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    Test de Equip, de Radios

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    Test de Equip, de Radios

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    Norberto Britos
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    Equipamientos de radio

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    Test de equip, de radios

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    Equipamientos de radio

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    © All Rights Reserved
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    Download as pdf
    28 views35 pages

    Test de Equip, de Radios

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    Norberto Britos
    Equipamientos de radio

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    © All Rights Reserved
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    RADIO TEST EQUIPMENT ~ MANUAL by “ RADIOTRICIAN ” BERNARDS (PUBLISHERS) LTD, ¢ LONDON ‘Chapter 1. Chapter 2. Chapter 3. Chapter 4. Chapter 5. Chapter 6. Chapter 7. Chapter 8. Chapter 9. CONTENTS As OUTLINE OF Rapio TESTING : Tesr-Grar UsiNe Moving Com METERS Hic Frequency Measumesenrs ‘Tur SickAL GENERATOR = s+ Tue Oureer MMTER | e+ ‘Tue CammopE Ray Oscitoscors, Siesac Teaone Avpie OscrLATORS. LG axo RBances =e Pace wv 23 3 48 58 RADIO TEST EQUIPMENT MANUAL Cuarrer 1 AN OUTLINE OF RADIO. TESTING Prabibly at no time since the incsption of broadcasting has the work of the radio service man, bath amateur and professional, been of stich lizposh ance a3 at the present time, Searelty of wia‘erisis and fabour metns that # riajority of listeners are using old sets and that there Is fitt'e chance of replacement of these worn-out receivers: whilst, for the same rezson, tnere 2 scarcity of testxgear on the market and hoth receivers and test equipmest, When obtainable, ave hialy priced. ‘The amateur, therefore, is once again comiag into bis own, both as 3 constructor and service engineer, and it is felt shat a Manual devoted to amateur-constructed testgear of modern tupes of equipment will lla detnite need, This book deais chiefly with the eqaipment Itself, rather than in the use of the equipment, althogh all necescary notes are fiven. A brte résumé of the accepted methods of testing radio reoelvers will not be out of place, however. Whatever the type of receiver under repair, the tests should always commence with an inspection of the yower pack or, if a battery sel is under consideration, with a measurement of the resistance presented by the receiver to the battery icads, such tests obyiousiy being: made with no power applied fo the receiver. A common fault in A.C, and especially Universal reccivers is a breakdown of .ne reservoir condenser, and even if 2 fuse is fitted to the receiver a shorting reservoir condenser more often than not means ® ined rectifier valve and possibly a damaged transformer. Tt-a visual ineyec- tion of the power pack: reveals no ebsious trouble, therefore, such as a white incrustation around a smoothing condenser or a darkened patch on the trans. former windings, the rectifice valve may he cemoved from its socket, the set Switched on and the output voltage of the transformer measured seross exh half of the HLT, secondary with an A.C, voltmeter, The healer secondaries tmay also be checked with a lower voltage range on the A.C. voltmeter, and the sel run for ten minutes or so with the rectifier valve sill gut af crcutt to test for heating up of the transformer. Heated windings after this short run would reveal a case of shorting tums which might not he skown by a woltage check, Where a Universal set Is under test the yoKage check across the transformer may he replaced with 2 current check to ensure that the valve heaters are passing the correct current. If there is amy reason to Suspect the reservoir and smoothing condensers, the H.T. supply Tine may be disconnected Com the anode of the rectifier valve for the preliminary teste fon this type of receiver, since it is nol possibie to remove the rectifier valve without breaking tite continuity of the heater circuit. ‘The heater current should be measured with an A.C, or D.C, ammeter according to the mains supply, or the current may be measured indirectly by measuring the voltage drop set up by the current across a low resistance, 3 Reservoir and smoothing condensers may be checked in the same manner whatever the type of receiver into which they are fitted. A sensitive mill ammeter in serfes with a Latlery may be applied lo the condenser which should hve one side visconnucted from the receiver-circuit inorder that no alternative current path may exist. The milliymumeter should then show a uci deflection as the condenser ¥ brought into circuit aad charges, the reading then returning! to zero. Any signs of a leakage current means that the condenser should be tested firther, using a voltage eqnal to the rated ‘working-voltage of the condenser and testing for short circuit or Leaks with a scon lump. The milifommeter should not be used for this test since a heavy current may flaw, ‘The reservoir condensers of Universal sets are especially suspect since there is in these components a heavy A.C, o ripple current due to the fact that they are working in a half-wave rectifying circuit. A condenser with adequate ripple rating should always he used as the reservoir of an A.C./D.C. receiver, the rating being at least for 200 mAs, A.C. and preferably more. Chokes, loudspeaker fields, dropping resistors, and the ke may all be tested with on ohaometer, In the case of dvonping resistances it must he remembered that the resistance at the workings temperature will be higher than the cold resistance, With the power pack in order an examination of the receiver should be made before applying H.T. to the set to ensure that there is no short sireuit or low resistunce leak across the power pack or battery. The receiver Fesistonce across the H.T. supply fines may be measured with an obmmeter with valve heaters both hot and cold. ‘Testing of the receiver proper may be carried out by means of voltmeter and milliammeter readings, slice a faulty stage may often se indicated by such measurements, of the testing may be made both quicker and simpler by the use of a signal fracer. In the former method stage measurements shoutd be made from the output stage back to the aerial, whilst with the sisral tracer testing proceeds from the aerial to the ouiprt stage, 4 strong signal hein supplied to the receiver either from the local station or, preferably, from a signal generator. It may be desired to take measurements of RF. or LP. voltages across tuned cirenits of the sel, in which case a valve voltmeter will be required, ani advanced gear which may be used with the signal generator is a “ Wobbutator.”” or Frequerey Modulated Generator, together with a Cathode Ray Oscilloscope, by means of which the LF. amplifier of the receiver may he afigned in short time to as excellent a response characteristic as possible. Failing these instruments, an ovtput meter will be required when the receiver is aligned, so thot visual rather than merely aural indications of LP. peaking are obtained, whilst for the testing and repatr of amplifiers, gramo_ Phone players and reneoducers, P.A. gear and cinema equipment, the signal ‘generator must Se replzced with a variable tone audio oscillator. To test receiver components or to measure inductance and ceptcitance, fairly simple bridge ctreuits can be built up, supplied once again from the audio oscilitter, and here, once more, the valve voltmeter can be used 2s an Indicator ar mersiving device. 4 Particular care must be taken with the power supplies of test-gear, which muist be arranget in such 1 way that the dear may de connected ty a recelver fof amplifier in any way necessary wih no chance of power Wakes oF crossing of the mains serply common to both pleces of sear. With A. operation ikis is 9 simple matter, since the test-gear can have its own self contahied susply which is isolated fom the mains and other egeipment by the risins dtausiormer wincings, but when itis necessary to run ihe fest-gear from D.C. exery precaution against a mains sho! circuit mast he taken, The bert method is to make the connection between the Lectaear ahd the receiver uncer test through neon lamp which will Hiht tf the maine Teads are crossed, thus indicating the need for reversing the polarity of one of the tho mains plugs yet petmitting no damaxe. Jn some cases the testgear is designed for portable operation and is operated ‘rum batteries, in which case connections to A.C. or D.C. ot Universal receivers or amplifiers can be made without tshing any more ple cactions than ave usual. ‘The service eaginger should ghears suard aualnet the eiuance oF electric shock, of course, espechlly if headywnes are being used, ag they are with one type of signal tracer to he deserthed ‘Vest-gcar using Vaiversal valves and ower supplies ig cot chown. If the sonstrector is forced to use this type af ‘valve and clrestt he wi" he able to substitute the eovrect valve for the A.C. type specified and avd his own voltae dropper in the heater Une, “but since tis type ef operation for ftestsear is definitely unsafe and undesirable, it bas been thought better to such circuits allagether. Cuaprer 2 TEST-GEAR USING MOVING COIL METERS Equipment using the moving coil meter (ar, mere correctly, the movtag coil instrament] is invaluable and indispenssblc to the service enstineer. It ust always he remembered that the moving ccif instrament fs an ammeter oF hvilliammeler, co meer how the scale is calibrated, for the tastrument mesures current. & itliammeler or ampieter is c!vectly callbyated in terns of hinh or low curvent. and a voltmeter ig calvivated in terms af the current which is forced by the applied potential through a high revstance. Movin, fron instrutsents should be avoided for radia and low power werk, unless they are used for measuring mains voltages or heavy currents wheve current consumption fs of little moment. Voltage can, of course, he measured by electrostatic voltmetcrs where a true potential is indicated on the scale with a utrent consumption, apart from a fragmentary leuk, but this type of instrument is of litle use except for television and high woilase ssork and hhas a range s0 restricted that ils cost to the service ensfinecr i not justified, Whilst soparate voltmeters and mitliammeters are useful and enable tio readings to be taken on a circuit at the same time, it is hy ow commen practice to se a cireuit analyser ot combined instrument somelimes supale- mented by a multi-range voltmeter. The analyser is arranged to meceure several ranges of ‘volts and milliamps D.C. and te same voltage ranges in 5 A.C., vsilst come moiiels sill also give measurements in alternating current between the limils of about 0.2 to 10 amps, ‘The heart of an ansiyser is 2 millunsucter of as high a sensitivity as possible. Commercial models often use a 100 mieroamps instrument, Dut {the amatewr or constructor who desires to hutld an analyser will he’ well advised to uso a 0-1 mA. moving coil insteument, To measure voltage wilh such an instrament a cirewit nest de so arranged tit the voltage across the cfrcuit can be read off in terms ef the current through the instrument. Por example, the 1 mA. instrument might have resistance added to it unlil the whole resistance of the instrument was 10,000 ohms. (The resistance of the instrument alone would be of the ozéer of 20 to 90 obms.) Adding th's high resistames veld naturally not acct the sensitivity of the movement proper, which wauid stl] reglhter fullscale deflection for 1 mA,, but to cause 1 mA. to flow through the 10,000 ohms circuit 10 volts would need to be applied erase the circuit, ‘Thas, the 0-1 mA. instrument would now act as an 0-10 vollmeter. (Remember that by Olun's Law FE B E IR, of R=— or [= =, where t R Eis volts, R is ohms and 1 is amperes. ‘Thus, in the above exana"e, EB ~ 0.001 « 10,000 LO volts. Note that 1 mA. is shown as 0.001 ampere, 10 mAs, are shown as 0.01 ampere, and 100 mis, are, of course, skown as 0.1 ampere.) ‘To make the moving coil measure various ranges uf volts (D.C) is there fore quite simple, since all that is necessary i to add resistance to the instrument, the required resistance heing given by Obm’s Law. Rememher, however, that the instrament has resistance which must be subtracted sont the total necessary resistance, the remainder being the actual resistance 19 be added. This only applies to the low voltage ranges, since the Instraunent resistance is, or should be, low. If 100,000 oes is to he sulded to a L ma. instrument to give a voltage range of 100 volts, there is ebsiousiy little point in correcting the externa? resistance of 100,000 orms fo compensate for the fact that the Instrumtent or internal resistance Is, s3, 50 ohms. 50 clus is but 0.05% of the total resistance of 100,000 ohms and, con. sidering the fact that the instrument sell probably have an integeal avcuracy of 1% of the full-scale reading, there is no need to correct for the internal resistance until i¢ is 0.5 or 1% of the total resistance. ‘To measure higher currents wiih a 1 mA. instrument it is necessary to pass only a fixed portion of the current through the movement, the rest of the current being by-pessed or shunted past the instrument, Thus, the ‘resistance used for this type of measurement are Inown as shunts, wherea¢ the external resistances added to the instrument to enable yollosfe ranges to be measured are known as multiplets. It is irom the multiplier that the meter sensitivity in ohms per volt is obtained. Aa O-T mA, instrument will, th mattipliets, give 2 censitivity of 1,000 ohms per volk, since for e-sry ‘yolt to be mestured 1,000 ohms must appear in the full circuit resistance. Unlike the multipiters, shunts are of low and very fow resistances sshich takes their installation and adjustment a less simpte matter. Fortunately, 6 ‘the adiustment can be made by a trial and error method, and antess a really dood Bridge Is available this type of adjustment should he used. 2t is now possible to give the two formule by which multiplier and shut Values can be determined for any moving coil instrument. Muttiptier Resistances, v Rm => ‘share Rin is the requzed maltinlicr resistance, V isthe required fullscale voltage to Ne measured, and Tis the fuvaie curren: ofthe ineronion in amperes. For to vote ranges the muliptier resltance i given by em , t sere r is the internal resistance of the tnstrument. 4 good instrument Shutld have the value of r printed on te seatee Tf ihe valle dee or agpear, however, lie ceauied, a quSty thould be made To the mane faaucers of the instruments Shunt Resistances. Rs at where Rs is the required stunt resistance, r is again the internal resistance of the instrument, and n is the faelor by which the normal full-scale current Zealing is to be multiplied. Thus, if It is desired to read up to 100 mAs on a1 mA. instrument, becomes 100 and the formaila becomes ovina x fo bea value oF 20 ohms the sunt reitnve shoul thee be 0.202 ohms, mi ALTERNATING CURRENT aD YOUTAGE To meso aerating current and volage on a movin col instrument reouires that the current he reeled, for the moving coll canrul respons te alternations of mals teaueney except to gives REE and sory seal lore tion ofthe sistent poner about the vero mar, Vato cel recs now as insttent rectifiers are readily hfainale eommercaly st pokes aeraging on 10/- for the Ima. type. By the use af wath» wes ace erating ollages can be mesnured with sory tale aceuragy although te Instrument mest be recatirated for yllages below shout 100 voll ful scale, "Aerating curent is masred less easily, however, se IRE Btiior must be use only for is stated current, dtd hos fey igh impedince of about 700 ohms for the Tima. type ‘Dla, the selitey is not of arest ase for measining 4 cuttent oF even TRA, AC. aie tne chit neceaity in a ceeret-measuring instrument that Er aound have lee resistance, To measure high currents of about 1 amp ALC. the essen mt 7 fand gives very good resuits for workshop use. ‘The radio enginzer chicily nievls 10 measure valve heater current, especially in Universal sets where 8 dropping resistor has to be sei to the correct tapping or adjustment in fonder that the valves are sullably supplied with current, and in this type of D.C, Niiiarmveter. DE. Voltmeter, soptication the drepped potential method is perfectly satisfactory. The current is measured as a voltage on the towest voltage scale of the instru . meni, a simple mental cateelation then giving the cureent, Hs unfortunate that the instremient reguires. recalibration for tow ranges of A.C. volts, hut this is necessitated by the Chnging characteristics OF the rectiter. Added to thls there is a loss in the rectifier, as might "be + = expected, so that EmA. A.W, trough the rectier results in a D.C. output ot only approximately O.85 mA, D.C. In commercial instruments this is offses by making the true sensitivity of the moving ca! instrument 0.89 m: so that it may he used with the sevtiter clrect, = high resistance stunt reducing the D.C, senstisity to the required 1 mA.” The pevlem is solved rather sliferently tr the comprehensive analyser of Fig. 2, however. Here the instroment sensitivity iy already 1 ma. 80 that a1 mA, output fron AG A the rectifier is needed. To obtsin this an input of LLL ins. met be sup. plied to the rectifier, and’ so the A.C. multiplets are catclated to pase this cent on each A.C, wits rane. Y In Fig. 1 a moving coil instrument i shown iz a variety of circuits to , measure different currents and voltages both A.C. and D.C., and these A.C. Voltoneter. dtarams should be aluied before that of the full anaisser. Tn ation. the instrament Is shown in a gisuit for mieasaring resistance. ‘The simplest methods of measuring resistance are ether fo pass a known curvent through the resistance and to measure the vols dropped across the resistance, or to apaly a known voltage across the cesistonce and to measure the current ‘which this potential pastes throush the resistance. The second method is the one shown i Fig.1. ‘The battery vollage is taken as being j ow through a special transformer whose secondary supplies a t mA. current to the rectifier and Insteument. ‘The transformer is thus known as & current _ oor instrament transformer, and the design of such components is extremely = complicated. It is of lltle use to buy such a transfermer, moreover, even if available, since the windings must suit the actual rectifier and instrument «sed, The simplest method of measuring alternating current is. therefore either Lo use a separate instrument altogether of the thermo-ammetee type, for lo measure the voltage drop caused! hy the alternating eurrent across 2 [ow resistance of non-inductive characteristics. This latter me!Tied is the cheaper A constant, and the test procs are pressed together to short circuit the instru: + net allerysbeostat cll, ‘The vheorat (RL) is then adosed fo gies | — full-scale defection of the instrument pointer, the prods are separated and | then connecied across the waknown resistence. Current agaia flows, but will Ohmmeter, ‘he lower in value so that a reading below the full-scale is shown, The resistance may then be caleulated from a formals ar mav be calibrated direct ‘on to the instrement seale, ‘The range oF resistances which can be measived | depends on the full-scale defection current of the lwstrument and the battery vollage employed, and in this respect the various milliamp ranges of the analyser operate as resistance range muttipliers, 8 2 1 Applications of the ‘Moving Cou Tustrament, ‘The formela by which the unknown resistance may be calgulated 1 the readings are not to be ealdvrated on the scale is RL Uwhore R is the internal resistance of the ohmmeter as a whole, |. Is the full-scale corvent, and 1. is Uke new current reading, The value of R ie given automatically by the battery and carcest range used. For eaample, if a 34olt battery is in circuit and the full scale current is 1mA., thea R. when the cheestat is set to give full-scale deflection wilh the lest prods shorted out, must be 3,000 ohms. Similarly, if a volt battery Is wsed and the.instrument i set lo measure 10 mAs., then R must be 360 ohms. Gives this, the aplication of the formula Is simple, If a 1 mA. instew iment is used with a S.volt paltery, and the reading, shen the instrument has buen set to the full-scale mark and the prods are thes applied to an unknown resistance, falls to a value of 0.2 mA., the unienown resistance is alven es 3.000.1 2,000 os and X = 12,000 ohms, Tf a 10 mAs, instrument is used, or the original instrument is shunted to a fullscole current ef 1Omas, and the reading falls to 2mAs., the unknown résistance will then be 04 x 200 10 = 300 and X= 1,200 ohms. We see, therefore, that if the same batlery is ased, the milliamp shunts act perfectly as resistance range multipliers (or “ dividers”) and, presuming that the instrument can be read swith accuracy to 0.02 mA. on the 1 mA, range, using the Swvolt buttery gives the resistance measuring ranges as Lima. range — 150,000 to 0 ohms, annrox. 10 mAs. range — 15,000 to 0 ohms, approx 190 mAs. range — 1,500 to 0 ohms. ‘Thus, the LmA, shunt gwitch may also be marked R, the 10 mAs. shunt switch may be marked R10, aad the 10 mAs, shust swiich may bbe marked R100. Higher resistances may be measured by making provision for connecting a higher voltsge hallery into circuit with a suitable rhenstat. ‘The complete analyser of Fig. 2 uses the 1 mA. instrument in atl the circuits and applications of Fig. 1 hy switching, The switches employed must be of good qualily, especially where shunts are switched across the instrument, for here the switch resistance plays au important part sineo it included in the overall low shunt reetstance. A switch whose contact resistance is liable to change will therefore completely upset the current readings. 10 AL. Hig, 2—The ACC. Analyses, u A components Hst is showin for the analyser, and it is possible to. give the multiplier resistances exactly, since these are indezendent of the instr ment’s internal resistance. The shunts, however. have a resistance which is entirely dependent on the instrument's internal resistance, but siace these iy be made by the trial and etror system, the final resistance is of less portance than woald otherwise be the case, BUILDING THE ANALYSER (Fic. 2) The analyser should be buill into a stoxt case with the switchgear and input terminals neatly arranged on the panel. Tt is sdvised that the instru ment he mouuted horizontally—a peor sate instrument will prohahly work beiter vertically mounted since hovfzoatsl mounting increases any likelihood of “tap” error, het such a mourting makes the instrument far moce easy fo read. Both shunts and multipliers must he mounted om tet boards, 50 that the wiring is neat and no stain is imposed on the resistors and thelr soldered joints. The tag board used for the shunts, and the soldering taxe bby which the shunts are mounted, must de especially stout and robust. The shunts are made with the whole current circuit wired up, since the switeh anil wiring resistances aflect the shunt reststances. Apjusming TE SuewTs: For all adjustments it is presumed that the O-L mA. instcument specified is being used, and that it is caliivated from 0 to 1 in ten sleps, the readings being 0, 0.1, 0.2, ete., to give 10 cardinal points on the scale With the instrument switched to read ImA., connect the analyser in series with an external buttery and rheostat ta ive lullscale current of LWA. ‘The higher the hattery voltage and rheostat resistance the betier and 2 12-voll accumulator battery would be excelieat, tie rheustat resistance ‘then heing 12,000 ohms. A wirewound rhoostat of 20,000 ehims maximum resistance could be used. Set the rheostat to give 2 fullscale current of 1 mA. ‘The shunts should have been prepared by soldering a piece of resistance wire to each tas on the shunt board, as shown in Fig. 3, these wites heing twisted together in pairs to complete each shunt circuit. The approximate Fesistences required will he of the order of 10, 1 and 0.1 ohms for the Fespeclive current ranges of 10, 100 and 1,000 mas, Using Mangan Fesistance wire, sshich may be obtained from auy und stockist, tae 10 Ts. shunt should consist of a ittle ever 2 yas of 330 S.W.G. Manganin. the 100 mAs. shant of 8” of 30 S.W.G. Manganin, and the 1,000 mAs, shunt of 2" of 25 SW.G, Mangaain. (Note that the approximate shunt resielances as given are for instru menis with an internal yesistance of 190 akms. Tasttuments sith lower intemal resistances wiff require proportionately lower shunt tesistances with proportionate reductions in the lengths of resistance wire.) Cut each shunt wire in half, baring the ends of each length of wire, and thus forming the shunts with a Variable adjustment at thelr cestlves as. thown im Figs 3. The longest shunt wi, of course, be wound rou! the shant hoard. The shorter shunts will not require this trealment, 12 With the instrament set at Lma. full-scale defection, and with the Central encls of the 10 mAs. shunt twisted together, snitch the range saith fo the 10 mAs, reading. ‘The current lowing will still be 1A. fat once the Instrument is now shunted the veading wilt fall. By baring toe cut ents of the 10 coAs, sinunt and twisting them together until the insteurient reas to one-tenth of fullscale—i.e.. until the pofaler rests at the 0.1 cardinal tne chun! is adjusted, This range cow reads up to 10 mAs, and the exterat faters and rheostat must he adjusted to pass the full’ 10mAs. exactls With this current indicated, tum the range switch to 100 mas, and seeie adiust the next shunt Zor a veadiag of one-tenth full-scale, twisting the toe halves of the shunt together, the wire being cleaned as nvcesear, natil the goerect reading is obtained. ' Finally. set the external hullery and rhensine to give a fullscaie current of 100 mAs. on that range and then sites te the 1.000 mAs. range and adjust that shunt santsl once more a oneleath scale reading is obtained. With this method of calibration thee ans Possisility of = cumulative error, and where possible the higher cursent renges should be checked against a reliable instrument. Secare each shunt, where the wires are twisted together, with a touch af solder, making sure that the tinaing does no! rim Beyond the twisted Portion of the wires, and cut off surplos wiring, ‘The adhuctizent of the shunts will tale some litle time, but is worth careful and palastaking work The instrument is now adjusted for D.C. current. The DC. and A.C. volls ranges are set, and need no adjustment, but the 10 volts A.C. range requites calibration. This may be carried out asim the ‘circuit of Fig. 4, two G-volt windings on a maine tansiormer bets connected iu series to give & 12 volls A.C. source. ‘The analyser 's compared against a standard 10 yolts A.C. voltmeter (which perhaps could be borrowed for the purpose), the two instruments being sct to the fuli scale reading and then, by adiustmeat of the 10,000 ams potentiometer, brousit step hy step dour the svate from 10 to 3 volts. At9, 8 7, 6 volts, elc., the analyser may be calibrated in. pencil directly on the seale, its cover being removed for thts operatian. of a careful sealing made of the pointer position on the scale fer exch voltae. 13 iav.d 19,0008" Ac Wik WOUND “ANALYSER STANDARD UNDER TEST Fig, 4.—Cuiibratiia of 10 vott A.C Range aguinst Standard or Comparative Analyser With the calfhration completed the new points for the 10 volts A.C. saege smay be printed on the scale as described helow. On voltages of 100, and above, the existing scale markings—that Is, the D.C. seale-~can he used for reading off A.C. vollages. The new calibra tions refer only to the 10 volts A.C, range. To add calibrations to the instrument scale, the Instrument must be removed from the box or cabinet in which i is mounted and the cover laken off by yuscrewing the smai) retaining screws. The scale is then unscrewed, using} especial care if the pointer stops are held by the scale screws, and the scale gently slipped vif in a direction aay from the pointer. [Do not touch the Fair-springs, halance weights or pointer at any thme, With the seale removed, immediately sli the caver back on the i:strument to exchide dust. Lee care, and enseve that the 2ero setting; p does aot ‘atch in the pointer or ary other part of the movement. -carely pin down the scale on to a sheet of tick card. One method of auding a low A.C, volts range is shown in Fig, 5, this method being suitable when the range has been re-caliorated on to the seale in pencil If seale readings are noted. then the low A.C. volts eardinals must be pra- duced from the | scale ag shown ia Fig. 6. ‘The ohms readings cxa also be printed on to the scale above the original are When fresh arcs are to be printed on to the seale, the centre of the al are must first be found so thst the arcs are concentric, The new scale lines and figures may be drawn in Indian ink, but greater distinctiveness 4s obtained if a gond red ink is used, A mistake can usuelly be erased by ewrefel seraping with a sharp razor Wade, but since this removes the white Seale backgceund material only one ereure at any spat caa he made, There ig always the chance of seraping away the white beckiag and exposing the seale metal. If the seale Is found to fe made of paper mouated on to snetal, corrections must be made with white body ink, cry Mie. 5—Adding an AC. Scale for Poe, 6 —Proiecing the A.C, seule law A, valts, feat the Ace The scale must be reassembled on to the instrument sith even greater care than thal ith which it was removed, and the pointer must not he touched or snagged. When replacing the scale screws adjust the pointer stops, if these ave retained by the scale screws, to give the pointer (ull play over the scale. ‘The high current resistances across which the A.C. voltmeter is topped to measure alternating current must each be mounted across Its owa pair fof heayy duty terminals, and the resistances are best bought ready-made. Non-inductive resistances must, of course, he used. Connecting the A.C. 10 volts range across the 1 ohm resistance will give readings up to 10 amps, reading the volts scale as amperes {if the resistance is rated to take thal current}, whilst connecting the seme A.C, volts scate across the 10 obms resistance will give readings up toa maximum of 1 amp. Ip exch case the rmasimum watts lost will he vather high, and unless it is requived to measure heavy curvents the constructor ie advised to use only the 10 ohms resistance, since this will enable 0.2 and 0.3 amp voltage droppers to be adjusted, ete, D.C. Analyser, Fig. 2. Components List for the AJ M, O-1mA. Moving Coil Instrument, Rec, 1 mA. Instrument Rectifier (Westing- hase}. RI, R2, RB, Shunt résistances made as described. Ra, 10,000 ohins, 133 accuracy, RS, 90,000 RB, 400.000 R7, 500000 RS, 82500 Re, sxo00 7 R10, 60,000 7, RU 4 a Raz, wirewound,” variabic. RL, T ohm Noninductive, to carry 10. amps. R14, 210 ofms Norinductive, to carry 1 sm, 15. All resistors except RIZRLA, 1 watt bye. B, Sevolt Batter SL 23,4, ‘pole Sway rotary swine, 83.6, Zpole Sway rotary switely, 3 Control knobs. 2 Taghoards, for shunts and multipliers. 2 Input terminals, plus and minus. 4 Heavy duty terminais for R13 and Kia, ‘Test leads, prods, cabinet, ete. Test RANGES MMitiamps DC Switch 81-4 to D.C. 0-1 mA. With $5, 6, in position 1. 9-10 mAs. wilh $5, 6, in position 2 0-100 mAs. with $5, 6, in position 3. 01,000 mAs. wit $5, 6, in position 4. Volts D.C Switch $1-4 to D.C. 10%, ‘with $5, 6, Je position 5. 0-100 ¥. with $5, 6, In position 6, 0.500 ¥. with $5, 6, in position 7. 01,000 v. with $5, 6, in position 8. Volts a.C— Switch S14 to A.C. 0-10 ¥. ‘with $3, 6, im position 5, read on separate scale 9-100 v. with $5, 6, in position 6. 0.500 v, with $5.6, in position 7 0-1,000 ¥. with $5, 6, in Amps, AC Pass current through appropriate resistance R13 or RLS Switch analyser 19 10 volts A.C, Allow resistance of external circuit to reach ‘operating temperature (if valve heaters. dropping resistors, ele.) then appry test prads across the terminals of RIO or RIL. Read amps, as volts A.C. dicestly for R10, or divided by 10 for RV, Pasition 9 of 85, 6, is the OFF position, Ohms— | Switch $1-4 to Ohms, and use the first 3 positions of $8, 6, to sive R, R10 and R100, ‘The positions of $5, 6, may therefore be coded a6 Postion 1, O1mA, DC. ER, Position 2, O-10mAs, D.C. & R10. Position 3, 0-100mAs., D.C. & R100, Position 4, 0-1,000 mAs., D.C, Position 5, 0-10 wills, D.C. & AG. Position 6, 0-100 volts, D.C. & AC, 16 Position 7, 0-500 volts, D.C, & AC, Position 8. 0-1,000 volts, DC. & A. Position 9 GEE Always switch the analyser to Orr when » measurement hes been male, Set to range required yefore comiectings ino creuit. Never switeh them range to range with current fowing. Charrer 8 HIGH FREQUEN! EMENTS: Whilst the analyser as deseribed wit! measure eurrent and voltage on wet A.C, and D.C. civesits, it carne; he used Go measure comparable currents and voltages at audio and radio frequencies. An instrament rectifier sill give quite good indications on ils associated instrament on audio signals, so that the analyser may be used as_an culput meter where comparison between readings ts all thot is reguirad, but as the treyuency hnereases the etficleney and stability of calidratinn of the reetiner-masing, coil insizament falls, so that for all intents and purposes it is useless at frequencies mach above 50 cycles. The valve voltmeter overcomes the difficulty of measuring high frequency voltages, and can alo he used for D.C. nacasuvements. The advantage of the fatter appliection may not be obvious unt it is recalled that any yolk meter applfed accoss a circuit causes an error in the soltage indicated by the pointer, simply because the vollmeter itself draws a caszent thus causing the vollage registered to appear lower than it actually is. ‘The valve volt: meter overcomes this defect to a consideranle dearee by reason of the fact ‘hat It can be made to have a very high input resisicnce. The analyser Uescrihed in the last chapter is designed tn haye a resistance of 1,000 ohms pper voit, so that the voltmeter resistance to a 1,000 volt circuft is 1 megohtn. A valve voltmeter, even of the simplest type, can present a constant input resistance of 10 megohims, and by using snecial design techniques the input vesistance can be advanced towards in6niy. ‘The salient features of a good valve yollmeter, then, are that it may be designed to measure elther D.C. or A.C, incleding R-.. of both, that the input resistance is very high, the instrument thus imposing a light food fon the measered clreutt, and calibration accuracy eum be lield practically constant over a wide frequency range. Against these advantages are various Glsndvantages such as the need for hesler ond HT. supplies for the valve, the fact that the calibration curve is usally not linear, so that the Iusiow ment must be calfbrated, and, In some cases, the faet that the indicating Instrument is affected by the emission current from the value ur one of the valves used, so dat a zera eror must be allowed for. ‘The principle of a valve voltmeter is for all practical purposes the prin. ciple of the vabve itself. A change of grid rotential eauses a change of anacs current which may he used to give aa indication oa g moving endl insivement HEALC, and KE. is to be measured, the valve Is allowed! tu vovk a8 4 veellfier Fa further valve may be ured as a combined probe and rectifier, 7 A Pocker" VaLve VouTMETER A really small valve voltmeter for A.C. and RE. test work may be made from a diode, using enly a flnment battery. Practically any dove may be used, but a 1-4-yolt valve is advisable since then the filament heltery consists nly of a singl: cell, If a suitable valve {s to hand, such a valve vollmeter fean be comstructed even more cheaply than a rectifier-maving coil instrument A.C, voltmeter, with the added advantage that the calibration holds over audio and RF. No range resistances are used since the instrument is intended only for operation over the low voltage range of about 0.7 veils, taking in heater ‘ACC. voltages, RP. heterodyne vollages, etc., and the circuit will siso serve jo show resonance in tuned inductances and similar appliestions. The henefits of a more elshorate valve voltmeter are, to a large extent, lost, especially the high input resistance, but this midget instrument is still capable of good work, It ig advised that the valve voltmeter be individually calibrated, even i the same valve type is ased as is shown in Fig. 7. The calibration may be made on the scale of the instrament or may agin take the form of 2 cone version card or staph, the volls applied on the inpet side being plotted against the indicated current The“ Bocker" Valve Voltmeter. ‘The conversion catd of the original instrument 3s shown in Fig. 8, but since the " Pocket "valve voltmeter is used, more often than not, as an RP. iniicator, the instrument seale bas not beca calitwated i terms of volts. Again, a ITA valve was used ia the original, with screen and grid strapped to the anode, It will be seen that a 2mis, fullseale moving coil instrument is used as the Indicator. A mA, jastrument gave full-scale readinge at too Jow an input voltage, although the more sensitive instrument could be used with cnother valve—the HY L13, for example. If itis desized to use a Lm. instrament in such a civcult, however, if is a simple matter {0 shunt the movement to read 0-2 mAs. full-scale. By connecting the instrument to the negative side of the filament cell tho indication is obtained until a potontial Is applied to the input terminals. 48 RMS. VOLTS APPLIED, o 2 © 6, 10 12 4 1 1B 2 Ma's. INDICATED. Tis, & Calibration Cand for V.V. of Fig, 19. Connecting the insivument to the positive side of the filament cell enhances the sensitivity of the valve voltmeter but wives a zero current, unless the valve voltmeter is connected into 4 very high resistance, Components List for the " Pocket” Valve Voltmets Fig. 7. My, 0-2 mAs, Moving coil ins -ument. vi, IT4 with B7G holder. si, S.P.S.T. On-Off switch A, LS.volk cel Terminals or prods, small cabinet, etc. ‘The ~ Pocket” valve voltmeter con he bullt into practically any small ease or tin for easy portability. ‘The advanced worker will, bowever, regulze a more compretiensive valve voltmeter than those so far shown, and the circeit of Fig. 9 Is of a metas opercted instrument complete with a valve probe for measuring D.C, A.C. and RF. Basically, a probe-vatve voltmetor is a D.C. measuring instrumer t, the probe being plugged into chrovit when it is desived to messure A.C. and RE. The probe bead contvins a diode or double diode vatve, the etic! function of which is to rectily the K.P. applied to the valve voltmeter, tus passing 2 D.C. potential for measurement to the main circuit of the va '¢ volbaeter. 19 Using a straight diode in the probe head gives a aero error, however, since the valve emission causes the valve voltmeter indicator to register when no A.C. or RP. is applied to the prohe. This emission current can be nentealised #3 & buttery, but a more useful methad is to employ a double diode in the probe head connected in a sol-bigsing oF “bucking "circuit, and such a probe is inciuded in the circuit of Fig. 9. The first section of the diode rectiies the applied signal, whilst the second diode causes an emission current to flow through the variable resist- ance RI, thos setting up a potential across this resistance, ‘The potential is applied to the frst diode section in opposition to the enussion current potential generated by that section, thus neutralising oxt the zero etror and enabling the siznal potential to be applied to the valve voltmeter neoper with no diode potential, ‘The prove heat can be made very small #€ an American GHG metal valve is used, since the valve and control resistance can thet! be mounted into small square box. If 2 British valve, such as the DD41, is used, the probe head will necessarily be larger, but by using a eylindefeal can yather than a box the probe can still be made convenien! to banlle and use. Whatever type of valve and probe head fs used, the assembly tust be connected to the valve voltmeter through a shielded cable with three coves, ‘the cable sbleld acting as the common lead for gonnection to the signal potential with the taree cores carrying te diode heater cuzrent and the Telurn or positive fine of the rectified signat potential. Diode probes give peak value readings on A.C. or RE., although these values may, of course, he calibrated as RMS, values, It the valve voltmeter is calibrated against a rectifier-moving coil instrument A.C. vollmeter and an A.C. supply of good wave-form is ased, then RMS. calibrations will be automatically obtained, whilst if the valve voltmeter is calibrated against commercial or standard valve voltmeter giving peak readings the calibra- tions sill automatically be peak value calthrations. Generally speaking, peak value calibrations are rather more desirable, but in any case there will he some error caused by departure (tor a trup sine wave-form if it is desired to change the peak readings to R.M.S. oF In aay case, tore thaw one calibration Is necessary since whilst fer the higher ranges the peak values of the applied A.C. or R.P, can be read off from calibrations made on D.C., helow 10 volts RMS, the indicatiens no longer bold true, and the instrument should have cafibration scales or charts for 0-10 volts A.C. ‘The D.C. vollineter section of Fig. 9 is a bridge circuit, two valves being used with a sensitive moving coil instrument connected between the cathode loads. These loads ace sufficiently high to give negative: feedback to theit respective valves, so thal a substantiatly near calibration is obtained enabling the scale fitted to the instrement to be used without the red for 4 recalibration or calibration card on the D.C. ranges, ‘The caltbzation is originally set by the control provided gn periodically checked. It has pat heen found possible to check the operation of this circuit when using 4-¥it valves, and accordingly the components values are shown ag for the G.volt 6J5 tyne valves used in the bridge circuit. There would appear 70 E = roe {0 be na reason why A-volt type valves should not give equally satisfactory results, however, and valves af the 354V or similar tpes mijsht he tried. If voltage stabilising tubes become available, it will be found advan. {tageous to stabitise the 1.1. Tine to a sot 150 volts into the anode circu? of the to vatves to elinsinate dridl errors caused by chanies or flccteations cof the mains suprly. The bridge circuit, however, has a stabilising etfecl, and the ciccuit wil operate quite satisfactorily without the stabilising lee The HLT. line may be set at 150 volts hy adjusting RT@ and measseing fre HLT. voltase with ap analyser or high resistance voltmeter, Whether a 4-voll o 6-wilt vatve is used in the probe liend, i€ should not be used at voltages higtier thea 450 KMS. ta avnid chances of overlosd, althouely manufacturers’ ratings ave “generally conservative and quick measurements might be taken up to 2 limit of 300 volts KMS. Besides the shielding of the probe head itselt (the shield ease shold De built of copper or aluminium, not iron or magivelic material, shickdng shoutd also be used on the input grid circuit of the D.C. valve voltmeter proper lo avold chance of stray pick-up, and the whole instrument shuuld be hut inle an aluminium case. The grids and prove condensers, C1 and C2, should he of the mica separation type, and may He bulit up from smaller values if the specified values are difficult to obtain. The igh resistances in this valve voltiucter, as in the other circults, must he bull up from standard yalue resistances, and once again the renge resistances must bear the correct relationsily one to another if the ranges are to he accurate, Components List for the D.C-A.CARE, Falie Voltmeter, Fig. 9 RI, 10,000 ohms Midget potentiometer. Re, 20 meyolims, watt, R3, Bon bow Ra, 45. Ma Rs, 480,000 ohms, 3 5, R6, 45000, R7, 5.0000, E RR, RLS, 470,000, 4 9, RO, R12, R14, 10,0000 4, R11, R13, 5,090 ols, witewound potentiomete Rie, 20,000 ohms, wirewound zotentiometer 1, C2, C5: 0.02 mfd. Mlea, C3, 8 mid. 250 vw». Plectrolytic, ca, 2 ma. 500 vw, vi, 6H6. V2.V3, 615, va, 5Y3G. 4 International octal chassis mounting valvcholders SL, Single-pole 4-way range switch, 83, DP.S.7, Gn-Of switch. 22 1, 200-250 volt primary. 250-0-250 volt, 60 mAs. Sy. 2a. Gy, Ts, H, 0-100 miczoamps moving colt instrexsent, Control knobs, chassis with sereening cover, ele, To test and set the instrument, use on D.C. with the probe unplvweed. It Is wise fo shunt the movement with a very low resistence until it Is krown that all wiring and connections and valves are in order, Switch on, allow fa reach operating temperature, and aclust the instrument £0 zero by adjust- ing RU, romoving the shunt when the instrument is roughly set. and finally adjusting with full sensitivity. Adjust the HLT. line #150 volts. Switch the range switch to 1 yelts and apply a kaosen D.C. inpat to the test terminals, Adjust R13 until the reading on the instrument M corres- ponds to the iput potuntial—on 2 0-100 scale miceammeter 3 volts on the 20 volt range will read as 30, 2.5 volts as 25, etc. Test for linearity To test the A.C. and RLF. ranges, plug in the prabe head and snitch to the 1 volt or 10 yoils range. As the prohe valve heats un the pointer of the indicator will shift irom zero, Return the pointer to zero by adjusting R1 in the probe hes. Apply the probe to a suitable voltage, and calibrate or prepare calibration cards for the low vollage ranges against an A.C, yollmeter or standaed valve voltmeter, Cuapren 4 ‘THR SIGNAL GENERATOR Apart from the 3.CuD.C. analyser the signal generator & probably the ‘most used instrument on the setvice engineer's bench, A commercial model is expensive, however, and not only the amateur hut also the professional service man often prefers to construct his own generator to suit the cond tioas under which be works and the type of receiver used in his locality Whatever the type of signal generator to he built, the mechanical side Of the construction must always be treated as being of the same importance as the electricad circuit and layout Every component must he anchaved rigidly, and every wire soldered firmly into place, heavy gauze wiring being, used #9 that no knock or vibration vill loosen a wire or, nearly a bad, cause it to bend cut of shape with possible upsetting of the calibration. The generator must always he heavily shiekied—in the home-built generator this point is often overlooked—and if the Insteument is {0 be mains-operated Hood veatilstion should be provided in order that frequency drift with heat 18 minimised as far as possible In the writer's opinion, the frst step towards the construction of generator is the purchasing or building of a suitable case. Afnmiviurt or, better stil, copper, should be used, and if the exse is made up from stock ith fointed comers particular attention must he paid to the honding of the ssdes in electrical contact. ‘The use of angle brass strip as side and corner braces with the sides, ends and bottoms of the case dritled and tapped to ae the slelp dives strength and good elect-ieal contact, ‘The id may he a posk. Fi of Winged and flted with a catch, but once again it must be bu perfect ita the rest of the case when it ig closed down, ‘The peneration and ncCelation of an RP. signal is a veletively séne! ter, and there wre many civeyits trom which a choiee cou be made Standard coils and tuning condensers snay be used—indeed, the use ££ cou merch] esnyonents is strongly recommented—and the diffcuttics atticked lo genesatcr construction really begio vith the atlenuator and outout circuit and reach their pesk with the calibration uf the Sinished instrument, ‘The attoneatur fs provided to give a range of output signal strengths. and i inay be stid straight away thot this feature of the generator may he omitted a useless, whether it is of a simple or elsborate type, ntess the enerstor screening is perfect. Even the veplilation holes of a mains-driven generator must be screened, slthongh this i a einmle matter since ie is only necessary to sneat or hot over the Inside of the ventilation bole a piece fof fine conper gauze which will give a perfect aivfey, and yeh gereen the generator. ‘The atfonuator may be calityated lo give & in which case the attenestar wil he of the type arranged in several steps, er 2 simple” yelume control” type of aticnuation may be employed. H may he seid immedistely thal a ealihvated attenuator is dificult (0 set for constant output over lhe whole range, and Ina home-constructed generator the calibeated alienuntor should have its own bultLin valve votimeter. The rimple stieruator is usualy all that fs required for field werk, and a porisiie generator using peanst valves and small halteries Is of great value to most service men. nite steps of RLF. voltage, rate cesstoat linpedance A good Seat has been vitten on the calibration of signal generators by sing the carriers of a member ef radio stations, hut herides heing a we some and pain:tehing tesiness the method finally presents the bui th a kerles of points separated by widely varcing Erequencise, co thal the fest that can he dove is lo prenare a dewen caligeation curve fo ase ageinsl the dial gradvatinns of the generator. A stgual generator defritely needs a calibrated dia} showing, in ag many arct as there are tundag ranges, the frequenciee directly toned. and iis now poseitte ta ebtaln dials with slow motion drives which give provision for such eaitration along plain aves ringed on a dial card, These drives and cials are veasonably priced and ate. regularly advertised in the ratio periadicals, ‘The genevator fitted with such a dial should he calibrated against a commercisd or stancard skynal generator whose own accuracy has been checked against radio stations—a better use for the broadcast carriers than attempting to calibrate the generator ageinst them--and it is eflen possible to howto or hire a good generator to act as @ standard for the purpose. If this is impossible, however, a feequesey standard can be WSK using & cervstal and multivibredor circuit, such a stanford always heing ef use in the workshop, ard a circuit of proven munit is shown in this chaotor, Suitable ‘erystals are exsily obtainable 32 the lime of waiting as sucples slack, and i cheaply. Whilst the frecuency standard gives a range af 24 set points over the scale, unlike the standard signal generator which cam hre timed je step with the generator to he calibrated, these points are resu- Isely spaced al interva’s of 100 kes, 50 that subvlivisions ave readily made between the ma'n calibrated goints on the dial, whlist further ey points may be obtuines, If desired, fram broadcast carriers. The first generator shown, that of Fig. 10, Is designed for paciahitity in order that it may be packed easily into the service ag. Peanut valves of the ITA type are used, since these give 2 very shod output with an HLT. yelage of osly 36 volts, and the current drain is so low that a layer-huilt type of battery can be used, Th the original generator, however, four grid bias bstieries im series gave the ILT. current. The attenuator is of the simplest type and cannol be coliheaicd, and output over various ranges is not comstint, ‘This is of Hite moment, however, when it is necessary only to realign EP, transformers or RLF. trimmers in simple outside repalrs. Tt is quite possible lo use cheaper valves of the 2-coll siktment variety fn place of the midge! pentodes although the carrying case will then have tobe Increased in size. Suitable valves would be triedes of the 330 or TIR210 ‘or similar types, although ia thie case it would be advisable ta use a Avolt filament battery’ with a fixed er variable dropping resistence ta bring the lament soltage up to the reguired 2 volts. Fox normal valves af fhe 2 volt D.L amp, (ype the dropping veslstance would he 5 ohms with a minimum rating of } watt. Tt ovigit alsa he found necessary to increase the H.T. voltage, using battery. triads. Commercial coils of the Weavite P range are specified, and tuned by 8 smail 0.0005 mid, tailng condenser. It is found that the 1T4 pestodes will rot oscillate at frequencies above about 20 mes. unless the HLT. voltage is increased. Tk is not often that Digher freguenctes are required from this type of instrument, however, and in. any cate the second armonics are strong and have been used dp to 30 mes, with good resutts, In the usual way the andi nole for audio modulation is obtained seem a transformeroscillator stage, Standard values for modulation are 400 cycles modulating the carrier to a depth of 30%, but in the majority of home-built generators not too much attention is Haid to standard require ments in fis rcercet, and it fe usally suffclent to tune the transformer acting as the oscillating Inductances la a fultable ante by a small condenser across either the secondary or primary winding. In the generator of Pig. 10 Fo tuning was needed, and since the amplitude of the audio oscillation Is low no grid blocking occurs so that no grid condenser and leak are necessary, Tae acstio modulation is introduced into the grid of the K.P. oscillator and can also he tapped oif as straight audio via a switch fos testing gram input terminals and spesker transformers, cle. A screened lead should be used te couple dhe generator into the receiver under test. the screen acting as the earth relumn, Since the generator is hatlery-operated no precautions other than those against shock need be taken whethe onrking on A.C, D.C, or Uaiversil receivers, 25 26 Geneion, ign the Lattery Bie. 10, ‘ Components Lat for the Battery Signoi Generator, Pia. 10, N.B.—Tened and reaction windings, tuned windings in the grid circuit, are denoted by a.a, bib, ete. aa earite PHES, 16-47 metres. Baby, earite PHRS, 25-100 5 oe earile PHS, 05.955 » dle Wenrite PHR7, 250-750 » ee, Wearite PHE1, 7002.000 |, Ch, C3. C3, €7, B.D mf, 109 ve. Nomingnctive, C2! Ca Ce, 0.090% mid. Mica. cs, 0.0095 mid, Variable taner. Ri, O.01 megohns, Volume control, Re, 47,000 ohms, } watt. RY, R4, Ri 84,000 ohms, + watt, Rs, {See teat nole helov.) RECA, Screened all-wave choke, REA RF. choke. 40 tuns of 30 SWC. fener. on P" diara. former to 1” fength, r, 3: 1 Inter valve dranstermer. S?, $2, Ganaed pote Senay range selector 83, DPST. On-Off svitch, ganged on RI. 83, SPDT. RP.-Audio switeh, VT, v2, ITA valves, with hovers. Chassis and case, slowmotion drive, contval knobs, ele, A 1.5 volt dry cell. B, 36 volt HT. battery. Note—Rs shunts the reaction winding of the PHFT coil since on this range 2 saiher high amplitude of osctlation is ohtained, leading to a chance of squegitins. Hs in the crisinal instrument was a 10,000 obms resistance For differert valves ar layouts the value might require modifiation, or the resistance could be inchded in series with the winding instead of in shunt, when the rosistance value wonld need to be found experimentally, the starting! value being about 500 elens, A muains-opevated signal gencrator Ig shown in Fig. 11, a triode-heptode frequency chinuer vate being used as thy combined R.F/Audip oscillator. A moculsted of unmodufated. signal is avallshle on the R.P. side, sshilet straight saidio can also he obtained ior amplifer testing, Commercia! coils ave again used, one advantage being that the frequency bands are covered jn a nomber of steps 0 that he high freguency ranwes ste not crowed as f so often the case where homemale coils are used. Once again the highest fundamental frequency ig about 20 mics., but sauch higher frequencies are covered by the second, third and, If desired, the fourth harmontes of the highest frequeney coil, with but lille diminution ts strenth of the second harmonic a3 compared with the fundamental tre quency output. A more elaborate atleneacor ig included in the ciesuit, with coorse atlensation setected by a switch and fize graduations of output obtain able through the use of a potentiometer. A low impedance load appears at both the input and output sides of the attenuator, 27 Signal Generator, Fro, U—The Mains Operate ‘The output may be taken directly from the attenuator er through an artificial aerial, ‘The attenuator and artificial acrial should have extra shield Ing within the shielded Box or cabinet containing the signal generator, whilst all earthed points and by-pass connections shoul be taken fo one central earthing junction so that no R.F. currents flow through the screening. ‘The audio oscillator whose culls are again the windings of an inter-valye transformer may be (uned by connecting smaf] capacitances experimentally across either the primary or secondary winding until a suitable note is obtained. A switch is provided through which the audio output can be fed to the attenuator, as well as an audio On-Off switch. The audio oscillator is connected to the triode section of the valve with, the RP, oscillator connected across the grid and sereen of the heptode. This is ‘not a usual arrangement, but hus the advantage that the heplode anode is left free of oscillating circulls, thus being readily available as the output electrode, whilet rather greater output is supplied by using the heptoce: as the RE. oscillator, Grid reaction with a tuned anode winding is used, so that in the event of squegging on any range a fied resistance can do inserted in series with the grid coil and gtid eordenser to reduce the anpli- tude of oscillation, the resistance heing found experimentally, using values hetween 50 and 800 ohms. Such resistances were not found necessary on the original model, but different coils or components from those specified may make them essential. Scuegging in a signal generator is. immediately obvious—inséead of a clear-cut signal with a pure avdio note, a band of frequencies is transmitted, the modulation being in the form of a harsh Dissing with the audio note central in the band. Such an output can he obtained by increasing the RLF. grid capacitance from 50 mmfds. to 500 mms, Components List for the Mains-Operated Signal Generator, Fig. 11. N.B.—Tuned and reaction windings denoted by a,, bb, ete. a3, Wearite PHF3, 16-47 ‘metees, bah, Weanrite PHES, 35.100 ” ee Wearite PHE6, 95-260 ” did, Wearife PHE7, 250-750 ” ee, Wearite PHF1, 700-2000 |, LI, 60 turns 28 S.W.G, on 3” Rod. co. 0.0004 mid. Mica. 2, 0.0002 mid. Mica, 3, C6, 0.01 méd. 50 v.w, Non-inductive, 4, 50 mmfas. Sitver Mica, €5, C10, 0.1 mfd. 850 v1. Non-inductive, C7, C8, 0.001 mifd. Mica, cs, 0.0005 mfd. Variabie tuner cu, C12, 8 mid. 500 v.w, Electrolytic. RL, 390 ‘ohms, watt, R2, RS, Ra, RS, 6, R7, RS, Ro, R10, R11, 200 kl, R12, 2.000 |) Variahle, fine attenuator R13, roo wate 29 kt, 1990 ohms, 1 wate RIS, RI6, RID, 47000 Ln Riz, 330 Kis, 6.000 a K20, 5000, 2 course abteainzor selector, SPDT. ALARE. selector SPILP. Nondwlation On-GEt DST, Maing Gail BL Inter-saiee transiormer 200-250 welt primary. 0-250 valk BO MAS. fv. 2a, Ay. 2a, P. 5. vi. ACTH ve, Lu. 1 British Z-pin chassis mounting valve! 1 Mazda octal chassis mounting valvehoider. Chassis, aluminium, wilh seveening box er cabinet. Slowmotion drive, contra] knobs, etc., output sockets, screened cable, lags, ele ‘The evystal-centrotfed frequency stondard against which generators and other tened apparatus inclauling receivers may i cutibrated Is shawn ia Fig. 12. A tuole-heptide hat the heatode sertion cermecied as a crystal oscitfater, thus automatically Injecting a controlled signa) to the tale circuit which, together with an external triode, is s moltivivsler adjusted to work at a freguoney of 100 kes, A maltivifratey, ag is well Kon, cam he coniroiled easily by an external frequency Nila the tenth harmonic of tie (uadamestss, and the clreuit gives an estremely high umber of harmonies. By omitting: a smoatving cond output Is sfigitis.hun-madulated identified A simple stlensator is fitted, with a fairly high owtput Impedance, but a more comprehensive switched attersstor can he Ried, althosh this has not heen found nevessary so long as the whole unit is shielded in the samme way as is a sisal genesater. Only one adjustment is necessary to alga the multivibrator circuit, With the apparatus constructed and tested, first check the operation of the crystal oscillator by runring a fine from the output socket to an ordinary broadcast receiver. With the receiver and cafihvator switched on, remove V1, the calthrator triode, thas putting the multivibrator out of action. Wil 2 1,000 kes. erystal im the heptnge circuit, tne the receiver to 300 metres, when @ strong carrier will he Feard. If a 100 kes. erystal is used, this test anne? be made siace the erystal will then be radiating an a 2,000 metres wavelength, It may be possible te hear a harmonic of the erystal at 200 metres or at 1,590 metres. but a emal! neon lamp touched lo the grid fof the heptode “il! give a positive test by lighting if the striking voltage fof the lamp is not more than approvimately 100 volts 30 wer in the ealibrator’s power pack the cordet that the carrier may be easily With the crystal oscillater working, replace YI and al vihiaior circuit to come inlo oyecatian. Tune the broadcast re connected with its aerial socket to the cutout socket of the exiisator, wa carts slo behig coanecied, from 860 to 250 metres, A series of strong, slight!) um-tedulated carriers sf De bes The wultisthrator can mow be corrected for frvguency. Adhust C3 until tuning the broadcast reeviver from 209 to REO mebres—ihat is, froan 1.500 krs, to 1,000 kes.~ Brings in G carviers oa and hetween the Twa points at the frequencies 1,500 es, Ta00 13200 | 1200 |) L100 iano “his, of course, presuires toat the revelver used is reasonably accurate. No troule shouk! be experienced In finding the selting of C3 which gives the 6 carviers. ‘The callbvator Is now set witl, the maltivibrator working at Ue funds. mental frequency of LOG kes. delivering = whole chain of carrier waves spaced one from the ether by 100 kes, from 100 kes, up to approximately ‘or 20: mes. To use the calibrator, connect It into a drondcast receiver elon with: the gear to be calibrated—a signal generater, for exampie—using the smailest coupling capacitances pessible to abiain audible signals. Switch the audio osellatar oF the signet generator out of action so thal a2 snmodulated RP. carrier is oblained. As a test point, (une the receiver to 300 meires, 1,000 lees, thas picking up one of the callheatar harmonics, Tune the generator fon the appropriate bart to the same frequency, As the generator frequency approaches T,000 Kes., x beat mole will he heard tn the receiver, falling in tome and then rising again as the generator ig Luned right theough frequency, Adjust the generator for 260 beat ote with the calihrator—that fs, tune the senerator until the beat note fills in frequency to hiaudibilits, whoa the enerator and callbvator ave beth on the sume frequency, ‘The xencrator Scale may then be calibrated wlth the 1,000 kes. mark, Tune the broadeast receiver up ta be next colibeator harmonic, which must be situated at 990 kes. Tene the senerator to heat avin, and then to zero heal. thus setting the generator frequency at 900 kes, and add a further calibration point fo the scale. Continue at poists through the whole fregeency range of the signal generator. ‘Should it not be desired to use such 9 calibrator, or should closer cali bration points be required on some ranges—for example, between 400 and 500 kes. for LF. adjustment—the generator may he ealibeated against known signal generator or even axaizst a goed calibrated! receiver which has heen checked afainst broadcast station frequencies or some other standard, The 400 to 300 kes. range cannot, of course, be directly reculved on aay rormal set, but the second lurmopies shed be hoard clearly at points between 890 to 1,009 kes, on the medium wave range. ‘Tune the generator, therefore, to the regulrod points between 400 and 500 Kes., roceiving and 32 se am ame calibrating by the harmonies between 800 and 1,000 kes. The some tech- gue weed with the ealibratey will obviously give calibrations at 50 kes points as well as a ROG ks. points, Care must he taken when using Fanmonics, however, lo ensure tit te correct harmonic points are teken. ‘Thin is usually simple at the lower frequencies, and careful count ill be all that is necessmy at high frequencies. Components List lor the Calibretor and Frequency Standard, Fig. 12. cL, cs, ‘BO annifdls. Silver Mica ce ca, 0.0601 ta. Mica. cs, 4-50 mumtds. Adjustable trisomer, ca 10 mvmfds, Silver Mica, ce, 0.08 mf. 350 v.w, Non-inductive C7, C8, 0.1 mfd. 350 y.w. Noa-inductive. C10, 8 mégs, 500 v.w. Electrol Ri, 50,000 ohms variable, output control 2, RB, Ra, Ra, RS, RO, 47,000 ohms, 1 watt. Rs, 68000, RY, 1000 Si, DEST. GnOft switeh. LEC, 10 ar 20 Henrys, 60 mAs, T 200-250 soit pehmary. 250.0250 volts, 60 mAs. fv. 2a. 4y, 2a. x, 100 kes, oF 1,000 kes. erystal vi, v2, Vi 1 British Spin chassis mounting valveholder. 1 British 7-pln chassis mounting, valveholder. 1 Mazda octil chassis mounting valveholder Chassis, skimvinium, with servening cover. Control Inob, output sackets, ete Since erystals have warying oseilatings characteristics tt may be found necessary to make some slight alleratiea ia the value of C9 to obtain stable ‘oscillation. CHAPTER 5 ‘THR OUTPUT METER Directions for the use of signal generators, whether in textbooks or supplied with coremercia! instruments, generally advise that the sidnment fof a receiver willy the signal generator shall be carried out with an output meter connected in ylace of the receiver's loudspesker. By seatching the indications given by the output meter the effect of rimming the LF. trans formers or of trimming and padding ossillstor and selector circuits can readily be seen, and the indleation is definite. If the receiver is aligned by 33 Histening to the audin ole from the loxsispsiter the ear rapidly ecemes dulled (0 slight changes in the intensity of the sound and canno: retain the idea of a“ refevence level” sucl, a cin he cbo-en vn the meters For this type of use the autpul sscter cn be catitrated tn any way al ail, for so long as there ste graduations an the scale the ultimate power sanplled to the meter is of Uitite moment, a comparisen between output levels is all that ts requived, So Tong as tae cutgit mreter is correel’y tatched lo the veceiver jt can be either a current er vollage measering tetament, and the A.C.D.C, analyser can be used 25 30 outyut meter simuly by eonmecta! the low A.C, volis ange across a suititte resistance which is, in turn com ssected aerass the sccondary of the cutpul transformer It may also he desivaible, however, to ave a tater oshich veil) acteally read ta terms of watts, or in volts gerass a certain impedance oF resistance, tu i dectbels, ans bere the analyser is noi ol great use. Since most outs meosurements are mate al a fregutency 97 200 exstes, tie insleeimient rectifer ioes aot hold to the same calibration as Wat obtaining at 80 cvcles, so that the anaiyser as a percentage of error for the wudlo, fequencies, The valve voltmeter con, of cose, he ase’, er an instrument rectifier: moving coil instrument may he calibrated for 400 eycles operation, the calibrations being made against a standard instroment or ageist a valve voltmeter. AAs & simple uncalfivated output meter @ Mage Eye tuning inilester ean be used to give ood results. ‘The instroment say be mounted ia a. sinall case an suppited with power—the demand le very stall fom Lae reccher wader test. ‘This tyze of output meter should be connected across the primary tof the output transformer rather thai: across the secondary, Whatever the type of output meter used. ard whether of not it wes tke output transformer in the receiver, rememver that the output valve weet work with the conruct load in its annde eireuit, Should the voice coll af tae loudsneaker he disconnected for any resson, a similar loud must be cemnected across the output transformer secondary in ils place—gencrally a Sohn load for tne majority of receivers, The otlput meter may meisure the relatively High vottage ueruss the oulpet transformer pruary a6 with the Magic Bye outnut meter, or the velssively tow voltove across the resistance connected to the output transformer secondary in place ef the vaice coil, ot a thermo: clectric ammeter may he used to measure the cuent ia this low fesistance, the three methods being shown in Pig. 13, ‘The Magic Eye output meter is shown in Fig. 14, Hither a 4 or 6 volt Kye may be used fo suit the heater Wransformer of the receiver wader test, Components List for the Megic Eye Ouiput Meter, Fig. 14. ca, ¢2, 0.01 md, 350 vas. Nonindactive. RI, 169,090 chs variable, input control Re, 1 megoima, 2 watt. vi, MEAI for A-volt operation oy Y6% for 6asit operation, A Manda octal or international ocla! chssle mousting valvehotder. Elther this type of ontput meter, or the A.C, volte ranges af the analyser, will do all that is required 40 far’ ag camsarative aula! readings for eek igements are concernet. The tow A.C. yolle range shoul be used neroes 38 cy ance I AcWoTHETER. = (Use senies c S WITH ReaTiriER Macis eve THRE were | mere ourpuy VALVE, Low RANGE JAC VOLTRETER, Lol RESISTANCE outer VANE, THEANOMAMMETER LOW RESISTANCE. oureut Hie, 13.—Metheds of Measuring Ovtput, VALVE 35 the voice coil of the loudspeaker or across a low substitute resistance. If the reading thus obiained is too low, the igber A.C. welts ranges inay be used, connected across the primary of the cullput transformer ‘with a OL ads condenser conrected in series with the analjser to block dhe passage To make actual output measurements the simplest methud is to use a thermoelectric ammeter in suties with a stllable low resislance across the secondary of the ovlpet éramsformer, or the ammeter thay faye its own + 2509 Magic Eyo Ouepyt Mover altitaping transormer whish can be matched tole any secier or ou stage. Since watts can be taken as ” ‘pst W=tR Where F ts the square ofthe eurent in amperes and Ris the toa resitance of the tout (lating the ameter Yelstines whigh te mented eee scale of 8 good thermo-etece animete, the scale tan be teosesed ferme of wall i desired, or the watts call calelted fam the conte vesding, The thermo electric smmsir, moreoveh holds ie eiealon tat through the audio tregueneee andy ilo Ine rade frauen od ee readings willbe substantially acetate for te ever hiseameny hetween frequency extremes 01 approximately 90 to 1000-000 cen ay akon ‘The fesitance used mist he ohnductve Ne sine the toa etange conneste lo the seonisry of te output anstoer ieee he ete than 10/00 15 ohms the constuction of 9 aulabe componente atte, The correat length of resistance wire should be ea of tested 36 resistance (with the ammeter resistance deducted from the total required resistance), and the wire should then be doubled and wound on a xmall former as 2 pair of wires. The resistance will then be non-inductive YW the meter is provided with i& own transformer for matching into various output stages, the use of a 10 ohms resistance inthe. secondary Circuit will simplify calculations. Specimen outputs into 10 ohms would ive LO watts, current 1 amp. 5 watls, current ~ 0.7 army. 2 walls, current = 0.45 amp. 2 watt,” current = 0.32 amp. Se hermoveecric_ammeters have the dnadvantngs of poor everiond capacities, so that care must always be taken when using such a meter that the instrument is not overloaded, as the heater wire would then be burnt out. To measure output in terms of yolts the some type of circuit may be tused sith a valve voltmeter or rectlier voltmeter connected across the tow resistance instead of in series with it, The valve voltmeter must, of course, be calibrated for A.C. operation, whilst _a rectifier instrament should be calibrated at 400 cycles rather than at 50 cycles. Different rectifers. give diferent frequency errors, however, and it may be found that the 50 eycle calibration of the anaiyser 10 voit’ A.C. scale is sufficiently accurate, since this scale can be used directly aceoss 4 Tow resisiance withoul the nsed for 2 series blocking condenser. ‘Whea using the voltmeter, watts con he taken as we where V" is the square of the indicated voltage across the low resistance. Thus, specimen voltsyes across a 10-ohm resistance for various outpul powers would be 40 watts, voltage — 10 volts 5 watts, voltage — 7 _ volts 2 watts, voltage = 4.47 volts L wait, voltage = 3.2 volts. Or a reading could be taken across a voive coil of known impedance; or, better. actos a substituted resistance with non-inductive characteristics connceted across the secondary of an output transformer iF a epecial trans former with a selection of tappings is not avallable. Where it Ie desired to express a reading in decibets, as, for example, where the overall gain of an anpliier is being measured, 31 A.C. voltmeter scale can be calibrated in terms of decibels, \ reference level mast, of couse, be chosen, and since the standard reference level for zero decibels 4s 0.006 watts in 500 ohms, this level fs sed in the conversion chart shown below. By means of this chart any A.C. yoltmeter can have » decibel range added to its scales giving decibels and power levels in 500 ohms loads directly 37 Decibels, Watts and Volts Tables. Volts seress 590 ohms Losd, Watts Votts OGG OTE aonoz i oov0s a ssn e002 ran 6.006 1783 0.02, : a6 0.06 wo Buds 10.0 373, 31.62 Bis 2 100.0 600 on 1732 200.9 : 216.2 ead 477 Fo find the wamber of decibels comresponving to aie power fevet with the 2

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