3.

PLANT KINGDOM
Plants are eukaryotic organisms which are photosynthetic in nature. They differ with animals in
having cell wall and chloroplast in their cells. They are broadly divided into two categories:

1) Cryptogamae: Plants without seeds, sex organs are invisible

2) Phanerogamae: Plants with seeds, sex organs are visible

DIVISION THALLOPHYTA- General characteristics

 Thallophyta (Gk. thallos- undifferentiated, phyton- plant) comprises the simplest plants
which possess undifferentiated or thallus (aggregation of cells) like form.
 Vascular and mechanical tissues are all absent.
 Differentiation of true roots, stems and leaves is also absent.
 Asexual reproduction by accessory spores is very common.
 Reproductive organs are single celled non-jacketed called gametangia.
 Presently, it includes only Algae.

ALGAE

Algae are chlorophyll-containing thallophytes. In traditional two-kingdom classification all algae

are grouped in plant kingdom along with bacteria and fungi. In Whittaker’s classifaction, algae
are grouped in three kingdoms Monera (blue-green algae), Protista (dinoglagellates, diatoms,
euglenoids) and Plantae (red algae, brown algae and green algae).

Characters

1. Algae are usually aquatic, either marine or fresh water. Only a few algae occur in
moist terrestrial habitats like tree trunks, wet rocks, moist soil, etc.
 2. Plant body is thallus (a form without any differentiation into root, stem and leaves)
which may be unicellular, colonial, filamentous, parenchymatous or pseudoparenchymatous.

3. Algae, like other aquatic plants, are covered over by mucilage. Mucilage protects the
algae from epiphytic growth and decaying effect of water.

4. Vascular tissues are absent. Being aquatic, water conduction is not required. Some of
the giant algae do have a system for conduction of food.

5. A mechanical tissue is absent. The body is flexible. It helps the algae to sway with
water tides without being torn.

6. Nutrition is photosynthetic. Grana are absent in chloroplast. Algae contain chlorophyll,

carotenes and xanthophylls. Additional pigments like phycobilins, fucoxanthin occurs in specific
groups.

7. Vegetative and asexual modes of reproduction are abundant. Asexual spores are of two
types, mitospores and meiospores. They are easily dispersed in aquatic habitat actively of motile
and passively by water currents if nonmotile.

8. Sexual reproduction is absent in blue-green algae. Sex organs are non-jacketed and one
celled called gametangia. Sexual reproduction involves isogamy, amsogamy and oogamy in
different groups.

9. An embryo state is absent.

10. Life cycle is various  haplontic, diplontic or diplohaplontic.

Algae are usually differentiated on the basis of their pigments, flagellation and storage
products (Table 3.1). Algae included under kingdom plantae by Whittaker (1969) are of three
types red algae, brown algae and green algae.

Differences Amongst Green, Brown and Red Algae

Green Algae Brown Algae Red Algae

1. Mostly fresh water and subaerial
2. Unicellular species abundant.
3. Thylakoids are stacked in groups of
220.
4.Chlorophylla and b type.Phycocyanin
and phyco-erythrin is present.
5.Fucoxanthin is absent.
6. Phycobilins present.
7.Reserve food is starch.
8. Present; flagella 2 to 8 apical and equal.
9. Cell wall is of cellulose.
1. Mostly marine.
2. Unicelluar species absent.
3. Thylakoids occur in groups of threes.
4. Chlorophyll- a and c type.
5. Fucoxanthin is abundant.
6. Phycobilins absent.
7.Reserve food is laminarin.
8. Present: flagella 2, lateral and unequal.
9. Cell wall contains cellulose and non-
sulphated phycocolloids.
1. Mostly marine
2. Unicellular species fewer.
3. Thylakoids are unstacked.
4. Chlorophyll a and d type.
5.Fucoxanthin may be present.phyco-
erythrin is present
6. Phycobilins present.
7.Reserve food is floridean starch.
8. Motile stages are absent.
9. Cell wall contains cellulose and
sulphated phycocolloids.
Economic Importance

1. Food. Some 70 species of marine algae are used as food e.g., Porphyra, Laminaria,
Sargassum, Ulva.

2. Food Supplements. Chlorella (green alga) and Sprirulina (blue green alga) are rich in
proteins. They can be used as food supplements even by space travelers.

3. Photosynthesis. Nearly 50% of total carbon dioxide fixation or photosynthesis of the

world is carried out by algae. Photosynthesis releases oxygen in the immediate aquatic
environment. It is essential for respiration of aquatic life.

4. Primary Producers. Algae are primary producers of food in large bodies of fresh,
brackish and sea waters. This form the basis of food cycles of all aquatic animals.

5. Phycocolloids (Hydrocolloids). (i) Agar from Gelidium and Gracilaria is used as a

culture medium, canning of fish and meat, sizing of textiles and paper. (ii) Algin from
Laminaria, Fucus and Sargassum is used in stabilizing emulsions (shaving creams, shampoos,
ice creams, jellies) flameproof plastics, security glass and artificial fibres. (iii) Carrageenin
from Chondrus is emulsifier and clearing agent.

6. Sewage Disposal. Chlamydononas, Chlorella, Scendesmus, etc. are algae of sewage

oxidation tanks which provide aerobic conditions for disposal of sewage by decomposer
organisms.

Differences between Fungi and Algae

Fungi
1. Fungi live in aquatic, subaquatic and
terrestrial habitats.
2. Fungi lack chlorophyll and are
heterotrophic in nutrition.
3. They absorb organic nutrients from their
environment.
4. Fungi usually live in darker places.
5. The filaments or hyphae are usually
branched.
6. The hyphae may be compacted to form a
false tissue called pseudoparenchyma. A
parenchyma is seldom formed.
7. The cell wall is commonly made of chitin
or fungus cellulose.
8. Food reserve consists of glycogen and oil
globules. Starch is never formed.
9. Motile spores (zoospores) and motile
gametes are rare.
10. In higher forms, karyogamy is delayed
Algae
1. Algae do not occur in terrestrial habitats.
They are aquatic or subaquatic.
2. Algae usually possess chlorophyll and are
autotrophic in nutrition.
3. They absorb organic nutrients from their
environment.
4. Algae live in well lighted areas.
5. The filaments, when present, may be
branched or unbranched.
6. Parenchyma may be produced by division
of cells in more than one plane.
7. Cell wall is made of true cellulose.
8. Food reserve is starch (or related
polysaccharide) and oil globules.
9. Motile spores and motile gametes are
quite common.
10. Plasmogamy is immediately followed by
after completion of plasmogamy. karyogamy.
11. There is progressive reduction of 11. There is progressive evolution of sex
sexuality in fungi. amongst algae.

Red Algae  Rhodophyta (Gk. rhodored, phytonplant)

1. Red algae/rhodophytes are an ancient group of algae with 5000 living species.

2. They are marine except for a few fresh water species (e.g Batrachospermum).

3. Red algae are autotrophic with exception of a few like Harveyella which are colourless
and parasitic on other red algae.

4. A motile or flagellate stage in the life cycle is absent.

5. The plant body varies from unicellular (e.g Porphyridium), filamentous (e.g.,
spermothamnion), pseudoparenchymatous (Asterocystis), parencymatous sheets (e.g
Porphyra), ribbons (e.g., chondrus) to graceful lace-like complex multicelluar sea weeds (e.g.,
Gelidium).

6. Cell wall possesses cellulose, pectic compounds and certain mucopolysaccharides

called phycocolloids (e.g., agar, carrageenin and funori). The latter are usually sulphated.

7. Some red algae have an incrustation of calcium carbonate over their walls. They
appear coral-like and are called coralline (e.g., Corallian). Coralline algae produce limestone.
They are important component of reef formations alongwith corals.

8. The photosynthetic organelles called chromatophores, have unstacked or single

thylakoids.

9. Photosynthetic pigments include chlorophyll a, carotenoids and phycobilins.

Chlorophyll d has been reported in some cases. Phycobilins are water soluble pigments of two
types, red coloured phycoerythrin and blue-coloured phycocyanin as well as allophycocyanin.
Similar pigments also occur in cyanobacteria (blue-green algae).

10. The red colour of red algae is due to abundant formation of phycoerythrin.
Phycoerythin is able to absorb blue green wavelengths of light. Being shorter, these wavelengths
are able to reach the maximum depth in water. Therefore, red algae reach the maximum
depth in sea where no other type of photosynthetic organisms grow. However, rhodophytes
living in shallower waters do not appear reddish due to lesser synthesis of phycoerythrin.
 Fig. 3.1. Some Red Algae

11. Reserve food is floridean starch. In constitution, it is very much similar to glycogen
or amylopectin.

12. Asexual reproduction takes place through a variety of spores— neutral spores,
monospores, tetraspores, carpospores, gemmae.

13. Sexual reproduction is oogamous. The male sex organ is called spermatangium or
antheridium. It produces nonflagellate male gamete known as spermatium. The female sex
oragan is flask-shaped and is termed carpogonium. Carpogonium possesses an elongated
receptive organ named trichogyne. Spermatia are carried by water currents to trichogyne tips for
effecting fertilization, The female sex organ remains attached to the plant and forms a new
structure called carposporophyte.

14. Multicellular forms have an alternation of haploid and diploid generations.

Common Red Algae

Gelidium (Fig. 3.1). Gelidium is the major source of agar which is obtained from cell
wall.

Porphyra (Fig. 3.1). It is an edible algae.

Gracilaria (Fig. 3.1). It is an agar yeidling red alga (agarophyte) which grows in
lagoons.

Polysiphonia has been one of the sources of bromine.

Economic Importance

1. Food. A number of red algae are edible, e.g., Porphyra (Laver), Rhodymenia (Dulse),
Chondrus (Irish Moss). Rhodymenia (also called sheep’s weed) is also used as fodder. Porphyra
is cultivated in Japan for commercial exploitation.

2. Phycocolloids. A number of phycocolloids are extracted for commercial use. They

include agar, carrageenin and funori. Agar is used in solidifying laboratory culture media and is
added as stabiliser or thickener in the preparation of jellies, puddings, creams, cheese, bakery,
etc. Agar is obtained from cell wall of Gelidium and Gracilaria. Carrageenin is used as a
clearing agent in liquors, leather finishing and as emulsifier in chocolates, ice-creams, tooth
pastes, paints, etc. It is extracted from Chondrus. Funori is a glue used as adhesive and in sizing
textiles, papers, etc. It is got from Gloiopeltis.

3. Bromine. Bromine is obtained from some of the red algae, e.g., Rhodomela
Polvsiphonia.

4. Medicines. Corallina is capable of curing worm infections. Polysiphonia has

antibacterial properties. Agar is laxative. Carrageenin can coagulate blood.

Brown Algae— Phaeophyta (Gk. phaios- brown, phyton- plant)

1. Brown algae comprise about 2000 species.

2. Majority of the brown algae are marine.

3. Brown algae generally occur in both tidal and subtidal regions of colder seas.

4. Unicellular forms are absent.

Fig. 3.2. Some Brown Algae.

 5. The body consists of a branched filamentous structure in lower forms (e.g.,
Ectocarpus) and parenchymatous structure in higher forms (e.g.,Sargassum, Laminaria, Fucus,
Macrocystis).

6. Brown algae include the largest algae. The giant brown algae are called kelps. The
largest kelps are Macrocystis (40100m) and Nereocystis (2030m).

7. The plant body is often differentiated into holdfast, stipe and lamina (frond).

8. Lamina may be simple or divided variously. Despite its size and complexity of form,
lamina of a kelp is annual. Lamina (frond) is photosynthetic.

9. The large forms often possess air vesicles or bladders for providing buoyancy.

10. Cell wall contains cellulose, nonglucan saccharides and phycocolloids.

11. Phycocolloids of brown algae are nonsulphated mucosaccharides. The common ones
are alginic acid, fucoidin and fucin. They are copious in species dwelling tidal areas.
Phycocolloids protect the algae from desiccation during low-tide, freezing under low temperature
and injury when beaten against rocks.

12. Photosynthetic organelles or chromatophores possess 3-thylakoid lamellae.

13. Photosynthetic pigments include chlorophyll a, chlorophyll c and carotenoids

(carotenes and xanthophylls). The brown colour of algae is due to the presence of large amount
of xanthophyll called fucoxanthin.

14. Food reserve is laminarin (carbohydrate) and lipid.

15. Cells possess refractile vesicles called fucosan vesicles. The vesicles contain a
phenolic chemical named fucosan. Fucosan is colourless inside water but becomes brown or
black on exposure to air.

16. Conducting tubes or trumpet hyphae are present in large brown algae or kelps. The
tubes possess sieve septa. They take part in conduction of food materials. The rate is
3878cm/hr.

17. Asexual reproduction occurs with the help of both motile and nonmotile spores (e.g.,
neutral spores, tetraspores, monospores). The motile spores or zoospores are biflagellated and
have heterokont flagellation with one smaller whip like smooth flagellum and other larger of
tinsel type.

18. Sexual reproduction varies from isogamy, anisogamy to oogamy. In isogamy and
anisogamy both the gametes are motile with heterokont flagellation In oogamy, only the male
gametes are motile or flagellate. The female gametes are nonmotile.
 20. Isomorphic alternation of generations is found in some brown algae, e.g., Ectocarpus,
Dictyota. Here both the haploid and diploid generations are present and are similar in structure.
In many brown algae, the diploid generation or phase is dominant. The haploid generation or
phase is either microscopic or represented by gametes only (e.g., Fucus).

Common Brown Algae

Laminaria (Fig. 3.2). It is a wide spread kelp or large-sized brown alga popularly called
devil’s apron. Laminaria is a source of food. Manure, algin and iodine.

Dictyota (Fig. 3.2). It is a ribbon shaped dichotomously branched marine brown alga that
grows shallow waters.

Fucus (Fig 3.2). It is leathery flat branched perennial brown alga of small size which has
been a source of fodder, manure and algin.

Sarassum (Fig. 3.2) Sargassum is popularly called gulf weed which is used both as
fodder and manure. Sarganine is an antibacterial and antifungal extract obtained from it. Both
free floating and attached forms occur. Floating forms are common in part of North Atlantic
ocean called Sargasso sea where these are menace to shipping. In attached forms the plant has
three parts— holdfast, main axis and laterals.
UNILOCULAR SPORANGIUM

RHIZOID

Fig. 3.3. Ectocarpus.

Ectocarpus (Fig. 3.3). It is a filamentous marine brown algae which has both upright and
prostrate regions. Such a growth is called heterotrichous.
Economic importance

1. Food. A number of brown algae are used as food in some countries, e.g., Laminaria,
Alaria, Macrocystis, Sargassum. The edible brown algae are also used as fodder.

2. Fouling of Ships. Some brown algae get attached to hulls of ships, e.g., Ectocarpus.
Others floating in masses (e.g., Sargassum) have a nuisance value for ships.

3. Iodine. Fucus and Laminaria are rich source of iodine. Potash is abundant in
macrocysists and Nereocystis.

4. Medicines. Sodium laminarin sulphate is blood anticoagulant. Laminaria and

Ascophyllum have antibiotic properties, while Durvillea has worm expelling or vermifuge
properties.

5. Alginic Acide. It is phycocolloid which is obtained commercially from Laminaria,

Macocystis, Nereocystis, Fucus, Sargassum etc. Alginic acid and its salts are used in obtaining
emulsions (ice- creams, ointments, toothpastes, cosmetics, creams, shampoos, etc.), sizing
textiles, flame Proof plastics, security glass, formation of pills and surgical threads.

Green Algae Chlorophyta (Gk. chloros- green, phyton- plant)

1. The group contains about 7000 living species (20,000 according to Prescott, 1969).

2. Green algae occur in all types of habitats. Only ten percent of green algae are marine .
Majority of the species are fresh water. Several members are subaerial. They grow on moist
soils, walls, rocks and tree trunks. Strains of Chlorella can bear moderate hot waters. Some
forms live in snow or frozen lakes (e.g., Scotiella, Hormidium).

3. Some species are epiphytic, endophytic, epizoic or endozoic. Zoochlorella is

associated with sponges. Characium occurs on crustaceans, Cladophora on molluscan shells,
while Trichophilus provides green colour to the fur of tree-dwelling sloth (a mammal) found in
the rain forests of South America. The alga gives protective colouration to the sloth. Certain
green algae are constituents of lichens. Cephaleuros is parasitic on a number of higher plants. It
reduces the yield of tea, coffee, pepper and citrus fruits.
 Fig.3.4. Some Green Algae.

4. Thallus is various— unicellular flagellate (e.g., Chlamydomonas), unicellular

nonflagellate (e.g., Chlorella, Characium. Acetabularia or umbrella plant which is several
centimeters in length and is differentiated into uninucleate holdfast, an elongated stalk and
umbrella-like cap.), flagellate colonies (e.g., Volvox), nonflagellate colonies (e.g., Scenedesmus,
Hydrodictyon), coenocytic and siphonaceous (e.g., Caulerpa), heterotrichous (with prostrate and
vertical branches, e.g., Draparnaldia), and parenchymatous (e.g., Ulva).

5. Cell wall contains cellulose with a few exceptions in the inner layer and pectose in the
outer layer.

6. Chloroplasts have 220 thylakoid lamellae.

7. Photosynthetic pigments are similar to those of higher plants— chlorophyll a,

chlorophyll b, carotenes and xanthophylls. The colour is grass-green due to predominance of
chlorophylls.

8. Food reserve is starch but some forms possess oil drops.

9. Chloroplasts generally contain 1 to many storage bodies called pyrenoids. Pyrenoids

contains protein and starch.

10. In flagellate forms, an eye spot is present in the chloroplasts.

11. Asexual reproduction takes place by both mitospores and meiospores. The common
asexual spores are zoospores, aplanospores, hypnospores, akinetes, autospores, etc.

12. Sexual reproduction is effected by isogamy, anisogamy and oogamy. In isogamy both
the fusing gametes are morphologically and physiologically similar. They may be flagellate or
nonflagellate. In anisogamy the fusing gametes are structurally similar but differ in size and
behaviour. One of the two gametes is larger and is called macrogamete or female gamete. The
other is smaller and is termed microgamete or male gamete. In oogamy there is a large food
laden nonflagellate female gamete called egg or oosphere. The male gamete or anotherozoid is
smaller and motile.
 Differences between Isogamy and Anisogamy
Isogamy Anisogamy
1. The fusing gametes are similar in structure, 1. The fusing gametes differ in size and
size and behaviour behaviour.
2. There is no distinction of mate and 2. A distinction of male and female gametes is
female gametes. present.
3. There is equal storage of food in the fusing 3. More food is stored in female gametes.
gametes.

Common Green Algae

Chlamydomonas (Fig. 3.5). It is a microscopic (1030 μ m), eukaryotic, unicellular,

pyriform, biflagellate green alga of both fresh water and marine habitats, generally rich in
ammonia salts. Internally, the alga possesses a single nucleus, two contractile vacuoles for
osmoregulation and excretion, a cup-shaped chloroplast with a red eye spot or stigma and a
pyrenoid for storing starch.

Fig.3.5 A, Chalmydomonas.

They often possess reddish pigment haematochrome. Red snow caused by C. nivalis is
due to red coloured hypnospores.

Volvox (Fig. 3.6). It is a fresh water green hollow ball like colonial alga of 0.52 mm
diameter. Colony of Volvox is hollow and has a fixed number of cells (500 to 60,000). It is called
coenobium. The alga rotates during swimming. It is, therefore, also called rolling alga.
 Fig.3.6. Volvox.

Ulothrix (Fig. 3.7). It is an attached, unbranched, green, filamentous alga of flesh aerated
waters. Filaments are covered by mucilage. They are attached to a solid substratum by means of
a colourless lowermost cell called holdfast. The remaining cells are green. They are cylindrical
and quadrate. The cells are uninucleate. They have central vacuoles. The peripheral protoplast
possesses a single girdle-like or collar shaped chloroplast studded with a few pyrenoids.

Fig.3.7 Ulothrix. A,Filament. B, A Cell.

Spirogyra (Fig. 3.8). It is an unbranched, mucilage covered green filamentous alga that
forms free floating masses over the surface of fresh water ponds. It is called pond scum, water
silk or mermaid tresses.
 Fig.3.8 Spirogyra. A, Part of filament. B, Cell

Chara (Fig. 3.9). Chara or aquatic horsetail is a green alga found growing at the bottom
of shallow fresh waters like ponds, pools and lakes. Lime incrustation may occur in some species
(hence stonewort). Chara is food for many aquatic animals. It can be used as a manure.
Mosquito larvae do not occur in Chara waters.

Fig.3.9. Chara. A, Thallus; B, Sex organs.

Economic Importance

1. Food. A number of green algae are used as food, e.g.. Ulva, Caulerpa, Enteromorpha.
chlorella can yield food rich in lipids, proteins, vitamins and minerals.

2. Antibiotics. They can be extracted from Chlorella and Caulerpa.

3. Parasites. Cephaleuros virescens causes red rust of tea and reduces yield of tea. It also
reduces the yield of coffee, pepper, citrus, etc.

4. Sewage Oxidation. Sewage oxidation ponds contain a number of green algae, e.g.,
Chlamydomonas, Chlorella, Scenedesmus.

Green Algae as Ancestors of Land Plants

 There are no biochemical, cytological and morphological similarities between land plants
and any other group of algae except the green ones or chlorophyta. The various evidences which
favour the chlorophycean origin of land plants are:

(i) Both green algae and land plants possess the same type of cholorophylls, a and .

(ii) The carotenoid pigments are similar in the two groups.

(iii) Cell wall contains similar cellulose and pectic compounds in the two groups.

(iv) Starch is the common storage carbohydrate in the two groups.

(v) The flagella are similar in the motile forms of the two.

BRYOPHYTES— Bryophyta (Gk. bryon- moss, phyton-plant)

Bryophytes are nonvascular terrestrial plants of moist habitats in which a multicellular

diploid sporophyte lives as a parasite on an independent multicellular haploid gametophyte that
develops multicellular jacketed sex organs.

Fig.3.10. Antheridium and archegonium

1. The plants are small. They seldom attain great length or height, the maximum being 60
cm for a moss species growing in New Zealand.

2. Roots absent. Instead rhizoids occur. The latter may be unicellular or multicellular.

3. Accessory spores are not formed. Vegetative reproduction is quite common through
fragmentation, tubers, gemmae, buds, adventitious branches, etc.
 4. Sex organs are multicellular and jacketed. They are of two types (fig. 3.10), male
antheridium and female archegonium. Antheridium produces a number of flagellate male
gametes called sperms or antherozoids. Archegonium is flask-shaped with tubular neck and a
swollen venter. The single- layered wall of neck has 56 rows of cells. Internally it encloses a
few sterile neck canal cells. The wall of venter is 12 layered. It encloses a venter cavity having
a sterile venter canal cell and a fertile egg or oosphere.

5. An external layer of water is essential for the swimming of male gametes to the
archegonia.

Differences between Antheridia and Archegonia

Archegonia
1. They are male organs of bryophytes and
pteridophytes.
2 Antheridia are generally rounded in outline. 2. Archegonia are usually flask-shaped in
3. Sterile cells are absent inside.
4. An antheridiuin forms a large number of
male gametes.
5. The male gametes produced in an
antheridium are usually motile.
Antheridia
1.They are female organs of bryophytes.
pteridophytes and gymnosperms.
outline.
3. Sterile cells occur in the interior of
archegonia.
4. An archegonium encloses a single female
gamete.
5. The female gamete or egg present in an
archegonium is usually non-motile

6. The sporophyte in bryophytes is also called sporogonium as it is attached and

dependent on gametophyte. It produces haploid meiospores inside its capsule part.

7. On germination each spore produces a gametophyte either directly or through a

juvenile filamentous stage called protonema.

8. Bryophytes show heteromorphic or heterologous alternation of generations.

Differences between Gametophyte and Sporophyte

Gametophyte
1. It is haploid phase of life cycle.
2. It is specialized to produce gametes.
3. All divisions are mitotic.
4. It is sexual generation.
5. Fusion of gametes produces zygote.
6. It is formed by germination of a
meiospore.
Sporophyte
1. It is diploid phase of life cycle.
2. It produces spores called meiospores.
3. Meiosis occurs during formation of meiospores.
4 It is asexual generation.
5. Meiospores form gametophytes.
6. It is formed by growth of a zygote.
Terrestrial Amphibians : Bryophytes are called terrestrial amphibians as they require an
external layer of water on the soil surface for their existence. The external water is required for
(a) dehiscence of antheridia and archegonia (b) swimming of male gametes to archegonia (c)
protection from transpiration and hence desiccation as the plant body is not covered by cuticle
(d) supply of water to all parts through capillarity in the absence of vascular tissues.

PTERIDOPHYTESPteridophyta

(UK, pteris fern, phyton plant)

Pteridophytes are seedless vascular or cryptogamic plants that have sporophytic plant
body, inconspicuous gametophytes containing small sessile antheridia and partially embedded
archegonia 4-rowed neck. Vascular tissues developed for the first time in pteridophytes. They
occur throughout the plant body.

1. Meiospores are formed inside sporangia by sporic meiosis. Leaves bearing sporangia
are called sporophylls.

2. Spores may be similar (homosporous) as in majority of pteridophytes e.g., Pteris

Adiantum. A few plants are heterosporous, i.e., with two types of spores, microspores and
megaspores, e.g., Selaginella, Salvinia, Marsilea.

3. Sperms are bi or multi-flagellate. They require an external supply of water to reach

archegonia.

4. Heteromorphic or heterologous alternation of generations is present in the life cycle.

5. Pleridophytes generally occur in cool, damp, shady places. Some extend to sandy soils.
Azolla, Salvinia, Marsilea are aquatic.

Examples: Selaginella, Adiantum, Dryopteris, Equisetum (Horse-tail) Salvinia.

 Fig.3.13. Common Ptridophytes.

Economic Importance

(1) Food. Like other plants, pteridophytes constitute a good source of food to animals.
Sporocarps of Marsilea, a water fern, yield starch that is cooked and eaten by certain tribals.

(2) Soil Binding. By their growth pteridophytes bind the soil even along hill slopes. The
soil is protected from erosion.

(3) Scouring. Equisetum stems have been used in scouring (cleaning of utensils) and
polishing of metals. Equisetum species are, therefore, also called scouring rushes.

(4) Nitrogen Fixation. Azolla (a water fern) has a symbiotic association with nitrogen
fixing cyanobacterium Anabaena azollae. It is inoculated to paddy fields to function as
biofertilizer.

(5) Medicines. An anthelmintic drug is obtained from rhizomes of Dryopteris (Male

Shield Fern).
 (6) Ornamentals. Ferns are grown as ornamental plants for their delicate and graceful
leaves.

Differences between Bryophtes and Pteridophytes

Bryophytes
1. Plant body is gametophyte.
2. Vascular tissues are absent.
3. Sporophyte is parasitic over gametophyte.
4. Plant body can be thallose or foliose.
5. True stem and leaves are absent.
6. Roots are absent, instead, rhizoids occur.
7.Haploid or gametophytic phase is longer
lived while sporophytic phase is shorter lived.
8. Antheridium is stalked.
9. Archegonium is commonly exposed.
10. Neck of archegonium is formed of 56 rows 10. Neck of archegonium has four rows of
of cells.
Pteridophytes
1. Plant body is sporophyte.
2. Vascular tissues are present.
3. Both sporophyte and gametophyte are
independent.
4. Plant body is differentiated into stem,
leaves and roots.
5. Plants possess true stem and leaves.
6. Roots are present.
7. Diploid or sporophytic phase is longer lived
while gametophytic phase is shorter lived.
8. Antheridium is sessile.
9. Archegonium is partially embedded.
cells.

They have four classes— Psilopsida, Lycopsida, Sphenopsida and Filicopsida.

Psilopsida (Psilophytes). They are the most primitive vascular plants. Roots are absent,
instead rhizoids occur. Stem is dichotomously branched. It has two parts, aerial and rhi-
zomatous. Aerial stems are green and photosynthetic. Leaves may be present or absent.
Sporangia develop over the aerial stem either terminally or axially. Two primitive forms found in
fossil state are Cooksonia (Silurian) and Rhynia (devonian). Living forms are Psilotum and
Tmesipterus.

Lycopsida (Lycopods). Primitive vascular plants which have differentiation of roots,

stems and leaves. Leaves are microphyllous, i.e., do not produce a leaf gap in vascular strand of
the stem. Sporophylls form sporangiferous spikes or strobili. Sporangia develop either axially or
adaxially. Branching is dichotmous or pseudodichotmous. Examples: Lycopodium,Selaginella.

Selaginella (Club Moss, Spike Moss, Fig.3.14)

Sphenopsida : They are characterized by jointed stems with whorls of leaves and
branches borne at the joints (or nodes). The internodal part of the stem is vertically ridged
and spores are produced in rings of sporangia arranged in cones, usually at the tips of the fertile
shoots. The only living genus, Equisetum, is a comparatively small plant (different species
ranging between 4 or 5 cm and 12 m), but one of the best-known fossil genera, Calamites,
included tree-like forms that grew up to 30m in height. Another common fossil
sphenopsid, Sphenophyllum, was a slender plant with a ribbed stem only 1–7 mm in diameter
but up to several metres in length, that probably scrambled over other vegetation.

Fig.3.14. A, Selaginella.

Filicopsida: They are vascular plants which are diverse in form and grow in various
habitats from epiphytic or terrestrial to aquatic, they lack flowers and reproduce sexually by
spores. The sporophyte varies from herbaceous to arborescent and consists of true roots, stems
and spirally arranged true leaves (fronds) which are either simple or markedly compound. In
most cases the stem, or rhizome, is underground or on the surface of the ground and is usually
protected by a covering of scales and/or hairs. The fronds are usually characteristically circinate
(that is, coiled) when young. The spores are of one, or more rarely of two different kinds; they
are produced in sporangia which are aggregated into sori or scattered over the lower surface of
the frond. The position, shape, structure and degree of protection of the sorus is important in the
identification of ferns. Eg: Fern

Adiantum (Maiden Hair Fern) and Dryopteris (Male Shield Fern ) are the two common
ferns that are found in moist shady places in tropical, subtropical and temperature areas.
Adiantum is also observed to occur under bridges, water courses and walls of old wells.
 In Adiantum caudatum and a few other species, adventitious buds develop at leaf tips.
When such leaf tips happen to touch the soil, they form new plants. The process helps in
spreading the fern over a large area. Because of this reason A. Caudatum is also called walking
fern.
Salvinia (Fig. 3.17). It is an aquatic fern with both annual (e.g., S. nutans) and perennial
species (e.g.. S. molesta). It is called sorrow of Kashmir. The plant body consists of a floating
stem bearing two rows of large green hairy leaves on the upper surface and highly branched leaf
roots on the lower surface. The roots act as balancers. Hair protect leaves from wetting at places.
The plant bears sporocarps sympodially. Sporocarps are sporangia bearing bodies. It is
heterosporous.
GYMNOSPERMS (Gk . gymnos-naked, sperma-seed)

(Plants with Naked Seeds or Seed Plants Without Flowers)

Gymnosperms are those seed plants in which the seeds remain exposed over the surface
of the megasporophylls because the latter are not folded to form pistils.

1. Gymnosperms are a small group of speeds which are represented by only 900 living
species.

2. All gymnosperms arc perennial and woody, forming either bushes or trees. Some
of these are very large and live for thousands of years, e.g.. Sequoia sempervirens (tallest
gymnosperms of 111. 6 m) Zamia pygmia is smallest (26 cm).
 3. Two types of sporophylls, microsporophylls and megasporophylls are usually
aggregated to form distinct cones or strobili, pollen cones (male cones) and seed cones
(female cones) respectively.
4. Seeds do not occur inside a fruit. They are naked.
5. Female gametophyte contains archegonia.
6. Pollination is direct as a stigma is absent and the pollen grains directly reach the
micropylar ends of ovules. Pollination is usually accomplished by wind (anemophily).
7. Male gametophyte produces only two male gametes or sperms. Generally one of
them is functional.
8. water is not required for transport of male gametes. Instead, a pollen tube . is formed by
the male gametophyte for effecting fertilization (siphonogamy).

9. Seeds contain a food laden tissue or endosperm for future growth of embryo into
seedling. The tissue represents the female gametophyte.

10. Like pteridophytes, xylem does not possess vessels except in some gnetophytes.
Phloem is without companion cells and sieve tubes. Sieve cells are not arranged end to end in
rows.
Living gymnosperms are divided into four groups – Cycadopsida, Ginkgopsida
Coniferopsida and Gnetopsida. Ginkgopsida is represented by maiden hair tree (Ginkgobiloba).
Gnetopsida contains Gnetum, Ephedra and Welwitschia. These are nearer to flowering plants in
having flower like arrangement of sporophylls and possessing primitive vessels in xylem. Plants
of cycadospia and coniferopsida are commonly called cycads and conifers respectively.
 Cycads. It is smaller group of gymnosperms which have palm-like habit and fem-like
foliage. Leaf bases are often persistent. In stem the vascular tissues constitute only a narrow
patch though secondary growth occurs. Plants are dioecious, that is, microsporophylls and
megasporophylls develop on separate plants. The sporophylls are aggregated to produce strobili
or cones (exception megasporophylls of Cycas). Megasporophylls are often leaf-like and possess
ramenta. Sperms are motile. The plants are mostly xerophytic and occur in warm weather. Their
population is, however, decreasing due to extension of agriculture and severe competition from
xerophytic angiosperms. Cycads are grown for their ornamental appeal, e.g., Cycas circinalis, C.
revoluta.

Cycas (Fig. 3.18)

Cycas is also called living fossil because it possesses a number of characters of extinct
pteridosperms and cycads. The gymnosperm is an evergreen small palm-like or tree-fern like
sporophyte that occurs in some tropical and subtropical areas.

Conifers. They comprise more than 500 living species of cone bearing gymnosperms
which have withstood competition from angiosperms. The plants are evergreen with dense and
massive vascular tissues and non-motile gametes. Conifers are usually monoecious. Cones or
strobili are compact and woody. Both the types of cones are borne on the same plant. Unlike
cycads, they are not produced on the tips of main branches. Leaves are mostly borne on the
dwarf branches. The dwarf branches have a limited or definite growth. Leaves have thick cuticle
and sunken stomata. They are needle like (e.g., Plnus), small flat and leathery (e.g., Araucaria)
or scale like (e.g.. Thuja).

Araucaria (a tall and majestic conifer of South America, New Zealand and East Australia)
grows in warm weather in plains as well as foot hills. Other conifers form vast and dominant
woodlands in mostly north temperate regions of Europe, Asia, North America, etc. They are
abundant on the upper timber-line zone of mountains including the Himalayas, e.g., Pinus
(Pine), Cedrus (Cedar), Picea (Spruce), Abies (Fir), Juniperus (Juniper) Thuja, Larix,
Cupressus. Conifers are dominant constituents of north temperate flora due to the following
reasons :

1. In the temperate areas, conifers have an advantage over angiospermic trees. While the
angiospermic trees shed their leaves during autumn-winter period, the conifers remain
evergreen. They continue to manufacture their food during this period when other plants are in
a state of hibernation because of the absence of leaves.
2. Conifers have a number of xerophytic characteristics which help in conserving water.
They are, thus, able to tide over the winter period when the soil becomes frozen and water
availability is very little. Mycorrhizae allow them to get water and minerals.
3. Enzymes of conifers are functional even at -35°C at which temperature they become
inactivated in other plants.
Pinus (Fig. 3.18)
Pinus or Pine is a coniferous gymnosperm. it is a large tree having-pyramidal or
excurrent shape like a “christmas tree”. The plant body is a sporophyte having stem, leaves and
roots. The main stem is straight. It may reach a height of 10-50 metres The main stem shows
monopodial branching.

ANGIOSPERMS (Gk. Angion – vessel, sperma- seed) The Flowering Plants

Angiosperms are those seed plants in which seeds are formed inside fruits and the
sporophylls are organized into flowers.
1. Flowering plants or angiosperms are the most recently and highly evolved plants. They
appeared on earth about 130 million years ago. First angiosperms fossil recorded from mid
cretaceous period is Archafructus from China and Archaeanthus from Canada.
2. They are the most abundant and conspicuous plants with about 270,000 (220,000
dicots and 50,000 monocots) species.
3. Flowering plants occur in most environments on the earth. Sea is the only exception.
Here only two angiosperms are found. They are Zostera and Thalassia. Wolffia is smallest
(0.1 cm) while Eucalyptus regnans is largest (114 m height). Angiosperms are most wide- spread
in plains as well as hills. They have been recorded at an altitude of 6000m in the Himalayas or
permanently frozen Antarctica. Even deserts possess flowering plants. Some of these desert
plants are able to grow soon after good shower, flower and shed seeds in a few weeks of wetness
available in the area. One species is reported to occur in hot springs at 60°C. A small orchid lives
underground, it has mycorrhizal association which helps it obtain nourishment from decaying
organic matter. In moist areas some plants grow perched on other plants.
They are dependent upon the larger plant for space only (neither food nor water). Such plants are
called epiphytes. Epiphytes are popularly known as space hosts. e.g., Vanda.
4. Sporophylls are aggregated to form flowers. Therefore, angiosperms are also called
flowering plants.
5. Both microsporophylls and megasporophylls are specialised. A microsporophyll or
stamen consists of a filament and an anther. A megasporophyll or carpel is rolled and partly
sterilised to produce a stigma, style and ovary containing ovules. Within ovules are present
highly reduced female gametophytes known as embryo sacs. Embry sac formation is preceded
by meiosis. So all the cells of embryo sac are haploid.
6. Pollination is through several agencies but most prominent among them is by animals,
especially insects. The flowers possess showy petals, edible pollen or nectar for this.
7. Pollen grains or microspores reach stigmatic surface found at the tip of carpel or
megasporophyll.
8. Female gametophyte or embryo sac develops upto 8-nucleate state prior to
fertilisation. There is a three cell egg apparatus (one egg cell or oosphere and two synergids),
three antipodal cells and two polar nuclei. The two polar nuclei fuse to form a diploid
secondary nucleus.
9. Archegonia are absent. Instead, there is one oosphere surrounded by two specialized
synergid cells that attract the pollen tube. The latter brings two naked nor-flagellate males
gametes.
10. There is double fertilisation. One male gamete fuses with oosphere or egg cells to
form zygote. It is called generative fertilization or syngamy. The second made gamete fuses with
diploid secondary nucleus to form triploid primary endosperm nucleus (PEN). It represents
vegetative fertilization. The latter is also called triple fusion since three nuclei are involved in its
formation. Total 5 nuclei take part in double fertilization.
11. Zygote develops into embryo. Central cell containing triploid primary endosperm
forms triploid endosperm. Endosperm provides nourishment to developing embryo. Synergids
and antipodals degenerate after fertilization.

Differences between Syngamy and Triple Fusion

Syngamy Triple Fusion
1. It is the actual or generative fertilization. 1. It is vegetative fertilization.
2. Both male and female gametes are 2. Only one male gamete and two vegetative
involved in syngamy. nuclei are involved in triple fusion.
3. Syngamy produces a diploe zygote. 3. It produces a triploid primary endosperm
cell.
4. Zygote forms the embryo. 4. Primary endosperm cell produces a food
laden endosperm.

12. Fertilized ovules ripen into seeds. The seeds are covered by fruits. A fruit is
technically a ripened ovary. Fruits not only protect the seeds but also help in their dispersal.
13. Xylem contains vessels.
14. Phloem possesses sieve tubes and companion cells.
15. Secondary growth occurs in stem and root of some angiosperms, placed in group
dicots.
Development of Flower and Fruit Habit

Flower is basically a shoot which has been modified in angiosperms for carrying out the
process of sexual reproduction. A flower has a limited growth with a long internode at the base
(appearing as stack or pedicel) and condensed nodes present on thalamus or torus. The latter
bears four types of structures— sepals, petal, stamens and carpels. Sepals and petals are sterile
floral leaves. Sepals are green and cover the flower in the bud condition. They are protective in
nature. Petals are showy and are meant for attracting animal pollinators, especially insects.
Stamens are specialized microsporophylls. Each stamen has a narrow stalk or filament and a
knob-like broader tip called anther. Anther develops four microsporangia or pollen sacs. The
latter produce micros pores or pollen grains. Carpels are specialized megasporophylls. They
may be free or fused. Each carpel has a swollen base named ovary. The interior of ovary contain
one or more placentae (singular- placenta) for bearing ovules. The tip of the carpel has sticky lip
known as stigma. Stigma is meant for receiving pollen grains. Stigma is connected with ovary
through a stalk known as style.

Differences between Microsporophyll and Megasporophyll

Microsporophyll
1. It bears microsporangia.
2. A microsporangium contains numerous
microspores or pollen grains.
3. Microspores or pollen grains are not
retained. They are always shed.
4. The male gametophyte is formed near the
Megasporophyll
1. Megasporophyll bears microsporangia.
2. A megasporangium usually bears one
functional megaspore.
3. In seed plants, the megaspore is retained
inside the megasporangium.
4. In seed plants, the female gametophyte is
female gametophyte. produced inside the megasporangium.
Fertilisation and embryo formation occur there.
5. In angiosperm, the microsporophyll is 5. In angiosperm, the megasporophyll is noted
modified into stamen. to produce a carpel.

Differences between Male Gametophytes of Pteridophytes and Gymnosperms

Male Gametophytes of Pteridophytes
1. A distinct male gametophytes may not be
present.
2. It contains an antheridium.
3. Male gametes are flagellate.
4. Male gametes reach the female gametes by
swimming in a thin film of water.
Male Gametophytes of Gymnosperms
1. A distinct male gametophytes is always
present.
2. An antheridium is not formed.
3. Male gametes can be flagellate or non
flagellate.
4. Male gametes reach the female gametes
through a pollen tube. Water is not required.

Differences between Female Gametophytes of Pteridophytes and Gymnosperms

Female Gametophytes of Pteridophytes
1. A distinct female gametophytes may or may
not be present.
2. It is largely independent.
3. It is not enclosed in an ovule.
Female Gametophytes of Gymnosperms
1. A distinct gametophytes is always present.
2. Female gametophytes does not leave the
parent plant.
3. It is enclosed inside an ovule.

The transfer of pollen grains or microspores to the receptive area of megasporophyll or

stigma is called pollination. Cross pollination is common in which pollen grains of one flower
reach the stigma of another flower. In gymnosperms, cross pollination is accomplished by wind.
The same is known as anemophily. In angiosperms wind pollination or anemophily takes place
in a few cases. In most of the plants, pollination is effected by animals— insects, worms, birds,
bats and even human beings. Insects out-number all other animals as pollinators.

After falling on the stigmas, the pollen grains germinate and develop pollen tubes. The
latter descend the styles, enter the ovary and then ovules to perform fertilization. After
fertilization the ovules mature into seeds. The ovary containing the seeds ripens into a fruit. The
name angiosperm for flowering plants is derived from their characteristics of having covered
seeds or seeds enclosed inside the fruits. The fruit not only protects the seeds during their
ripening but also aids in seed dispersal. Some dry fruits have explosive mechanism to throw the
seeds. Other dry fruits have devices to stick to the fur of animals or float in air and water. There
are other fruits in which the fruit wall is fleshy. The fleshy ripe attract and tempt animals,
especially birds, to eat them. However, seeds of fleshy remain unharmed by their picking or even
after passing through their digestive tracts. The animals disperse the seeds during the process of
feeding on fruits.

Flowering plants have thus exploited insects, birds and several other animals as agents of
pollination, fruits and seed dispersal. It is one major reason for present day dominance of
flowering plants. All angiosperms, however, do not possess seeds. In some cases evolution has
resulted in resorting to only vegetative means of propagation because this avoids competition
from other plants. The fruits of some such plants are seedless, e.g.,Banana.

Differences in Reproductive Organs of Gymnosperms and Angiosperms

Gymnosperms
1. The sporophylls are aggregated to form
cones.
2. Cones are generally unisexual, rarely
bisexual.
3. Cones do not possess perianth or sepals and
petals.
4. Sporophyll bearing central axis is usually
elongated.
5. Microsporophyll often contains a broad,
sterile head. Distinction into anther and
filament is absent.
Angiosperms
1. The sporophylls are aggregated to produce
flowers.
2. Flowers are generally bisexual, rarely
unisexual.
3. The Flowers usually contain perianth or
sepals and petals.
4. Sporophyll bearing thalamus is generally
short.
5. Microsporophyll is represented by a stamen.
A stamen consists of a terminal broad anther
and a lower stalk or filament.

6. Number of microsporangia per 6. Number of microsporangia or pollen sacs

microsporophyll varies from 2 in pinus to per stamen is commonly four, rarely two.
several hundred in Cycas.
7. Megasporophyll is commonly woody.
8. Megasporophyll is unrolled.
9. Stigma and style are absent.
10. Ovules are not borne on a placenta.
11. Ovules lie exposed on the megasporophyll.
12. Ovules are sessile.
13. An Ovule is covered by a 3-layered
massive integument having a wide micropyle.
14. The female gametophyte is large and
parenchymatous.
15. The female gametophyte contains distinct
archegonia.
16.Pollination is direct, that is, pollen grains
directly enter the ovule and come to lie over
the nucellus.
17. Male gametophyte contains one or two
prothalial cells, a tube cell, a stalk cell and a
body cell which divided to form 2 male
gametes.
18.Only one gamete is functional as there is
only one type of fertilization or generative
fertilization.
19. Endosperm is a pre- fertilization structure
and represents the food laden female
gametophyte.
20. Seeds develop exposed on the
megasporophyll. A fruit is never formed.
21. The embryo may contain one to several
cotyledons.
Dicots and Monocots
Angiosperms are divided into two subgroups, dicotyledonous and monocotyledonous
plants, mainly on the basis of number of embryonic leaves or cotyledons. The two are commonly
spoken as dicots and monocots.
7. Megasporophyll is delicate.
8. Megasporophyll is rolled to form a carpel.
9. The two are present.
10. Ovules are attached to placenta.
11. Ovules occur covered inside the ovary part
of the carpel.
12. Ovules are borne on a stalk or furinculus.
13. An Ovule is covered by a one or two thin
integuments having a narrow micropyle.
14. The female gametophyte is represented by
seven-celled and 8- nucleate embryo sac.
15. Archegonia are absent.
16. Pollination brings the pollen grains on the
special receptive surface of the
megasporophyll called stigma.
17. Male gametophyte consists of a tube cell
and a generative cell which divided to form 2
male gametes.
18. There is double fertilization, that is, both
the male gametes are functional, one
performing generative fertilization and other
vegetative fertilization or triple fusion.
19. Endosperm is a post- fertilization structure
and represents a new triploid material.
20. Seeds develop inside the ovary part of the
carpel which matures into a fruit.
21. The embryo contains one to two
cotyledons.
Dicots. They are angiospermic or flowering plants which are characterized by the presence of
two cotyledons in the seed, generally reticulate venation in leaves (with a few exceptions),
concentric tissues in the stem with open vascular bundles arranged in a ring, penta- or
tetramerous flowers e.g., Pea, Rose, Eucalyptus, Mustard, Cotton, Acacia, Sunflower. The
number of dicot species is over 200,000.

Monocots. They are angiospermic or flowering plants which are characterized by the presence of
single cotyledons in the seed, generally parallel venation in leaves (exception Smilax, colocasia
and relatives), scattered closed vascular bundles in the stem and trimerous flowers, e.g.,Banana,
Cereals, Palms, Grasses, Bamboo, Lilies, Orchids. About 50,000 species of monocots are known.

Differences between Dicots and Monocots

Dicots Monocots
1. There are usually two cotyledons. 1. The seed contain one cotyledon.
2. Flowers are usually pentamerous or 2. Flowers are usually trimerous (floral parts in
tetramerous (floral parts in sets of 5 and 4 or its sets of three or its multiples).
multiples).

3. Pollen grains commonly have three germ
pores.
4. Leaves are netveined or with reticulate
venation.
5. Primary root often long lived forming tap
root system. Adventitious roots occur in some
3. Pollen grains generally possess a single
germinal furrow.
4. The leaves possess parallel venation with a
few exceptions.
5. Primary root is short-lived. Tap root is
absent Instead adventitious roots are found.
cases.
6. Stem possess concentric arrangement of
tissue systems epidermis, cortex,
endodermis, pericycle, pith, etc
7. Vascular bundles of the stem are arranged in
a ring.
8. Vascular bundles of the stem posses
cambium (vascular bundles open ),so that
secondary growth is possible.
9. In root, a pith is absent or small. The
vascular bundles are few (8 or less).
10. Vessels are polygonal in outline
6. Tissue systems are not differentiated in the
stem. A ground tissue occurs.
7. Vascular bundles are scattered.
8. A cambium is absent (vascular bundles
closed).
9. In root, a pith is always present. Vascular
bundles are many (more than 8).
10. Vessels are rounded in outline.