Asher, Isoma S., (2019). Production of Cassava Fufu Flour.

Retrieved from

https://www.academia.edu/12094113/Production_of_Cassava_Fufu_Flo

ur on December 19, 2019.

CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of study

Cassava is one of the root crops in Nigeria. Apart from being a staple
crop and also a major food sources in both rural and urban household, it is
also source of income for both cassava farmers and processors in Nigeria.
Fufu is a fermented wet-paste made from cassava, rich in carbohydrates and
has a smooth texture. It is ranked next to Garri as an indigenous food of
most Nigerians in the south. The Botanical Name of Cassava (manioc) is
Manihot esculenta.

1.2 Statement of problem

Traditionally, fufu is produced in the wet form with moisture content

of 40-50 % with quite an offensive odour; this makes it highly perishable
with a short shelf -life when compared to garri with moisture content of less
than 10%. The short shelf life of the wet fufu has a clear negative effect on
the prices and margins processors and many assembly traders are able to
command.
1.3 Objective of study
This is to study the process and possible modifications in order to
increase the shelf life of fufu and possible elimination or reduction of its
characteristic offensive odour.

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1.4 Scope of study

Cassava contributes to about 45% GDP in agriculture in Nigeria for

food and domestic processes, but has very limited, industrial processing and
utilization. The raw material for the study is fresh cassava tubers, free from
microbial or insect damages without serious cuts or bruises.

1.5 Justification of study

Currently, the country produces about 40,000,000 tones of cassava
tubers annually. Fufu is one of the products that can be obtained from
cassava. There is high demand for Fufu in Nigeria, as it is consumed as
human food, which transcends ethic, religious and social barrier.

1.6 Significance of study

Proper utilization of cassava to increase availability of better fufu,
with high shelf life and reduced characteristic odour

1.7 Research methodology

The improved Fufu production process starts with peeling of the roots,
washing cutting into pieces and stepping in water to ferment for some days
(3-5), the fermented mash is then pounded and washed over a fine sieve to
remove any available fibre, and the water is also expelled by pressing
through a muslin cloth to obtain the Fufu.

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 CHAPTER TWO

2.0 Literature Review;

2.1 Root and Tuber Crops

The root and tuber crops are majorly cassava (Manihot esculenta),
potato (Solanum tuberosum), sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas), yam
(Dioscorea spp.), edible aroids (Colocasia esculenta and Xanthosoma spp.),
and Andean root and tuber crops (several genera). Root and tuber crops
provide a substantial part of the world’s food supply, and are also an
important source of animal feed and industrial products. On a global basis,
approximately 45% of root and tuber crop production is consumed as food,
with the remainder used as animal feed or for industrial processing for
products such as starch, distilled spirits, and a range of minor products.
The pattern of root and tuber crop utilization varies considerably
among countries. In the developing countries (with the exception of China
and Brazil), relatively small amounts (less than 20%) are fed to livestock.
Most of the remainder is used locally as food. The relatively high cost of
transportation, processing, and storage, as well as the considerable time
needed in food preparation, frequently makes unprocessed root and tuber
crops less attractive to urban consumers.
The consumption of root and tuber crops as food in developed
countries is considerably smaller than it is in developing countries, but their

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use as animal feeds is relatively higher. A very small proportion of root and
tuber crop production (approximately 5%) is traded internationally.
There are considerable differences in the agro climatic conditions
suitable for the production for the different root and tuber crops.
Cassava is grown across a broad range of agro climatic conditions
from sea level to 1,800 meters, and from areas with as little as 500 mm of
rainfall, to tropical rain forest areas with more than 2,000 mm per year.
Potatoes, on the other hand, are considered to be a high
latitude/altitude crop, originating in the cold Andes, but now grown in a
range of environmental conditions, from traditional ranges to warmer, drier
areas, including irrigated production in Latin America, Asia, and portions of
Africa.
Sweet potato is understood to have originated in the Americas (as did
cassava and potato), and it too is grown over a considerable range of latitude
and elevation (up to 2,500 meters).
Conversely, yams have a relatively narrower range of production,
being mainly confined to the tropical region throughout the world from sea
level to 1,400 meters. The main production of yam is in the Savannah region
of West Africa, where more than 90% of the crop is grown. Most of the
cultivated edible aroids are well adapted to high rainfall (and occasional
flooding) and can be cultivated in temperatures ranging between 16 and
30⁰C, at elevations up to 1,600 meters.
The lesser-known Andean root and tuber crops, of which there are
more than a dozen, vary considerably in their ranges of adaptation and
tolerance to environmental conditions. They are primarily considered to be
medium-to-higher elevation crops of moderate temperature regimes and

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 water requirements, and have greater tolerance to frost than do other root
and tuber crops.

Table 2.1 Characteristics of the tropical root and tuber crops (Lebot, 2009) From
Bradbury and Holloway (1988)
Aroids Colocasia
Cassava Manihot Sweet Potato Yams Dioscorea
esculenta and
Characteristics esculenta Ipomoea batatas spp.
Xanthosoma
Euphorbiaceae Convolvulaceae Dioscoreaceae
sagittifolium Araceae
World production in
266 124 51 13
2007 (million tons)
World cultivated Area
18.6 9 4.6 1.9
(million Hectares (ha))
World average yield
12.2 13.7 11.2 6.7
(fresh tons/ha)
Yield Potential (fresh
90 120 110 110
tons/ha)
Planting Material
Stems Vine Cuttings Tubers Corms, Suckers
(Propagule)

Growth Period (Months) 8 – 36 3–6 8 – 36 6-16

Optimal Rainfall (mm) 1000 – 1500 750 – 1000 1200 – 1500 2500 - 3500

Optimal Temperature
25 – 30 20 – 25 30 20 – 35
(⁰C)

Drought Resistance Yes Yes Yes No

Waterlogged Resistance No No No No

Shade Tolerance No No No Yes

Soil fertility requirement Low Low High High

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Seasonality of crop cycle No Yes Yes No

In-ground storage life Long Moderate Moderate Long

Post-harvest storage life Very short Short Long Moderate

Aroids Colocasia
Cassava Manihot Sweet Potato Yams Dioscorea
esculenta and
Characteristics esculenta Ipomoea batatas spp.
Xanthosoma
Euphorbiaceae Convolvulaceae Dioscoreaceae
sagittifolium Araceae
Yes, fairly
Leaves used for human
Yes common in West No Yes
consumption
Africa and Asia
Leaves used for Animal
Yes Yes No Yes
feed
Dry matter (% fresh
30 – 40 20 – 35 20 – 40 20 – 30
weight, FW)

Starch (% FW) 27 - 37 18 - 28 20 - 25 15 - 25

Starch Grains (in

May-50 Feb-40 Jan-70 1 -6
microns)

Amylose (%starch) 15 – 30 8 – 32 10 – 30 3 – 45

Gelatinization
49 – 73 58 – 65 69 – 88 68 – 75
Temperature. (⁰C)

Total sugars (% FW) 0.5 – 2.5 1.5 – 5.0 0.5 – 2.0 2.0 – 3.0

Proteins (% FW) 0.5 – 2.0 1.0 – 3.0 2.0 – 4.0 1.5 – 3.0

Fibers (%FW) 1 1 0.6 0.5 – 3.0

Vitamin A (µg/
17 900 117 0 – 42
100g/FW)
Vitamin C (mg/
50 35 25 10
100g/FW)
Minerals (% FW) 0.5 – 1.5 1 0.5 – 1.0 0.5 – 1.5

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Energy (kj/100g/FW) 600 500 440 400

Anti-Nutritional
Cyanogens Trypsin inhibitors Alkaloids, Tannins Oxalate Crystals
Compounds

2.2 Cassava
2.2.1 Cassava; Theoretical
Cassava (Manihot esculenta) also called manioc, mandioca etc. is a
woody shrub of the euphorbiaceae (spurge family), it is a root-tuber and
traced initially to South America. Cassava shrub reaching 2 to 4 m in height
is grown in the tropics and subtropics for its underground starchy tuberous
roots. The cassava tuber consists of the bark (outermost layer, 0.5-2% of the
organ; easily removed by simple scratching), the peel (1-2 mm thick; 8-15%
of the tuber; contains most of the toxic Cyanogenic glucosides) and the
fleshy starchy Parenchyma (83-92% of the tuber) which is the edible part of
agricultural importance. Each plant has 5 to 20 starchy elongated tubers.
Each tuber may be 20-80 cm long and 5-10 cm in diameter. Average tuber
weight is between 4 and 7 kg but specimens up to 40 kg have been recorded.
The number and size of tubers is highly variable between cultivars and
growing conditions. There are more than 7000 cassava varieties
Cassava is an important staple food crop for millions of people in the
tropical regions of Africa, Asia etc and for over millions of people
worldwide. Nigeria is the world's largest producer of Cassava. Cassava is
grown on large scale for industrial processing and commercialization, thus
besides producing for the locals; cassava can be exported and used as a
source of Foreign Exchange.

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 Cassava is classified as sweet or bitter. Farmers often prefer the bitter
varieties because they deter pests, animals, and thieves. Like other roots and
tubers, both bitter and sweet varieties of cassava contain anti-
nutritional factors and toxins, thus it must be properly prepared before
consumption.

Fig. 2.1 Picture of a Cassava Plant in a farm land

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 A reason for dependence of people on Cassava is generally based on
some of the attributes of the crop which includes, ease of cultivation, ease of
production, high yields and returns, ability to last longer underground after
maturity, and high economic importance/ high dependence on the crop.

2.2.2 Cassava; Origin and Farming

Wild populations of Manihot esculenta subspecies flabellifolia, shown
to be the progenitor of domesticated cassava, are centered in West-Central
Brazil, where it was likely first domesticated more than 10,000 years BC. By
4,600 BC, manioc pollen appeared in the Mexico lowlands, at the San
Andrés archaeological site. The oldest direct evidence of cassava cultivation
comes from a 1,400 year old Maya site, Joya de Cerén, in El Salvador, and
the species Manihot esculenta likely originated farther south
in Brazil, Paraguay and Argentina. While several Manihot species are wild,
all varieties of M. esculenta are cultigens (a cultivated plant of unknown or
unclear taxonomic origin).
Cassava was introduced to Africa by Portuguese traders from Brazil in
the 16th century. Cassava is sometimes described as the ‘bread of the tropics.
The cassava cultivation is quite different from other crops, the crop is
propagated using the stem, the earth is dug and the stem is layered and
covered in it.

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 Fig. 2.2 Picture of a Cassava Plant Leaf
2.2.3 Cassava; Types
There are majorly two types of cassava that can be cultivated, and
includes;
 Bitter cassava, Manihot utilissima
 Sweet cassava, Manihot palmata
2.2.3.1 Bitter Cassava:

This variety contains Prussic acid (hydrocyanic acid), which can cause
cyanide poisoning. Bitter Cassava has roots containing 0.02- 0.03% HCN
(DM basis) and fresh leaves containing up to 0.2% HCN (DM basis).
Though values of 0.22 % DM have been reported in fresh roots. The bitter
cassava comprise more that 90% of production as they have higher yield, are
tolerant to pests and diseases and the potential for storage in the soil is
greater than 12 months and have to be processed before being fed to
animals. Bitter cassava has cyanide concentration and is deadly poisonous if
not prepared correctly.

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 2.2.3.2 Sweet Cassava:

This variety contains Prussic acid (hydrocyanic acid), which can

cause cyanide poisoning also but at a very high intake of the fresh root.
Sweet Cassava have roots containing less than 0.01% HCN and fresh
leaves containing about 0.1% HCN (DM basis). The Sweet Cassava has
its cyanide concentrated near the surface, so after peeling and normal
cooking, it is safe to eat.

Fig. 2.3 Picture of Cassava Tubers after harvesting

2.2.4 Cassava; Agronomic characteristics

Table 2.2 Summary of the agronomic characteristics of cassava

Characteristic Value

Growth period (month) 24-Sep

Optimal temperature (⁰C) 25-29

Optimal rainfall (cm) 100-150

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 Optimal Ph 6
Fertilizer requirement Low
Storage organ Roots
Propagating Organ Stem
Cassava also has a physiological characteristic and tolerance for
withstanding very long seasons of drought.

2.2.5 Cassava; Tuber Composition

Cassava roots contain a large amount of starch, ranging from 70 to

85% DM (Dry Matter). Cassava roots are therefore considered as energy
feed. However, their protein content (typically < 3%) is lower than that of
cereal grains. Cassava can be substituted for cereals at high level in rations
for all classes of livestock and poultry, provided that it is supplemented with
a nitrogen source. The fibre content is also extremely low (NDF < 10%
DM), which makes cassava roots highly digestible in all livestock species.
HCN content may or may not be a problem, depending on the variety,
process and livestock species.

2.2.6 Cassava; SWOT (Strengths, weakness, opportunities and threats)

of Cassava Production in Nigeria.

This is done to determine the availability of a well-functioning market

for cassava and cassava products in West Africa. The expected end result
would be the industrial growth of the cassava industry.

2.2.6.1 Strengths

 Available cultivable land area.

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  Available market, locally and internationally.
 Adaptability of cassava to different soil conditions.
 Conducive weather conditions for increased production.
 Human resources—over 70% of the Nigerian population are
involved in one form of agriculture, largely in the rural areas.
 Available improved cultivars.
 Viable and functional stakeholders’ associations, especially of
processors, growers, fabricators, and exporters.
 Available local resources for appropriate technology.

2.2.6.2 Weaknesses

 Relatively low productivity: subsistence farming is still widely

practiced, mainly because of the low level of mechanized farming.
 Poor to low infrastructural facilities roads etc, poor power supply.
These are not easily available; as such processors incur very high
production costs.
 Lack of entrepreneurial skills and strategies: most of the key players
in cassava enterprises lack a plan to guide them in the business.
 Inefficient market information system: the wide gap between farmers
to processors and end-users results in low dissemination of
information and results in imbalance between demand and supply.
 Availability of high interest rates by Agricultural credit institutions.
 Inefficient agricultural production and processing equipment.
 Lack of sustainability.
 Lack of coordination of rural and agricultural development efforts
through the multiplicity of agencies involved.

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  Inadequate number of experienced and committed processors.
 Gender discrimination: low purchasing power of female processors in
the acquisition of the appropriate equipment.

2.2.6.3 Opportunities

 Human capital development of especially the youth who are restive.

 Filling the demand gap by supplying food items to the sub-region.
 Exploring investment through public–private partnerships.
 Availability of research institutes such as NCRI, IITA and FIRRO.
 Availability of high-yielding cassava varieties.
 Available markets and export opportunities of cassava products.
 Industrial use as a cheap raw material and substitute for more
expensive materials.
 Diversification of cassava utilization based on varietal differences to
suit different purposes.
 Easy linking of stakeholders in the value chain.
 Efficient market information system.
 Increased production.
 Availability of more cassava products.

2.2.6.4 Threats

 Obscurity of roles of Government in agricultural development.

 Competition from the other cassava-producing countries in the world.

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  Need to meet cassava demand domestically and industrially.
 Possibility of elite and political interference; this puts a wedge in the
flow of policy benefits to rural people.
 High cost of labor during cassava production.
 Inadequate funding of agriculture.
 Relative prices of other food crops and products.
 Problems over the available energy source.
 Financial involvement and gender disparity.
 Climate change.

2.2.7 Cassava; Processing / Production and Uses

2.2.7.1 Why Process Cassava?
Fresh cassava roots cannot be stored for long because they rot within
3-4 days of harvest. They are bulky with about 70% moisture content, and
therefore transportation to markets is difficult and expensive. The roots
contain varying amounts of cyanide which is toxic to humans and animals.
Therefore, cassava must be processed into various forms in order to
increase the shelf life of the products, facilitate transportation and marketing,
reduce cyanide content and improve palatability.

2.2.7.2 Uses

In Nigeria, cassava is usually marketed in the processed form and

ready for consumption, which usually includes
 Garri: Dried Cassava tissue.
 Fufu: Fermented Cassava tissue.
 Lafun: dried Cassava flour.

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 Amongst these cassava products, the most consumed is garri and
Fufu. Other important uses of the crop and its products includes, Tapioca,
production of cassava flour, starch production, used in ethanol (Bio-Fuel),
pharmaceuticals, confectionaries, sweeteners, plywood, paper, textile, bio-
degradable and adhesives.

2.2.8 Cassava; Description of Processes for Production of Different

Cassava Products

2.2.8.1 Production of Dried/Roasted Cassava Tissue (Garri)

Garri is a creamy-white, granular flour with a slightly fermented

flavor and a slightly sour taste made from fermented, gelatinized fresh
cassava tubers.

Processes Involved in the Production of Garri Include:

 Harvesting and sorting: select fresh cassava root without rot.

 Peeling and washing: removing of bark of tuber and wooden tip by
hand, and washing with water to remove pieces of peel and sand.
 Grate: use of motorized grater to reduce cassava tubers to paste.
 Fermenting: packed into a bag for 5 days at room temperature.
 Pressing: filled into jute sacks and placed in a hydraulic jack press.
 Sifting: use sieve to separate fibrous material and control particle size.
 Frying and cooling: roasting in a large shallow cast iron pan over fire
with constant stirring for 20 - 30 minutes at 80⁰C and then cooled to
room temperature.
 Sieving (optional): to obtain granules of uniform size.

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  Packing: in polyethylene bags.
 Storing: usually in a cool dry place.

Principle of Processing and Preservation of Garri

Cassava is fermented to remove cyanide and produce the desirable

flavors. It is then roasted to destroy enzymes and microorganisms, to drive
off cyanide gas, to dry the product and as a way of preservation. Low
moisture content inhibits recontamination by bacteria. Packaging is needed,
especially in areas of high humidity, to retain the low moisture content.

Raw Material

Fresh cassava tuber free from microbial or insect damage and without
serious bruising or cuts is used as the raw material.

Hygiene

Fresh cassava is a moist, low-acid food that is susceptible to bacterial

and fungal growth. Hygienic practices ensure minimal contamination. All
waste materials from the process should be removed to avoid contamination.

Process Control

Washing should be carried out thoroughly to avoid contamination.

Fermentation must be properly controlled; short period will result in

incomplete detoxification, long period gives the product a strong sour taste.

Gelatinization of starch during roasting is affected if too much liquid

is pressed from the grated cassava; the effect is a whiter product. Formation
of granules during roasting if sufficient liquid is not removed. The ideal

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moisture content is 47-50 %. The granules must be roasted to about 80
ºC/175 ºF to achieve partial gelatinization of the starch.

Packaging and Storage

The product is hygroscopic and should be packed in airtight moisture-

proof bags, especially in areas of high humidity, to prevent mold growth.

Processing Equipment

Includes;

 Weighing Balance
 Washing machine
 Presser
 Grater
 Granulator
 Sieves
 Fryers/Rotary Dryer
 Hammer milling machine
 Sealer

2.2.8.2 Production of Fermented Cassava Tissue (Wet Fufu)

Fufu is a fermented wet paste widely consumed in eastern and south-

west Nigeria and in other parts of West Africa. It is ranked next to garri in
importance. Fufu is made by steeping whole or cut peeled cassava roots in
water to ferment for a maximum of three days, depending on ambient
temperature.

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2.2.8.3 Production of Lafun

Lafun is a fibrous powdery form of cassava similar to fufu in Nigeria.

In the traditional preparation, fresh cassava roots are cut into chunks and
steeped for 3-4 days or until the roots become soft. The fermented roots are
peeled, broken up into small pieces, and sun dried.

The dried pieces are milled into flour. Drying takes 2-4 days,
depending on the weather.
The fibers in the retted root for Lafun are dried along with the mash
and later sieved out. Thus, Lafun is coarser than fufu in texture. When
properly stored, it has a shelf-life of six months or more.
The processes involved in production of cassava flour include
 Harvesting and sorting: select fresh cassava root without rot.
 Peeling: removing of bark of tuber and wooden tip by hand.
 Size reduction (optional): reduce size of cassava pieces.
 Washing: washing with water to remove pieces of peel and sand.
 Steeping: soak in water in a bowl for 3 -4 days.
 Crushing and pulping: by hand
 De-watering: filled into sacks and placed in a hydraulic jack press.
 Drying: in thin layers using sunlight
 Milling and sieving: to obtain powder and remove fibre
 Package. In polythene bags
 Storing: in a cool dry place.

2.3 Flour

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 Flour is a powder which is made by grinding cereal grains, beans, or
other seeds or roots. It is the main ingredient of baking. Due to the
hygroscopic nature of the flour it is good base for microbial growth. Normal
moisture content in flour ranges from 13 to 15%.

2.3.1 Flour; Etymology

The English word for "flour" is originally a variant of the word

"flower". Both derive from the Old French fleur or flour, which had the
literal meaning "blossom", and a figurative meaning "the finest".

2.3.2 Flour; History

It was discovered around 6000 BC that wheat seeds could be crushed

between millstones to make flour. The Romans were the first to grind seeds
on cone mills. In 1879, at the beginning of the Industrial Era, the first steam
mill was erected in London.
2.3.3 Flour; Composition
Flour contains a high proportion of starches, a subset of
complex carbohydrates known as polysaccharides. The higher the protein
content the harder and stronger the flour, and the more it will produce crusty
or chewy breads. An important component of wheat flour is an enzyme
called diastase. They break down some of the starch into sugars to be acted
upon by yeast.
2.3.4 Flour; Wheat Flour

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 Flour as we know is milled from wheat, and can be classified into
hard wheat and Soft Wheat. The soft wheat produces very white, low protein
flour, used mainly for cake flour. The hard wheat produces good bread flour.

Gluten is made of two substances; Glutenin and Gliadin. The glutenin

gives the dough the strength to hold the gases formed by the action of yeast
and determines the structure of the baker’s product. Gliadin gives the gluten
elasticity or stretching ability.

2.3.5 Flour; Extraction and Grades of Flour.

During flour production from wheat, the inner parts of the endosperm
tend to break more easily than the outer parts. The term extraction refers to
the part of the endosperm separated into a particular grade of flour. Thus,
flour with an extraction rate of 90% contains all but 10% of the endosperm.
Based on this premise we can have also different grades of Flour.

2.3.5.1 Grades of Flour:

 Straight Flour: this is 100% extraction flour, and is made from the
entire wheat kernel after the bran and the germ has been removed.
 Patent Flour: milled from the inner parts of the endosperm that
breaks into finer particles. The extraction rate of patent flour can be
varied based on demand, specific needs and quality of wheat.
 Clear Flour: the portion of the endosperm that remains after the
patent flour has been removed is called the clear flour and is darker in
color. This grade of flour is not good for baking.

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  High Gluten Flour: sometimes called hard flour, this grade of flour
has very high protein content and is made from hard wheat and used
in special crunchy products like pizza etc.

2.3.5.2 Types of Flour

 All Purpose Flour: this type of flour is known as blend flour, and is
prepared that it may be used satisfactorily for all baking and cooking
purposes in the home and confectionaries.
 Bleached Flour: this is flour that requires proper aging in order to
produce the best results for baking. Storing newly milled flour for a
period of two to three months gives it proper aging and also a much
whiter color. In other to eliminate the expense of storage, the flour can
be bleached with chemicals.
 Dark Rye Flour: this type of flour is made by removing parts of the
white rye flour from the straight flour and contains more finely
ground bran. It possesses a true rye flavor.

2.3.6 Flour; Composite Flours:

In the 1960s and 1970s composites very often found themselves in the
focus of attention in Europe and the international cereal research, most of
which was sponsored by the FAO (Food and Agricultural Organization of
the United Nations).
Wheat for making bread and other baked products in developing
countries had to be imported and this affected the balance of trade. For this
reason, the FAO and these countries were interested in replacing wholly or
partly the flour needed for production by flour from locally grown products.
Thus, possible source were tuberous plants, such as yam, cassava, sweet
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potatoes, protein rich foods like Soy, peanuts and other cereals like maize,
millet, rice and sorghum. Composite flours became the subject of numerous
studies as no flour can posses the properties of wheat flour. The advantage
of using composite flours included
 Saving of hard currency
 Promotion of high-yielding native plant species
 Better supply of protein for human nutrition.
 Better overall usage of domestic agriculture products.

2.3.6.1 Composite Flour; Definition

Composite flours are a mixture of different vegetable flours rich in
starch or protein, with or without wheat flour. Thus, composite flours can
be defined as “composite flours are a mixture of flours from tubers rich in
starch (e.g. cassava, yam, sweet potato) and / or protein-rich flours (e.g.
soy, peanut) and / or cereals (e.g. maize, rice, millet) with or without wheat
flour”.

2.3.6.2 Composite Flours; Composition

Therefore the extent to which wheat flour could be replaced by other
vegetable flours depended on the nature of the products to be baked and their
overall quality (taste, appearance, chewing properties and shelf life) should
be similar as possible as those made from wheat flour. To achieve this wheat
flour contained in the composite is treated suitably, using the familiar
improvers, potassium bromated and ascorbic acid usually as a rule between
20 to 50 ppm. Modern enzyme preparations are also added for compensating
loss in volume resulting from the composite flour as compared to pure wheat
flour. Such enzymes include Hemicellulases, lipases as well as amylases.
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2.3.7 Flour; Uses and Importance
 It is the backbone and structure of baked goods.
 It acts as a binding and absorbing agent.
 It affects the keeping quality of products.
 It is important to the flavor of products.
 It adds to the nutritional value of baked products.

2.3.8 Flour; Cassava Fufu Flour

Fufu is a fermented wet-paste made from cassava. Fufu is made by

steeping whole or cut peeled cassava roots in water to ferment for a
maximum of three days, depending on ambient temperature. During
steeping, fermentation decreases the pH, softens the roots, and helps to
reduce potentially toxic Cyanogenic compounds. When sufficiently soft, the
roots are taken out, broken by hand, and sieved to remove the fibers. At
present, processors sieve manually by adding water to the retted mass on
nylon or cloth screens. The fiber produced as a by-product is sold for animal
feed, either in its wet form or after sun-drying. The sieved mass is allowed to
sediment in a large container for about 24 hours. After sedimentation, the
water is poured off while the fine, clean sediment (mainly starch) is
dewatered using a high powered Press. The cake is then sifted before drying.
Apart from being easy to prepare the consumable form, dried fufu has the
advantages of having a longer shelf life, being more convenient to store, and
less bulky. When cooked, fufu is a creamy/white smooth textured product.
When properly packaged and stored, dried fufu flour has a shelf-life of six
months or more.

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Table 2.3 Processes involved in Producing Cassava Fufu Flour.

PROCESS DESCRIPTION

Sorting The roots are sorted to select wholesome roots for processing.

Weighing The sorted roots are weighed.

Peeling The roots are peeled to remove the bark of the cassava roots.

Washing The peeled cassava roots are washed thoroughly.

Soaking The roots are soaked in clean water over a long period of water.

Pulping/Shifting The softened roots are pulped and sifted using plenty of water.

Sedimentation The slurry is allowed to sediment under gravity for a period of time.

The thick slurry is obtained by removing the upper layer of the

Dewatering
supernatant liquid to reduce moisture content.

Granulating The cake is mechanically reduced in size to produce fine granules.

Drying The granulated Fufu cakes are dried to about 10% moisture content.

25
 Cooling The dried cakes are then cooled to room temperature.

Sieving The dried grit is subjected to size separation.

Milling The coarse particles are collected and milled to the desired sizes.

Blending The original sieviate is blended with the milled coarse particles.

Packaging The Fufu is packaged appropriately.

Harvesting/Sorting /Peeling of
Cassava Tubers

Washing and Steeping of

Cassava Tubers

Mashing/Pulping and sieving

of fermented cassava Tubers.

Sedimentation under Gravity

for 4 Hrs

Dewatering/ Pressing to
reduce loose moisture

Drying

26
Sun Drying Oven Drying
 Fig 2.4 Flow Chart for Processes in Cassava Fufu Flour Production

2.4 Fermentation

2.4.1 Fermentation; Introduction

Fermentation was traditionally a process which enabled to preserve

food. However nowadays, the main purpose of food fermentation is not to
preserve, since there are now other preservation techniques, but to produce a
wide variety of product with specific taste, flavor aroma and texture. Using
various fermentation conditions (microorganisms, substrates, temperature
time of fermentation etc) and chemical engineering achievements have
enabled us to manufacture hundreds of different products. Majorly only two
types of fermentation are used: lactic acid and ethanol fermentation.

Fermentation products are quite diversified: from traditionally made

silages, through single cell proteins and ending with microbial pesticides.
The products include:

 Food products: from milk (yogurt, kefir, fresh and ripened cheese),
fruits (wine, vinegar), vegetables (pickles, sauerkraut, soy sauce),
meat (fermented sausages, salami).

27
  Industrial Chemicals: solvents; acetone, butanol, ethanol; enzymes;
amino acids.
 Specialty Chemicals: vitamins, pharmaceuticals.

2.4.2 Fermentation; Definition

The term fermentation comes from a Latin word fermentum (to

ferment). Fermentation can be described as respiration without air.
Historically, the science of fermentation is called Zymology and the first
Zymologyst was Louis Pasteur, who as the first, made yeast responsible for
fermentation. During fermentation, incomplete oxidation of organic
compounds occurs and for this reason less energy is obtained when
compared with aerobic oxidation of the compound.

2.4.3 Fermentation; History

Fermentation of food arose more by accident than by guided effort.

Fermentation has been used since ancient times to converse and alter foods.
For thousands of years fermentation processes were carried out without
understanding microbial mechanisms until 19th century. The first
fermentation included the production of Beer (Babylonia), Soy Sauce
(Japan, China), Fermented milk beverages (Balkans and Central Asia).
Fermented beverages appeared in 5000 B.C. in Babylon, 3150 B.C. in
Ancient Egypt, 2000 B.C. in Mexico and 1500 B.C. in Sudan.

Before World War I the only large-scale fermentation product was

ethanol. During World War I, acetone-butanol fermentation was
commercially established. Acetone was used in explosives production. In
the years 1941 – 46, the market for conventional fermentation products, such
as antibiotics, germ warfare, was established.
28
2.4.4 Fermentation; Theory

The fermentation can be classified as spontaneous and induced (e.g.

making of bread dough by addition of baking yeast flour). Fermentation
products contain chemical energy, which means that they are not fully
oxidized and their complete mineralization requires oxygen. Fermentation is
less energetically efficient than oxidative phosphorylation (ATP is produced
only by two substrate-level phosphorylation). While fermentation of 1
molecule of glucose yields 2 molecules of ATP, in aerobic respiration 36
ATP molecules are formed. The final step of fermentation, transformation of
pyruvate into end products, does not generate the energy, but produces
NAD+ that is required for glycolysis.

2.4.5 Fermentation; Benefits and Pitfalls

Fermentation extends the shelf life of foods, adds aroma and flavor, in
some cases increase the vitamin contents and improve digestibility,
comparing with raw material. It can also increase toxicity. The table below
discusses the benefits and pitfalls of fermentation.

29
 Table 2.4 Benefits and Pitfalls of Fermentation (Bakers et all, 1997; Beumer, 2001;
Fellows, 2000; Mirbach and El Ali, 2005; Motarjemi et al, 2001)

BENEFITS /PITFALLS DESCRIPTION

BENEFITS
1) Mild conditions (pH and temperature).
2) Development of unique flavors and textures of food.
3) Low consumption of energy.
General Advantage
4) Low capital and operating cost.
5) Relatively simple technology.

Most food is fermented by LAB, during which pH is

lowered, bacteriocins, H2O2, ethanol diacetyl are
Pathogenic bacteria and spoilage
produced. This inhibits the growth of unwanted
organisms are inhibited.
microorganisms and food spoilage.

30

Detoxification and softening
Enhanced digestibility-
degradation of oligosaccharides
and dietary fibers.
Beneficial Health Effects
PITFALLS
Fermentation technologies are
complex and sensitive
require careful control of:
Risk of contamination
LAF may also reduce the contents of natural toxins in
plant food: e.g. Cyanogenic glycosides in cassava and
soften plant tissues.
Fermentation of plant foods favors transformation of
phytate to phytase. This increases several foods
bioavailability of iron. The consequence of LAF is
decreased tannin content in cereals, which increases
minerals absorption and protein digestibility of grains.
Fermentation improves health safety and quality
through the presence of probiotics that protects from
E.Coli and other pathogens and have
hypocholesterolemic and anticarcinogenic effects,
which is of particular significance in lactose intolerance
and gastrointestinal disorders.
1) Quality and safety of raw materials.
2) Initial level of contamination.
3) Environmental hygiene and sanitation
and
4) Safety of metabolites
5) Processing condition and degree of acidity achieved
.
If the fermentation was not properly conducted,
spoilage may appear which causes annoying odour, bad
taste (butyric acid, hydrogen sulphide, and aromatic
amines). Also, there is danger of contamination by
31
 pathogenic bacteria.

There were reported cases of dangers associated with

Risk of Intoxication
the consumption of fermented foods. In Alaska USA,
fish seafood and birds were originally fermented in
grass-lined hole. In 1980's the fermentation began to be
carried out in plastic containers. This resulted in the
development of botulinum bacteria which thrive under
anaerobic conditions and caused several botulism cases.

2.4.6 Fermentation; Effect on Food

Changes produced by fermentation in foods are discussed in Table below

Table 2.5 changes produced by fermentation in food (Batty and Folkman, 1983;
Fellows, 2000; Whitaker et al, 1997)

CHANGE DESCRIPTION

Food is softened as the results of complex changes in

Texture proteins and carbohydrates.

Microorganisms improve digestibility by hydrolysis of

polymeric compounds, mainly polysaccharides and
Nutritional Value
proteins; secrete e.g. vitamins

Enrichment with Protein, essential amino acids, essential fatty acids.

32
 Sugars are fermented to acids, which reduce sweetness
and increase acidity, in some cases bitterness is reduced
flavor
by enzymatic activity.

The production of volatile compounds: amines, fatty

Aroma acids, aldehydes, esters and ketones.

Proteolytic activity, degradation of chlorophyll and

Color
enzymatic browning may produce brown pigments.

2.4.7 Fermentation; Feedstock

2.4.7.1 Microorganisms

The microorganisms that are used in fermentations include

Bacteria: Acetobacter, Streptococcus, lactococcus, Leuconostoc,

pediococcus, lactobacillus, Propionibacterium, Brevibacterium, Bacillus,
Micrococcus, Staphylococcus.

Yeast: Saccharomyces, Candida, Torulopsis, Hansenula.

Mold: Aspergillus, Penicillium, Rhizopus, Mucor, Monascus,

Actinomucor.

Lactic Acid Bacteria (LAB) are naturally present in milk, fruit juice,
plant product, intestine and mucosa. In fermentation products, antimicrobial
effect of their acids is used. Lactic Acid Bacteria are divided into three groups:

33
  Homolactic (Streptococcus spp., Pediococcus spp.,)
 Heterolactic (Leuconostoc spp.)
 Facultative (Lactobacillus spp.)

2.4.7.2 Nutrient Requirement

All microorganisms need for their microbial activity the presence of

several nutrients.
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are capable of being used by all microorganisms,
although in no case glucose is the most readily metabolized sugar.

Lipids
Microbial requirements for long-chain fatty acids like Linoleic acid
and oleic acid are required for bacteria and fungi. Cholesterol, are required
by microorganisms. Ergosterol required by fungi, and yeast,
Purines and Pyrimidines
It is generally only in bacteria that cases of Purines and Pyrimidines
metabolism have been reported. Algae do not utilize these compounds at all.
Vitamins and growth factors
There requirements of vitamins by other microorganisms differs.
Generally, vitamins A, C, D, and K are not necessary for growth.
Amino acids
Amino acids are not generally required by algae. Species of other
microorganisms are capable of utilizing all amino acids, except for yeast.
Nitrogen sources

34
 Not all species require or utilize these compounds but rather species
like Fungi require ammonia, nitrate and nitrite.
Sulfur sources
Species of yeast’s can utilize elemental sulfur and sulfate. Generally
Bacteria utilize them in the combined states.
Chemical elements and inorganic ions
Mineral nutrients required by microorganisms consist generally of Fe,
K, Mg, and Mn. Sometimes S, N, Ca, Co, Cu, P, and Zn is required.

2.4.8 Fermentation; Required Conditions

Fermentation can occur at anytime so far the following conditions
have been met.
 The presence of microorganisms
 The presence of enzymes
 The presence of fermentable sugars.
 Favorable temperature possible 37⁰C.
 Either the presence or absence of oxygen.
 Favorable PH

2.4.9 Fermentation; Kinetics

Considering batch fermentation, it can be considered to be a closed
system. At time t=0, In the course of the entire fermentation, the
composition of the culture medium, the biomass concentration, and the
metabolite concentration generally change constantly as a result of the
metabolism of the cells.

35
 After the inoculation of a sterile nutrient solution with
microorganisms and cultivation under physiological conditions, four typical
phases of growth are observed as indicated in Fig
Lag Phase
Physicochemical equilibration between microorganism and the
environment following inoculation with very little growth
Log phase or Exponential Growth Phase
By the end of the lag phase cells have adapted to the new conditions
of growth. Growth of the cell mass can now be described quantitatively as a
doubling of cell number per unit time for bacteria and yeast. Growth rate is
independent of substrate concentration as long as excess substrate is present.
Stationary Phase
As soon as the substrate is metabolized or toxic substances have been
formed, growth slows down or is completely stopped.
Death Phase
In this phase the energy reserves of the cells are exhausted. A straight
line may be obtained when a semi logarithmic plot is made of survivors
versus time, indicating that the cells are dying at an exponential rate.

36
Fig 2.5 Typical Growth Profile of Microorganisms in Submerged
Culture/Fermenter

The Monod equation is frequently used to describe the stimulation of growth

by the concentration of nutrients as given by:
𝑆
µ = µ𝑚𝑎𝑥
(𝐾𝑠 + 𝑆)
Where, µ = specific growth rate, h-1
Defined as (1/X) (dx/dt)
µmax = maximum value of µ, h-1
K, = saturation constant, gL-1 at µmax/2
S = substrate concentration, gl-1
t = time, h

2.4.9 Fermentation; Cassava Fufu

The fermentation of cassava is carried out using micro flora, predominantly

Lactic Acid Bacteria (Bacillus spp.) and Enterobacteriaceae (Yeasts) for a specific
amount of time in hours.

2.5 Drying

2.5.1 Drying; General Principle

Drying commonly describes the process of thermally removing volatile
substances (moisture) to yield a solid dry product. Moisture held in loose chemical
combination is called bound moisture. Moisture in excess of bound moisture is
called unbound moisture. When a wet solid is subjected to thermal drying, two
processes occur simultaneously:

37
  Transfer of energy (mostly as heat) from the surrounding environment to
evaporate the surface moisture
 Transfer of internal moisture to the surface of the solid and its subsequent
evaporation due to process 1
Energy transfer as heat from the surrounding environment to the wet solid
can occur as a result of convection, conduction, or radiation and in some cases as a
result of a combination of these effects.
In Process 1, the removal of water as vapor from the material surface
depends on the external conditions of temperature, air humidity and flow, area of
exposed surface, and pressure.
In Process 2, the movement of moisture internally within the solid is a
function of the physical nature of the solid, the temperature, and its moisture
content.
Drying is an essential operation in the chemical, agricultural,
biotechnology, food, polymer, ceramics, pharmaceutical, pulp and paper,
mineral processing, and wood processing industries.
Drying is perhaps the oldest, most common and most diverse of chemical
engineering unit operations. Over 400 types of dryers have been reported
whereas over 100 distinct types are commonly available.

2.5.2 Drying; Need for Drying

Drying of various feed stocks is needed for one or several of the
following reasons:
 Need for easy-to handle free-flowing solids,
 To prevent (or inhibit) the growth and activity of micro-organisms and
hence Preservation and storage of the food.

38
  Reduction of the bulk weight of food for cheaper cost of transportation.
 Achieving desired quality of product, etc.
In many processes, improper drying may lead to irreversible damage to
product quality and hence a non-salable product.

2.5.3 Drying; Features of Drying

The following unique features of drying, which make it a fascinating and
challenging area for research and development (R&D):
 Product size ranging from microns to tens of centimeters (in thickness or
depth).
 Product porosity, ranging from 0 to 99.9%
 Drying times, ranging from 0.25s (drying of tissue paper) to 5 months
(for certain hardwood species).
 Production capacities, ranging from 0.10 kg/h to 100 tons/h.
 Product speeds, ranging from 0 (stationary) to 2000 m/min (tissue paper).
 Drying temperatures, ranging from below the triple point to above the
critical point of the liquid.
 Operating pressure, ranging from fraction of a millibar to 25 atm.
 Heat transfer either continuously or intermittently by convection,
conduction, radiation, or electromagnetic fields

2.5.4 Drying; Behavior

The drying behavior of agro-products depends on a number of factors
inclusive of weather condition and is enumerated below;
 Size and shape
 Moisture content (initial and final)

39
  Feedstock and Product condition (powdery or bulk solid)
 Bulk density
 Thickness of the layer
 Mechanical and chemical pre-treatment
 Turning intervals
 Temperature of the agro-product
 Temperature and humidity of air in contact with the agro-product.
 Velocity of air in contact with the agro-product
Drying is a complex operation involving transient transfer of heat and
mass along with several rate processes, such as physical or chemical
transformations, which, in turn, may cause changes in product quality as well as
the mechanisms of heat and mass transfer. Physical changes that may occur
include shrinkage, puffing, crystallization, and glass transitions. Drying occurs
by effecting vaporization of the liquid by supplying heat to the wet feedstock.
Transport of moisture within the solid may occur by any one or more of the
following mechanisms of mass transfer:
 Liquid diffusion, if the wet solid is at a temperature below the boiling
point of the liquid.
 Vapor diffusion, if the liquid vaporizes within material.
 Knudsen diffusion, if drying takes place at very low temperatures and
pressures, e.g., in freeze drying.
 Surface diffusion (possible although not proven).
 Hydrostatic pressure differences, when internal vaporization rates exceed
the rate of vapor transport through the solid to the surroundings.
 Combinations of the above mechanisms.

40
 2.5.5 Drying; Moisture Content of Solids
The moisture contained in a wet solid exerts a vapor pressure to an extent
depending upon the nature of moisture, the nature of solid, and the temperature.
The moisture content in the solid could be reduced further by exposing it to air
of lower relative humidity. Solids can best be classified as follows:
 Non-hygroscopic capillary-porous media, such as sand, crushed minerals,
non-hygroscopic crystals, polymer particles, and some ceramics.
 Hygroscopic-porous media, such as clay, molecular sieves, wood, and
textiles.
 Colloidal (nonporous) media, such as soap, glue, some polymers (e.g.,
nylons), and various food products.
The moisture content of a solid is usually expressed as the moisture content
by weight of bone-dry material in the solid, X. Sometimes a wet basis moisture
content W, which is the moisture–solid ratio based on the total mass of wet
material, is used. The two moisture contents are related by the expression
𝑊
𝑋=
1−𝑊

2.5.6 Drying; Determination of Moisture Content of Solid Materials

Although determination of the moisture content of wet materials appears
simple, the results obtained are often not sufficiently accurate, as many
materials may also suffer chemical changes during heating. Possible methods
of measuring the moisture content during drying are presented separately.
Direct Methods
The direct methods consist essentially of determination of the moisture
content of a sample by drying carried out in a drying oven, by drying in a
vacuum chamber or in vacuum desiccator. The sample material is prepared in

41
every case in the following way. The material is disintegrated into pieces of 1–2
mm3, and a sample of known mass (4–5 g) is placed into a previously dried and
weighed glass container, which is put into the drying chamber and dried at 102–
105⁰C. The measurement of mass is carried out at ambient temperature,
previously allowing the sample to be cooled in a desiccator. The drying process
may be considered complete when the difference between the values obtained
for the moisture content of the material by two consecutive measurements does
not exceed +0.05%.
Indirect Methods
Under industrial conditions the moisture present in material must be
determined by faster methods, such as by electrical methods of which three
main varieties have become widespread: moisture determination based on the
change of the Ohmic DC resistance, a measurement of the electrostatic
capacitance (dielectric constant of the material), and a measurement of the loss
in an AC field. Other quick methods have been developed mainly for the most
frequently occurring case, when the moisture is water, such as the Karl–Fischer
analysis.

2.5.7 Drying; Mechanism

There are two methods of removing unbound moisture: evaporation and
vaporization.
Evaporation occurs when the vapor pressure of the moisture on the solid
surface is equal to the atmospheric pressure. This is done by raising the
temperature of the moisture to the boiling point. This kind of phenomenon
occurs in roller dryers. If the material dried is heat sensitive, then the
temperature at which evaporation occurs, that is, the boiling point, could be
lowered by lowering the pressure (vacuum evaporation).
42
 Second, in vaporization, drying is carried out by convection, that is, by
passing warm air over the product. The air is cooled by the product, and
moisture is transferred to the air by the product and carried away. In this case
the saturation vapor pressure of the moisture over the solid is less than the
atmospheric pressure.

2.5.8 Drying; Techniques and Dryers

Different dryer and drying methods are used for specific purposes.
Natural sun-drying to industrial drying are some of the conventional drying
methods (Leon et al 2002). Some of the most common types of drying
processes and dryers are introduced in the following sections:
 Sun drying: Have an advantage of being simple and a small capital
investment. Disadvantages include uncertainties like rain and cloudiness,
contamination from outer sources, lack of control over drying condition, large
drying areas and long drying time, risk of contamination from dusts and insects.
It is limited to climates with hot sun dry atmosphere with strong winds.
 Microwave drying: in microwave drying, the wet material is exposed to
very high-frequency electromagnetic waves. Heat transfer is by Radiation. The
microwave energy has high penetrating quality, which effect a uniform heating
of materials upon which radiation impinges.
 Hot air drying: in this method, heat air is brought into contact with wet
material to be dried to facilitate heat mass transfer, convection is mainly
involved.
 Tunnel dryer: Tunnel dryers basically a group of truck and tray dryers
widely used due to their flexibility for the large scale commercial drying of
various types of fruits and vegetables. Truckloads of the wet material are moved
at intervals into one end of the tunnels.
43
  Bell-trough dryer: through flow dryers used for the drying of cut
vegetables of small dimension. They consist of the metal mesh belts supported
on two horizontal rolls; a blast of hot air is forced through the bed of material
on the mesh, the belts are arranged in such a way to form an inclined trough so
that wet material travels in spiral path and partial fluidization is caused by an
upward blast of air.
 Pneumatic conveyor dryer: The feed material is introduced into fast
moving stream of heated air and conveyed through ducting of sufficient length
to bring about desired drying.
 Fluidized bed dryer: In fluidized bed drying, hot air is forced through a
bed of food particles at a sufficient high velocity to overcome the gravitational
forces on the wet materials. Particles are usually of a given range.
 Cabinet dryer: a cabinet dryer can be a small batch tray dryer. Heat
from the drying medium to the wet material is transferred by convection. It is
suitable for drying of fruits, vegetables and meat. The main feature of a cabinet
dryer is its small size and versatility. The main problem with cabinet dryer is
difficulty in even distribution of heated air over or through the drying material.

44
 CHAPTER THREE
3.0 Methodology
The experiment was carried out to produce cassava fufu flour from sweet
white cassava (Manihot Esculenta) and to study the effect of the different drying
methods on the quality, color and texture of the fufu sample and also to know and
determine the effect of the drying parameters e.g. temperature, moisture content
percentage on the fufu flour.

3.1 Description of Sample Collection Site

The feedstock (cassava tubers) was uprooted from a farmland situated in
Alakahia Akpor, Obia-Akpor Local Government Area (LGA) of Rivers state,
Nigeria.

45
Fig 3.1 Cassava farmland at Alakahia Akpor, Obia-Akpor LGA Rivers State
3.2 Equipment and Reagents For Flour Production
i) Cutlass
ii) Bowl
iii) Knives
iv) Bucket
v) Sieves
vi) Grinder
vii) Presser
viii) Trays
ix) Jute bag
x) Weighing balance
xi) Microwave

46
 xii) Stopwatch
xiii) Nose mask
xiv) Water

3.3 Procedures of Fufu Flour Production

Freshly harvested cassava roots were peeled manually with a knife
and the woody tips were removed. The peeled roots were washed thoroughly
with potable water to remove all dirt and adhering sand particles. The
washed cassava tubers were cut into chunks of about 5cm in length and
steeped in water in a plastic bowl for 4 days at room temperature.

Fig 3.2 washed cassava tuber for soaking

After 4 days, the roots were sufficiently soft. The roots were taken
out, broken by hand and the fibers were removed by sieving. The sieving
was done manually by washing the mash through a mesh cloth sieve. The
sieved mash was allowed to sediment for 24 hours in a large plastic bowl.
After sedimentation, the water was decanted and the sediment further

47
washed with water, the sediment (fufu) was dewatered by putting it into
Hessian sack, and pressing with a hydraulic press to remove excess water.

Fig 3.3 product after sedimentation

Fig 3.4 sediment sample in a bag for pressing

48
 Fig 3.5 fufu flour after pressing for four (4) days and filtered

A crucible which weighed 16.9 grams was filled with 200g of wet
sample for sun-dry. The sample was allowed under sun for 5-14days. After
three days of sun-drying, the sample was re-weighed to obtain new weight
so as to calculate the moisture content. 100g of the remaining part of the
sample was heated using an electric dryer.
These samples were placed in a crucible which weighed 278.5 grams
and heated in batch at 200oC. Weight of the sample was collected and
recorded after the specified time for the process.
The experiment were carried in two different drying methods, the first
was through a microwave kept at a constant temperature of 200 degree
Celsius for the various samples being dried. The samples were dried in the
microwave. An electric dryer was used and it had a manual control system to
regulate the temperature and time. Before starting the experiment, the oven
was thoroughly cleaned and the various samples were introduced into the
oven and the heating element turned on to supply the required temperature
which was kept constant and was monitored closely to avoid alteration and
instability. The drying lasted for different time (minutes).
The other type of drying process used was sun drying and it lasted for
14days for samples due to the instability and fluctuations in weather and
heat supply from the sun.

3.3 Determination for Proximate Analysis

3.4.1 Equipment and Reagents
 Weighing balance
 Digestion catalyst

49
  Concentrated sulphuric acid
 Thermal Heater and hot plate
 Distilled water
 Distillation flask
 Liebig and reflux condenser
 NaOH, Boric acid, HCl, Perchloric acid, Filter paper, Anthrone
reagent, Glucose solution, Acetone
 25ml volumetric flask, pipette, Porcelain evaporating dish, air-oven,
indicators, Soxhlet extractor, distillation flask, Condenser, muffle
furnace.
3.4.2 Test for Carbohydrate
The experiment was carried out using Cleg Anthrone Method. 0.1g of
the sample was weighed into a 25ml volumetric flask, 1ml distilled water
and 1.3ml of 62% Perchloric acid was added and shaking for 20mins to
homogenize completely. The flask was made up to 25ml mark with distilled
water and stopper. The solution formed was filtered through a filter paper
and allowed to sediment and decanted. 1ml of working solution was pipette
into a clean test tube and 5ml Anthrone reagent was added. 1ml distilled
water and 5mls Anthrone reagent was mixed. Similarly, the whole mixture
was read at 630nm wavelength using the 1ml distilled water and the 5mls
Anthrone reagent prepared as blank. Glucose solution of 0.1ml was prepared
and was treated as the sample with Anthrone reagent. Absorbance of the
standard glucose was read and the value of carbohydrate as glucose was
calculated.

3.4.3 Moisture

50
 This experiment was done using the air oven method. 1g of the
sample was weighed into a clean dried porcelain evaporating dish. This was
placed in an oven to maintain a temperature of 105 degree Celsius for six
hours. The evaporating dish was cooled in a desiccators to room temperature
then it was re-weighed and recorded.

Fig. 3.6 Apparatus for Moisture Content Analysis (The Air Oven Method)

3.4.4 Lipid
The Soxhlet extraction method was used. 2g of sample was inserted
into a filter paper and was placed into a Soxhlet extractor. The extractor was
placed into a pre-weighed dried distillation flask. Then the solvent ( acetone)
was introduced into the distillation flask via the condenser and attached to
the Soxhlet extractor. The setup was held in place with a retort stand clamp.
Cooled water jet was allowed to flow into the condenser and the heated
solvent was refluxed as a result. The lipid in the solvent chamber was

51
extracted in the process of continuous refluxing. When the lipid was
observably extracted completely from the sample under test, the condenser
and the extractor was disconnected and the solvent was evaporated to
concentrate the lipid. The flask was then dried in the air oven to constant
weight and re-weighed to obtain the weight of the lipid.

Fig 3.7 Setup for Lipid content Analysis (The Soxhlet Extraction Method)

3.4.5 Ash
This was carried out using Furnace Method. 1g of the dried sample
was weighed into a porcelain crucible which was previously preheated and
weighed. The crucible was inserted into a muffle furnace and regulated to a
temperature of 630 degree Celsius for three hours and allowed to cool to
room temperature and re-weighed.

52
Fig. 3.8 Apparatus for Ash content Analysis (The Furnace Method)

3.4.6 Protein
It was carried out using the Kjeldahl method.
Stage 1. Digestion
0.1g of the sample was weighed into a clean conical flask 250ml
capacity, 3g of digestion catalyst was added into the flask and 20mls
concentrated sulphuric acid was also added and the sample was heated to
digest.
The content changed from black to sky-blue coloration. The digest
was cooled to room temperature and was diluted to 100ml with distilled
water.
Stage 2 Distillation
20mls diluted digest was measured into a distillation flask and the
flask was held in place on the electro-thermal heater or hot plate. The

53
distillation flask was attached to a Liebig condenser connected to a receiver
containing 10mls off 2% boric acid indicator. 40ml NaOH was injected into
the digest via a syringe attached to the mono-arm steelhead until the digest
became strongly alkaline. The mixture was heated to boiling and distilled
ammonia gas via the condenser into the beaker. The color of the boric acid
change from purple to greenish as ammonia distillate was introduced into the
boric acid.
Stage 3 Titration
The distillate was titrated with standard 0.1N HCl solution back to
purple from greenish. The volume of hydrochloric acid added to effect, this
change was recorded as titre value.

Fig. 3.9 Setup for Protein Content Analysis (The Kjeldahl Method)

54
 CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 Result and Discussion
The following results were obtained from the sun-drying process,
electric drying processes and the nutrient content determination experiments.

4.1 Effect of Total Time on the Drying Fufu Samples

The drying characteristics of the various samples varied according to
the drying conditions. The rates were analyzed as total drying time. The total
drying time to reduce the moisture content of the sample from approximately
90% dry weight to 5.0% dry weight basis, varies depending upon the
operating conditions and fluctuation in temperature due to weather, drying
time varied from 5-20 minutes for the samples dried using an electric dryer
and 14days for sun-drying process.

4.1.1 Total Drying Time (Minutes) to Dry the Sample to Approximately

5.0% under Different Conditions Using Electric Dryer

Table 4.1 Result of batch drying the fufu flour using electric dryer
Weight of Pan+ Time Weight Of Dry Moisture Color Of Sample
Sample Before (Minute) Sample + Pan Content At After Drying
Drying (G) (G) 200oc (%)
378.5 5 365.7 12.8 White
365.7 10 358.0 5.3 Cream
358.0 12 357.9 0.13 Light Brown
357.9 14 357.8 0.13 Brown
357.8 16 357.7 0.13 Dark Brown

55
 4.1.2 Total Drying Time (Minutes) to Dry the Sample to Approximately
5.0% under Different Conditions Using Sun Dry Process.
Sample…………………….Pressed Sample
Weight of Crucible………..16.9g
Sun drying temperature…..30-50⁰C

Table 4.2 Result for Sun Drying process

Weight Of Drying Weight Of Sample And Moisture Content Color Of
Sample + Time Crucible After Drying At Varying Sample At
Crucible (Days) (Grams) Temperature The End Of
(Grams) (%) Specified
Time
316.9 5 292.7 12.46 White
292.7 5 274.5 6.6 White
274.5 4 261.2 5.2 White

It was observed that the total drying time upon the sample varied due to the drying
condition used.

4.1.3 Proximate Analytical Result of Fufu Flour

Table 4.3 Result for Proximate Analysis

Sample Carbohydrate Protein (%) Lipid Ash Moisture Fibre
Identity (%) (%) (%) (%) (%)
Fufu Flour 75 14.4 1.1 0.3 5.3 3.86

56
 4.1.4 Comparison of Produced Project sample with Other Fufu Flour
products

Table 4.4 Comparison of Produced Project Fufu Flour Sample with other
preexisting Fufu Flour.
Parameter (%) Project Sample Oyewole et al Elagia Research
Center Result
Moisture Content 5.3 1.61 7.31
Protein 14.4 1.61 2.45
Fiber 3.86 0.77 0.14
Ash 0.3 0.61 0.35
Carbohydrate 75 75.75 89.46
Fat / Lipids 1.1 0.77 0.28

4.2 Color
Color is an important quality parameter for the processed fufu flour. A basic
aim of the experiment was to subject the sample to different drying conditions at
specific temperatures to determine the best condition to obtain the best color
texture and quality.
The different samples of the fufu flour were subjected to different drying
conditions and as a result, had different shades of color. On a general note, at
higher temperatures and longer time, browning of the flour resulted.

57
 CHAPTER FIVE
5.0 Conclusion and Recommendation
5.1 Conclusion
The production of cassava fufu flour was the project work carried out to
ascertain the effect of the drying temperatures at various time ranges on the color,
quality, texture and moisture content.
The type of dryer used was an oven dryer which temperature was kept
constant at 200⁰C. The temperature was monitored using mercury in glass
thermometer with ranges between (0-200⁰C) to avoid temperature before heating.
A second type of drying techniques employed was the Sun-drying technique, the
drying temperature was not determined.
Fufu flour color, moisture content and quality were the focus of the effect of
the drying temperatures. The drying characteristics and the quality of the processed
fufu flour were analyzed, the total drying time to reduce the moisture content of the
samples approximately from 90% (WB) to 5% (DB) for processing the fufu flour
were also established.
The results obtained showed that the oven drying method gave better results
on moisture content on the samples it was used for than the sun drying method as
its temperature could not be determined and was not controllable. The oven drying
method also gave better and reasonable results within a short time than the sun
drying method which took 14 days to obtain a relatively reasonable result..

5.2 Recommendation
It could be seen from the experiment and results obtained that temperature
variations have a very remarkable effect on the color and quality of the processed
flour. The drying temperature should be kept low but at a longer time interval for a

58
better result, it should be monitored closely and kept constant to avoid alterations
which might result in poor quality fufu flour.
Also studies on fermentation processes, nutritional supplements and best
chemicals as additives to the fufu flour should be done to obtain higher quality fufu
flour.
Power supply should be kept constant during the time of the experiment as
unstable power supply affects the results, drying time, color and thus the quality of
the fufu flour.
Studies on how to improve the color, quality and nutritional value of the fufu
flour should be carried out.

59
 REFERENCES

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Berghofer E, (2000). “Brot als funktionales Lebensmittel”. Getreide Mehl Brot

54(3) page 175-179.

Caveness, F. E. (1983), “Yams. In: International Institute of Tropical Agriculture

(IITA)”. Annual Report for 1982. Ibadan, Nigeria. Page 106.

Chatelanat RP (ed), (1973). “Composite Flour Programme”, FAO, Rome, Italy.

Cobley, L. S. (revised by W. M. Steele). (1976). “An introduction to the botany of

tropical crops”. Longman. London, England. Page 371.

Cock, J. H. (1982), “Cassava as a basic energy source in the Tropics”. Science. 21

Edition: Page 755-762.

Coursey, D. G. and Booth R. H. (1977). “Root and tuber crops. In: Food Crops of
the lowland tropics”. Leakey C. L. and Wills J. B. (Eds.). Oxford University Press.
Oxford, England. page. 75-96.

Goldsworthy, P. R. and Fisher, N. M. (1983) “Sweet potato. In: the physiology of

tropical field crops”. John Wiley & Sons. London. England. Pages 551-567.

Hahn, S. K. and Hozyo, Y. (1980). “Sweet potato and yam”. Symposium on

potential productivity of field crops under different environments. International
Rice Research Institute (IRRI), Manila, the Philippines.

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Hougen, O.A., Watson, K.M., and Ragatz, R.A., (1954), “Chemical Process
Principles”, 2nd ed., Vol. 1, Wiley, New York, page 257.

Kahn, M. H. (1972) “Economic aspects of crop losses and disease control In

Economic oematology” Webster, S. M. (Ed.). Academic Press. London, England.
Pages 1-16.

Kay, D. E. (1973) “Root crops Tropical Products Institute”. London, England.

Pages 245.

Keey, R.B., (1978) “Introduction to Industrial Drying Operations”, 1st Edition,

Pergamon Press, New York, chapter. 2.

Lebot V. (2009). “Tropical root and tuber crops: Cassava Sweet potato, yam and
aroids”. Crop production science in horticulture (17), CAB books, CABI,
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Leon et al (2002).

Mellor, J. S. (1982) “Third world development: food, employment, and growth

interactions”. American Journal of Agricultural Economics. Pages 304-311.

Moller, J.T. and O. Hansen, (1972) “Computer-drawn H–X Diagram and design of
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Onwueme, I.C. (1978) “The tropical tuber crops”. John Wiley & Sons. Chichester,
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Perry, J.H., (1973) “Chemical Engineering Handbook”, 5th Edition, McGraw-Hill,

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Reid, R.C., Prausnitz, J.M., and Sherwood, T.K., (1977) “The Properties of Gases
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62
 APPENDIX A

CALCULATION OF MOISTURE CONTENT

The moisture content was recorded in percentage dry weight basis and it was
calculated using the equation:

𝑊2−𝑊3
% Moisture Content = × 100
𝑊2−𝑊1

Where;

W1 = Weight of Crucible

W2 = Weight of Crucible + Sample before Drying

W3 = Final weight of Crucible + Sample after Drying.

ELECTRIC DRYING PROCESS

Initial weight of sample = 100g

Weight of Crucible = 278.5g

After 5mins

378.5−365.7
× 100 = 12.8%
378.5−278.5

For 10mins

365.7−358
× 100 = 5.3%
365.7−278.5

For 12mins

358−357.9
× 100 = 0.13%
357.9−278.5

63
For 14mins

357.9−357.7
× 100 = 0.13%
357.9−278.5

For 16mins

357.8−357.7
× 100 = 0.13%
357.8−278.5

SUN DRYING PROCESS

After 5 Days

316.9−292.7
× 100 = 12.1%
316.9−16.9

After 10 Days

292.7−274.5
× 100 = 6.6%
292.7−16.9

After 14 Days

274.5−261.2
× 100 = 5.2%
274.5−16.9

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 APPENDIX B

REVIEW OF OTHER ROOT AND TUBER CROPS

Sweet Potato
Sweet Potato; Importance
Sweet potato, Ipomoea batatas (L) Lam, is a worldwide food crop,
and it is also used for animal feed and in industry. It has a high yield
potential and has high adaptability. It has been shown to have a greater
tolerance to extended climatic conditions than most other tropical root crops.
It is also tolerant to cold and can be grown at altitudes as high as 3000 m in
the tropic zones.
Sweet Potato; Growth and Development
The sweet potato is a dicotyledonous herbaceous perennial vine, but
can also be cultivated as an annual crop on the farm with a normal growing
period of 3 – 7 months depending on the environment planted.
Vines can be twining and trailing, and stems can extend up to 5 m in
length. In the tropics, stem cuttings are usually used as planting material
and are planted on mounds or ridges. The stems are thin and trail over the
soil surface, producing adventitious roots at the nodes. Their color is
mostly green but varies from light green to purple.

During early growth, changes in environmental conditions influence

the proportion of roots that are formed in each root class. The number of
storage roots may be determined as early as 30 days after planting. Cool
weather of about 23⁰C along with an adequate supply of potassium lead to
rapid cambial activity and little lignifications of the roots, a combination
which favors the development of the tuber.

65
Sweet Potato; Cultivation Systems
It is a comparatively easy crop to grow and in the tropics it exhibits no
strict seasonality, so that it can be combined in mixed fields with other
tubers or roots, vegetable species and even grain crops. It is widely grown in
tropical, sub-tropical, and warm temperate areas under systems ranging from
highly intensive mechanized cultivation to subsistence farming. However,
optimum growth occurs at about 24⁰C or more coupled with abundant
sunshine and warm nights. The sweet potato is tolerant to periods of drought
but needs 500 mm or more of rain throughout the season. Sandy loam soils
that are well-drained are best, with yields being reduced by varying degrees
on less ideal soils.
The three major methods of land preparation for sweet potatoes are
ridges, mounds, or flat surface preparation. Of these, ridge planting is the
most generally accepted method.

Sweet Potato; Uses

Sweet potatoes are primarily used for human and animal consumption.
Generally, they are consumed directly, the main types of preparation being
boiling, baking, roasting, or frying. In cultures where leaves are consumed as
a vegetable, they are usually eaten boiled or as a component of a soup or
stew.
In the processed form, the tubers are prepared in numerous ways for
human consumption. They are made into flour and starch or they are canned,
frozen, or dehydrated. For industrial uses, the tuber is a source of starch,
glucose syrup, alcohol, acetone, lactic acid, vinegar, and pectin.

66
Yam
Yam; Importance
Yams are one of the major components of the starchy staple intake
for a large number of people living in the tropic zone and have much
regional importance in West Africa, Southeast Asia, the Pacific Island, the
Caribbean Basin, and tropical Latin America. The size of the global harvest,
about 19 million tons annually, makes the crop of great importance to the
world's food supply.

Yam; Growth and development

Cultivated yams are vines and are trained on some kind of support.
The vines grow from 3-10m under good management. Normally, the male
and female flowers occur on separate plants. The yam fruit is a dehiscent
capsule, trilocular in shape, with the junction of the locules extended out into
flattened wings. The tuber grows from a corm-like structure located at the
base of the vines as do the main feeder roots. Tuber growth begins with the
onset of meristematic activity at the junction of the stem and root. Tuber
maturity is generally reached 8 – 11 months after planting.

Yam; Cultivation systems

In primitive farming, yams are usually the first crop on the land after
clearing the bush for cultivation. In West Africa, a common rotation consists
of bush fallow-yam-maize-cassava-bush fallow. The best planning materials
are the small whole tubers, though use of set and mini-sets are also available.
They are planted on flat ground, in trenches or holes, on mounds or ridges, or
in raised beds. After planting, stakes are provided for vine support in order to
maximize yields.

67
Yam; Uses

The yam tuber is a starchy food eaten as vegetable. Preparation is by

boiling, baking, roasting, or deep frying in oil. A popular West African
preparation is pounded yam, for which the cooked tuber is mashed in a
mortar into a stiff glutinous dough termed "fufu" and eaten with a stew. In a
processed form, yam flour, yam flakes, and yam chips are made. The
pharmaceutical industry uses the yam as a source of steroids.

Cocoyam

Cocoyam; Importance

Colocasia spp. and Xanthosoma spp. are commonly referred to as

cocoyams among other names. (Colocasia spp. is often called taros, with two
predominant types: eddoe and dasheen. A common name for Xanthosoma
spp. is tannia.). As with yams, the importance of cocoyam is that it is one of
the starchy staples of people in the tropics. As a food crop it is grown in
much the same regions as yam, sweet potato, and cassava. The world harvest
of cocoyam is about 4 million tons annually and most is consumed in the
country of origin, with very little entering international trade.

Cocoyam; Growth and Development

Cocoyam is essentially warm weather lowland crops. The best yields

are at a mean temperature above 21⁰C with an annual rainfall exceeding
2000 mm.
Propagation is by vegetative means using small corms, cormels, stem
cuttings, or pieces of these. It rapid increase in shoot growth soon after
planting and slowly declines after about 6 months. Throughout the growing
68
season there is a continual turnover of leaves with the older leaves dying as
new ones appear. Corm formation begins about 3 months after planting.
Corm and cormel growth is slow initially but increases later in the season
when shoot growth is slowing. The corms mature 6-18 months after planting,
the cormels arise from the auxiliary buds on the corm.
Cocoyam; Cultivation systems

They are grown under flooded lowland conditions similar to that

required for rice, grown as dry land crops. Planting on the flat ground is the
most common method, although ridges or beds are sometimes used.

Cocoyam; Uses

The edible corms and cormels of cocoyams are rich in starch and
consumed in a way similar to yams, sweet potatoes, or cassava. Preparation
is by boiling, baking or deep frying in oil or used as fufu when boiled. The
fresh or cooked corms and cormels can be milled into flour after drying. The
leaves and petioles, when young, are used as a vegetable. Except for the
roots, all parts of the cocoyam can be used as a feed for livestock. Industrial
uses include mucilage for paper and pharmaceutical makers, a source of
alcohol, and a fermented drink.

69