restoration, is
of vital importance.

It should be applied in several small portions to complete the shape of the crown
or the occlusal surface. It should be modelled slightly larger than the actual tooth
size to allow for shrinkage when fired.

Ceramic Stains

Ceramic stains should be used sparingly as they are designed to supplement the
characterisations already inserted into the restoration.

Stains can be used to create root attachments, enhance the overall shaping,
simulate fillings and imitate tobacco and tea stains.

Stains can be used to alter shades and to add characterisation. They can be applied
and baked separately or can be baked concurrently with glazes.

Cervical or Marginal Porcelains

When working in metal ceramics, it is often found rather difficult to achieve

satisfactory results for the cervix of the tooth. Even with a shoulder preparation,
metal will still be visible as a dark rim, which will have an obtrusive and
unaesthetic effect in the mouth.

These materials are layered onto the dentine above the neck of the tooth
extending into the approximal area to increase the illusion of depth.

They are usually special dentine porcelains with a higher stability, that assists in
achieving maximum marginal fit .They can also be used in corrections

Glazes

Are used to apply a soft, silky shine to the restoration

Either high or low fusing glaze may be used as a last step, providing a high gloss
finish to all ceramic restorations.

Laboratory Prescriptions
 With few exceptions, laboratory work authorizations do not request enough
information from the dentist. This could be because there is not enough space on
the prescription to record it. It is, therefore, important to use a laboratory that fully
understands the need for shade matching. Each laboratory prescription should
contain enough space to record clinical information about each ceramic component
of the restoration-for example, different shades of porcelain and opaque, and where
to place them on the tooth.

The authorization should include numerous diagrams of the tooth so that the
dentist can draw helpful notes on them (i.e., shade, translucency, staining, glaze
and surface texture). And the dentist should be in contact with the ceramist to
ensure that the technician fully understands what the dentist is requesting. It is
through these methods that the dentist builds a relationship with the technician.
Ceramists will usually return the quality that the dentist sends to them.15

Models

Along with the laboratory prescription, the technician should have a set of study
models to use as a guide. Preoperative models give the ceramist information about
occlusion, tooth alignment, position of soft tissue, diastema, surface texture, wear
facets, and more.16 A diagnostic wax-up will aid in the occlusion and form of the
restoration. Matching shade is obviously only part of the task of replicating the
natural tooth.

Photography

The macro lens has become an important tool in communicating with the
laboratory. It has been said that, "The photograph is the cosmetic dentist's
radiograph.this enables the technician to evaluate the color of a particular tooth,
see craze lines, stains, surface texture and luster. Multiple pictures should be taken
at different angles and under different light sources. The patient's occlusion should
also be photographed. Along with photographs of the teeth being worked on, it is
best to include pictures of the patient's smile. These photographs can tell the
technician about the patient, his or her age, personality and character. It is a good
idea to photograph the prosthesis at the try-in stage. If color adjustments are
necessary, the technician will have a visual aid to help make the proper corrections.
Written instructions alone are not enough information for the technician. They
leave a tremendous amount of room for interpretation.

Computers

Computers have become a valuable communications tool for the dentist and
laboratory Cosmetic imaging can take the place of photographs. The dentist can
take a picture with an intraoral camera and send it over the Internet to the
laboratory. Film developing is eliminated, saving time and money. The ceramist
can use these images to fabricate the proper prosthesis.

E-mail can be sent between dentist and laboratory to facilitate discussions of

shade matching. The ceramist may decide to offer suggestions to the dentist based
on the original images sent over the computer. E-mail can be used if the dentist is
busy with a patient and cannot come to the telephone.

Computed Color Matching:

Every dentist who places esthetic restorations has at one time or another been
frustrated by the process of trying to match the color of natural teeth with ceramic
or resin restorations. Conventional shade guides have severe limitations, both in
design and in product execution. Even the latest iterations of shade selection
systems do not cover the dental shade range. It would seem that in today's highly
technical world we should be able to develop a computer-based shade selection
device.

After all, there are spectrophotometers at the local paint store and automobile paint
shops use a spectrophotometer for your car repair. Why doesn't the dentist have
one for shade selection? Unfortunately, the dental color measurement problem is
very complex. It has been said that the dental shade selection problem is the most
difficult of all color measurement situations. Teeth have every difficulty that can
be encountered: they fluoresce, are inhomogeneous and translucent, and have
small, irregular surfaces.

In the past, several devices have attempted to solve the instrumental approach to
dental color measurement. All failed. Today there are several devices that are
presently, or soon will be, offered to the dental profession. "Pikkio", a development
of a Swiss and Italian venture, briefly entered the marketplace and is currently
being refined.

It is a hand-held unit that can be downloaded to a computer. The device gives the
user the closest Vita® shade guide, and the amount by which the tooth varies from
it.: Wolf Industries of Vancouver, will soon market a device that provides the
nearest match to both the Vita® and Ivoclar® shade guide, and the amount by
which the tooth differs from the guide

Shofu Dental Corporation is said to be ready to offer a device researched by the

group at Iwate University in Japan. The exact software behind this device has not
been released as of this writing. The appearance of multiple devices attempting to
solve this problem is testimony that the scientific community recognizes the need
for assistance in dental shade selection, and the willingness to underwrite the
development of a solution. In addition to the devices cited, several others are
known to be under development.

Certainly, most restorative dentists would welcome reliable technical support in

shade selection and color matching. However, the device would be most helpful if
it not only correctly analyzed the tooth color, but also the optical properties such as
translucency and surface gloss. Restorative materials correlated to these readings
should then be developed to optimize predictable results.

Review of literature

1. Sproull, Robert C. in the year 1973 did a study to explore the 3D nature of
color and the correct terminology.He explained the MUNSELL COLOR ORDER
SYSTEM
It’s a 3D color tree, described as a sphere or cylinder. It could be considered as a
series of wheels stacked one upon the other, in order of ascending lightness. A
colorless axis extends through the center of the sphere, pure white at the top, and
pure black at the bottom. A series of grays connect the extremities. The three
dimensions are:
1. Color (Hue)= arranged around the axis, and subdivided in ten segments.
2. Value= lightness or darkness, within each hue, arranged in scales.
3. Chroma= purity of strength. The quality by which we distinguish a strong color
from a weak one.
 2. Sproull, Robert C. in the year 1973 also studied the requirements for a
color shade guide. He said that the ideal color space is one in which each color is
the center of a sphere of color, and the closest match surrounds it.
COLOR SPACE OF THE NATURAL TEETH AND SHADE GUIDES: Different
studies performed by Hayashi and Clark using natural teeth , measured the ranges
of Hue, Value and Chroma of natural teeth. The ranges of the Hayashi study and
the spectrophotometer were used for the article.
Available shade guides do not extend through the volume of color space and lack
order or relationship between tabs. There is duplication of color and voids of color
in other areas of color space.He concluded that increased research on color
problems should be encouraged. Shade guides should be based on the Hayashi and
Clark type guides ,and porcelain should be developed to match these guides.

3. Sproull, Robert C. in 1974. discuseed the perception of color and

metamerism
A. Perception of color
1. Light source ; incandescent, noon and average daylight.
2. Surface viewed- accomplished with a spectrophotometer, breaks down a
standard light source into a series of sequential monochromatic beams.
3. Individual observer.
4. Final perception- modification of the message by the eye of the individual,
creating stimulus which the brain converts into color perception.
B. Metamerism: Defined as invisible spectral differences. Dependent upon:
1. Control-knowledge of metamerism, reduces potential disasters.
2. Surface viewed- dependency upon the manufacturer to use correct pigments, to
simulate enamel.
3. Individual observer-elusive, since the dentist can have color vision
deficiencies.
4. Light source- color match should be done under at least two sources of light.
 4. Donahue J., Goodkind R., et al. 1991 did a study on Shade Color
Discrimination By Men And Women. And concluded that Women do not agree
with one another more than men in shade selection. No particular light source and
shade guide improved agreement for men. Vita Lumin light source increased
agreement with women. When a patient's teeth are to be matched with a given
shade guide, there is no reason to select the clinicians according to gender; rather,
clinicians should be screened for color vision.

5. Preston J.D., Ward l.C. and Mitchell B 1978. explained the importance of
Light and lighting in the dental office.

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS:
Visual Task: Define what is to be accomplished in the particular area, and
determine what amount of light is required.
Blocking Shadows: Sufficient ambient lighting to reduce shadowing.
Difference in Brightness: The ideal ratio of task illumination to room illumination
is 3:1.
Glare: Excess light.
Veiling Reflections: When a glossy surface is illuminated, reflected light may
obscure the viewer's perception of the surface.
Pleasantness: Sometimes an area may be illuminated for the specific purpose of
being a pleasant place to pass time.

Age of the Viewer: As age advances more light is required to accomplish a task.
Light and Heat: The fluorescent fixture is much more effective than the
incandescent but still produces a large quantity of heat in the effort to emit light.
Cost: The higher the lumens per watt, the lower the cost of the overall lighting.
Lamps will last longer if burned with only one start per user day and are not turned
off and on unnecessarily.

DENTAL OFFICE AREAS:

Reception: Conveys personality of the office. Decrease anxiety by lowering levels
of illumination.
Office: Ample illumination to ensure effective and efficient work.
Operatory: Use fiberoptics. Place lighting units parallel to the work area and out
off the direct line of the patients sight. 5500o K is best for color matching. 200 to
300 foot candles (fc) recommended light level for operatory.
Powder Room: Incandescent with a pink hue works well, but this light may not
exhibit the best color match of a "new" dental restoration

6. Barna, G.J., et al. 1981did a study To determine the effect of various batches
of porcelain on the shade of three porcelain-bonded-to-metal systems and
concluded that:

1. No color differences were found among specimens of individual batches.

2. Discerning color changes were observed among three batches of one brand of
porcelain.
3. The porcelain fired in the laboratory may not match the manufacturer's standard
shade guide.
4. Batch to batch variation of porcelain may necessitate the fabrication of
customized shade tabs with fresh batches of porcelain.

7. Barna, G.J., et al . 1981 Did a study on The Influence of Selected Light

Intensities on Color Perception Within the Color Range of Natural Teeth. and
concluded that the Intensity of office illumination is not critical for matching
tooth shades. It is recommended that color corrected bulbs be used to allow the full
spectrum of color to be seen. Neither the specialty of the dentist or time in practice
appeared to be a factor in making color discrimination.

8.Billmeyer and Satzman 1966 defined color as the result of the physical
modification of light by colorants as observed by the human eye and interpreted by
the brain.

9. Culpepper 1970 Concluded from 36 practising dentists who were invited to

match the shades of 6 natural teeth using 4 shade guides & 4 different light sources
, including daylight that:

There was a lack in consistency between the individual dentists participating in

the experiments in matching natural tooth shades .

The shade guides employed in the study did not always correspond to the
gradations of predominant colors observed in the natural teeth

Critical color perception varied from individual to other .

CONCLUSION:

CLARK SAID, "Color, like form, has three dimensions, but they are not in
general use. Many of us have not been taught neither names, nor the scales of their
measurement. In other words, we as dentists are not educationally equipped to
approach a color problem."

The increase in newer types of ceramic restorations and the improving quality of
esthetics means the dentist of the 21st century must be trained to detect differences
in color and shades in individual teeth, select a shade that reflects the color and
exact shade, transmit this information to a dental technician, and then be able to
make any necessary adjustments to the restoration. However, there are a number of
factors that stand in the way of properly selecting a color match. Subjective faults
range from differences in color perception to ocular fatigue and lack of education
regarding the basic principles of color. Metamerism may occur if proper lighting is
not used during shade selection in the dental office and laboratory Finally, existing
shade guides are limited and require a more extensive range of shades.

Therefore, it is no surprise that color matching for crowns and dentures can be a
frustrating and discouraging experience for the dentist, technician and patient. The
breakdown in communication over matters ranging from shade guide to laboratory
prescriptions must be addressed.

An understanding of the science of colour and colour perception is important for

the success of an esthetic restoration . for sucessful application of colour in
dentistry an understanding of how light is interpreted as colour is important . errors
in shade matching continue to be a problem and a source of dissatisfaction for the
patient . inspite of the limitations in materials and techniques , a harmonius
restoration can almost always be achieved if a methodical and organised manner is
followed during shade selection.

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