Copyright © 2005 Sri Lanka Association for Buddhist Studies. First published in Sri Lanka by: Sri Lanka Association for Buddhist Studies ‘National Library of Sri Lanka - Cataloguing in Publication Data Dhamma Viniya : essays in honour of Venerable Professor ‘Dhammavihari Jotiya Dhirasekera) ~ ‘edited by Asanga Tilakaratne (eal (Colombo - Sri Lanka Association for Buddhism Studies, 2005 - vi, 336 p.: 22m. ISBN 955-1271.00-9 Price : Rs. 800.00 i, Tilakaratne, Asanga ed. 1. Buddhism 2. Buddhism - anthology 3, Buddhistessays 2943-DDC 22 * Cover design: Mr, Susiripala Malimbada Printed by: Ruwan Paharuwa of Sasana Sevaka Soceity Maharagama, ISBN : 985-1271-00.9 CITTA, MANAS & VINNANA: ASPECTS OF MIND AS PRESENTED IN EARLY BUDDHIST PALI DISCOURSES GA. Somaratne Citta, manas and. vifna are three terms that the suttas (early discourses of the Pali canon) frequently employ referring to the mind or the mental realm of the individual. Each term, it seems, represents mind’s different aspects and operations. Among them, citfa represents that aspect of mind that mainly accumulates and carries kammic potentials and that, by such potentials activates vififana. It also represents affective contents and func- tions that, for the most part, condition one’s character. Manas is the sense faculty by which one performs mental activities under the influence of the passive properties of cinta. Vilna, which is activated by the contents and functions of both the passive citta and the active manas, is both the rebirth linking factor and the conscious awareness in sense perception. It is also the fifth (wititdnakkhandha) of the five personality aggregates. Both vii na and manas denote the mind's cognitive and sensory functions. In this, article, an attempt is made to study the Buddhist concept of mind by exam- ining the Pali terms vifiéna, manas and citta as they are presented in the sutlas of the Pali canon. In this study, vara willbe treated as the central operational mind while citta and manas as its supportive passive and ac- tive applications. Viniiana Etymologically the prefix vi- of vififénahas the meaning of Latin dis-as in dis-cernere, or in such Latin rooted English nouns as distinction and dis- cvernment. As the prefix dis- entails some sort of separation, the prefix vi- in vitihana seems to connote the distinct sense of subjective awareness that ‘accompanies and thus distinguishes itself from every objectively appear- ing object of consciousness. Viitana is a factor of pure discriminative ‘Dhamma-Vinaya: Essays in Honour of Venerable Professor Dhammavihari Jotiya Dhirasekera), Si Lanka Association for Buddhist Studies (SLABS), 2005,GA, Somarame Senses whereby the empirical subject nt only discems objets fom ; iscerns any given object from i (the pure at of discemingditingishes citi ne anions, the discemed (see, Verdu dint om the Buda etymological meaning presented at SN I 8, “ed 1s ane dey iW discerns vita), monks, therefore it : loes it discern? It discerns sour an ad sweet, alkaline and non-alkalne, salty and non sly.” Thos sees the act of discerning objects, Ths is ra The ream which, as a condi. lange. From now on, for Tuse consciousness for ind psycho-corporeality tioned thing, continues while being subject to ch convenience of reference, throughout this article, [ithina psyche for nama, conporeality for ra, for ndna-ripa Luse citta and manas un-translaed, Consciousness and Psycho-corporeality 5 : Buddhism denis an independent staus vo anything in existence, and such rites consciousness nor pjchocoreraiy as nde pends on the other. As Ihave discussed elsewhere (Somarane 1998: 94-109), in this study too, fates could notcnay 6,03 assume thatthe ive personality aggre ‘The mutual dey ‘ual dependency of consciousness and psycho-comporeality is clearly 170 _ Citta, manas and. via defined in the Nalakalipasutta at SN Tl, 112-4. The sutta states that both consciousness and psycho-corporeality are neither self-created nor ereated by another; they are neither both self-created and created by another nor do they come into being without causes and conditions. They exist de- pending on each other and, therefore, with the cessation of one, the other also ceases. This mutual dependency is compared in this sutta to two bun- Giles of roeds that stand one supporting the other; when one bundle is drawn out, the other one would fall down, and ifthe latter is drawn out, the former ‘would fall down. That consciousness depends on psycho-corporeafity means, that it depends on the four aggregates of feeling, perception, formations and corporeality. Again, at SN III, 53-4, itis stated that consciousness, if it gets a standing, persists by attachment to the physical body, feeling, per- ‘ception, of formations and that it comes to growth, increase, and abun- dance with the physical body et cetera as its object, with the physical body et celeraas its platform, seeking means of enjoyment. Its also stated that, apart from the physical body, apart from feeling, apart from perception, and apart from formations, itis impossible to show forth the coming or the going or the decease or the rebirth of consciousness (viditanassa... cuinn vi upapattim va) or the growth or the increase or the abundance of con- sciousness.” ‘Then, included under psycho-corporeality are the aggregates of corporeality, feeling, perception, and formations. Among them, the latter three const tute psyche. Feeling and perception are identified in the suttas as volitive formations of cirta (citta-saiikhiara), and formations are also explained in terms of willing intention, conscious effort, or mental force (cetand). Thus, all three of these psychic factors could be considered as of cia that cre- ates, influences, directs and even disrupts operations of consciousness. That is to say that the relationship between citta and consciousness is that of ‘mutual dependency, The statement that consciousness depends on psycho- ‘corporeality and vise versa means that consciousness depends on both citta and physical body and vise versa. In this way, though notionally, though they are interdependent and interconnected, an identity between cizta and psyche on the one hand, and a differcnes between citta and consciousness ‘on the other could be established. Consciousness, as stated at MN I, 53-4, arises with the arising of forma- tions (saiktira-samudaya vitipa-samudayo) and it ceases with the ces- sation of formations (saikhdre-nirodha vitina-nirodto), and again, with mGA, Somarame the arising of consciousness, psycho-corporeality arises (v ‘cam, as ina %-nirodha nimarpa-nitodho).In the contexts ofthe paticen, . eee is shown by stating that con- Sho corporeal depend onconscounes vine accion ant conscousness depends on sche-cnpraiy nano and payee esam ts it ould be conclude that, though consciousness and crsepage@oTeality ate interdependem, consciousness comes to be rane ane ose bezaueof formation that are condoned by ino. ankhard). Several t 'ypes of formations could be identified from the suttas, Karmic formation tions, ego-formations, activity-formations, and sensory-formations Particularly, no knowing the path lading to nibbava. When at ener reduce meritorious formation, is consciousness bends tvardr men and hen produces demons fomaing ke at and when he produces de-neritorios formations, similarly his comer nes end towards de-mroius, Again, whan one proces apes able farmatons; his conciousness bends towards imperturbable, The reaped Karmic formations dieetone's conciousness, When enone sheppard Windom aries arm fomaton dant secs heave hg Go 21 of erasing By not grasping, nibnasatsined Suchan atone fons, td a a sal concious sn Saree ere Thus, prcho-corporealiy tat depends onconsccuiess ae ea Respiration or intrest reathing and out reathiy fied. as; physical formations; a ice (vicara) ave verbal formation: are citaformations These (wstsnpesaa) are ease oli Hough nna) an sane aug sand perceptions andfesling es aspects of omations alo come dicen tion is the forming of I, my and mine. Such for- mental proieation (apace sa seep IR ‘mations are also known as mamas and vitiina. Al five personality aggregates are subject to ego-formation. As stated at ‘SNTII 87, ego-formation re-forms corporeality as my eérporeality; feel- ing as my feeling; perception as my perception; formations as my formations; consciousness as my consciousness. At SN If, 60, sensory formations are defined as of six kinds (cetand-kaya): conscious effort for sights (rdpa-saficetana), sounds, smells, touches, and mental images (ahamma). These formations also come to guide consciousness. Thus, formations are explained in the sutlas in terms of meritorious, de- meritorious, imperturbable, inbreathing and out-breathing, applied thought and sustained thought, perception, feeling, conditioning of the five per- sonality aggregates as I, my and mine, and conscious exertion for six sense objects. Consciousness comes to be and continues to operate in different forms due to these varieties of formations. All these formations, in a wider sense, can be grouped under psycho-corporeality. As stated above, since psyeho-corporeality comes to be and continues to exist because of con sciousness, psycho-corporeality comes to total disappearance by the ces sation of consciousness (Sn 1036: yatha ndman ca ripadi ca asesam parugibat, vittaipassa nicodhena ett’ etam uparujibath. Similac, for the cessation of consciousness, formations must be ended. Consciousness that depends on formations is understood to be the most essential factor of life because it is on the basis of it that both psyche.and corporeality depend and grow. ‘Thus varieties of formations are the bases for varieties of operations of consciousness, For example, consciousness operates on the basis of karma- Formations; it operates on the basis of activity-formations; it operates on the basis of ego-formations; and it operates on the basis of sensory-forma- tions. Although such operations are of the same consciousness, they are also distinguishable and separately idemtfiable functions. Consciousness that is based on such karma-formations as meritorious, de-meritorious or imperturbable grows and flows like a stream from one life to another. Con- sciousness that functions supported by physical, verbal and citta-activities is the life force without which a continuation of life comes to end or tern- porarily comes to end as in the case of the cessation of perception and feeling (saitid-vedayita-nirodha). Citta-activities are feeling and percep- tion and they could be regarded as inner functions of consciousness by “which one feels, perceives, and knows. At SN III, 87, when consciousness is defined as that what discern, it refers to these functions of consciousness. 173GA, Somaramne Consciousness is so called bet i 0 called because it discerns sweet and sour. Althou; of citta, (ffinat the taste of salty, sur Alta peptone nes cis of cit hey aio ave a close conection with consiousess for bth Clatand itn spss oe sane nin Fornaio Ganson), not associated, becuse what one eck oe en ‘one identifies one discerns, This makes it clear that conscigusneve thar ‘operates on the basis of actvity-formations is the basic inner eomecions ness or awareness. One becomes conscious ofthe world and pets know! ‘ge abou the world through consciousness hal fnctions based on saves worldly person misunderstands the five personality aggregates becnnes of consciousness that operates colored by ege-formations om ba the attainment of enlightenment ‘or wisdom-freedom, the rebirth link- ing functon of eonsciouresscomes aces. Bu conetounesthat fine won bn on esr objet cannes ul at cighaned oe eh lowever, when attained to temporary ces: Tce} fi his physical, vera and cna avis ease"Whentnne eee is cease, When sng ro ht he regains those activities, ne and his conciousness tha urtions Sensory objects appears again. oe AtDN 1,225 too, karmic and cognitive based ope ae implied by consciousness. When asked: “Where do the four great ee, ‘ments completely dissolve” the Buddha fist corrected the question Th proper question is, rather questions are: "Where do the four great elements no havea firm foting? Where do the discrimination of Ione soa ae small and big, good and bad disappear? Where do payee and cerperniny completely dissolve?" The Buddha's ancwer want Wher ore, isnot perepible(vittdnum aniassanan,isinfnie anantony even ven up (phan) or illuminated (aban thre the four seat elements donot find firm footing: there discriminations vanish; there with the Gestation of consciousness (viinassa nirodtena, both psyche and Corporeality completely dissolve." The four great element not nding footing indies the cessation of consciousness that functions based on Fma, and the vanishing of all forms of discriminations indicates th sation of consciousness tha functions based on sensory objects, rations of consciousness 174 Consciousness and Rebirth Five personality aggregates come to be, be and cease to be through mutual support. Everything ceases to be with the cessation of consciousness, Thus, the cessation of consciousness could be regarded as the attainment of final liberation. The cessation of consciousness means the cessation of volitive formations (saikhdra-nirodha vinana-nirodho) for consciousness oper- ‘ates on the basis of formations (saiikhara-paccaya viananam). With the attainment of enlightenment, karma-based operations of consciousness | cease, and with the passing away of the enlightened one, even the sensory- | based functions of consciousness disappear. Consciousness that functions based on different types of karma Tinks the life with the next based on the type of karma. This consciousness that links ths fife with the next life is, described at MN Il, 262-4 in terms of “evolving consciousness” (samvattanita-vifana). Therefore, the evolving consciousness is the con- sciousness that functions based on karma. However, this function of the consciousness is not always introduced by adding “evolving’. It is often left for the reader to figure out from the context. A sutta explains this linking of one life with the next as follows: “if a higher level of concentra tion has been developed, the evolving consciousness may reach the plane of neither-perception-nor-non-perception after death.” As seen above, the cessation of consciousness (vitgpassa nirodlha) means that it becomes non-perceptible vifitanam anidassanam). Cessation is not termed annihi- lation (uccheda) but becoming non-perceptible (anidassana). Then, the proper question to be asked is not what survives death but what continues to perceive as life in the cycle of existence Since the concept of rebirth (iat pi dukkha) is introduced in the suttas as an aspect of suffering, some fend to view any inquiry into the concept of rebirth as less relevant for soteriological purposes, Some scholars have ‘gone too far as to say that the suas have no interest in the concept of rebirth, Hoffman (1987: 55), for example, writes that, “in early Buddhism, as in Zen, there is little or no theoretical interest in rebirth.” Despite such comments, to the careful finder, in the suttas there are ample of indications and descriptions of the concept of rebirth as well as its related aspects, such as its relationship to consciousness. What, for instance, is gandhabba’? Is it not an expression about something that seeks its embodiment? In any ‘case, my concern here is only to examine the role of consciousness in the rebirth process, not the concept of rebirth itself. 175‘Ged Somaraine, in explaining the meaning ofthe statement that “the psycho-comporealty depends on consciousness”, the Mahinidanasutta at DN II, 62-3 states that {he establishment of psycho-corporeality takes place due to the entering of consciousness into the mother's womb. It is stated that if consciousness, after entering the mother's womb were to leave it (vias ihinam va hi matukucchim okkamitva vokkamissatha), no psycho-corporeslity would result due to that entry, fo child would be formed and developed. The Browth and development of psycho-corporeality continues due tothe pres. nce of consciousness (es'evafetu etam nidanam esa samudayo esa paccayo ndma-ripassa, yad idem viténar), This reference is no doubt to con Sciousness that operates based on Karma, Again, explaining the meaning of “consciousness depends on psycho-corporeality,” the suta states, ifeone sciousness were {0 not find its establishment in psycho-corporeality, the arising of suffering, that is, future birth, decay and death, daes not occur, ‘This shows that suffering continues due to consciousness’s finding estab. lishment in psycho-corporeality (DN Il, 63). This also shows that con. sciousness is the essential factor in the process of rebirth, Reat (1990:302-3) correctly idemtfies consciousness as that which estab- fishes a ink between births. In his words, this ink is “not ikea string, but like a stream.” Consciousness like a stream changes throughout its exist. ence “in relation to its environment.” Trying to clarify what Buddhisny ‘means by this metaphor, Reat (1990: 303) writes: “a string is selfdeter, mined as it unravels, while stream, as it flows along, i in constant interac. {Gon with its environment and changing at every instant.” Since conscious. ness is the linking factor in life, what will happen to it with the attainment of complete cessation? As already being noted, consciousness disappears ‘oF becomes non-perceptible (viitinam anidassanam), Inthe Mahatanhasaiikhayasutta at MN I, 266, in the context where rebirth Consciousness is meant, the term gandhabba is used. The sutta three conditions necessary for conception to take place. Those are {us of the parents, the period of the mother, and the presence of conscious. ness. Upon the conjoining of the three, conception takes place (yato ea ko matipitaro ca sannipatita honti, matd ca utunt hot, gandhabbo cx Paccupatthito hoti, evam tinnam sannipata gabbassavakkanti hoth, Witesckera (1945: 95), clarifying this context, writes, “the term [ vidal is deliberately employed by Early Buddhism .. to denote the “surviving ‘ctor’ in man in contradistinction tothe term aman, vilddndtmn or purusa ulate he coi- 176 : . o As tht = were aed to denote the “survivor inthe Upanishads.” Ar ints out gandhabba is used in the suttas referring sero” atte urvor™ Ths isthe inking tr Bat Proc toes openers Kakgaiaca G71 10. pO tot the tarels acceus for he sed hat forms the physical personality oar sid that the Body, which physical and whichis derived from the four ret exsen’ s born from the parents ands sustained by Haid and ross food. The athe two conditions, according to Kalupahana, este the sreumances under whic the sed provided bythe pre Ia dx have bor ped od if gondhobe fs nt preset: Kalpana fuer ins ot tet sonton, pesos of ganda ry siicat in that termine he nature psy personality of he new individ, Ganda ten iste evolving consousest hat ives pial death and comes to gener ths ew personality: This on- sciousness serves as food (ahara) for both beings who are born and yé bbe born or seeking rebirth (sambhavesi. Consciousness and Craving ee ee abandoned, by that abandonment of lust the foothold of oe sete na hot), Thereby there is no platform for Eels st AS, zgards feeling-element, perception-element, formation-element oe end :nt of lust the foothold of consciousness is cut off. Thereby there har gro generates no on, an eed ad appa i due {o steadiness it is cooled; owing to cooling, it aa cee 7GA, Somarame_ Now, with mutual support between psycho-corporeality and conscious ‘es, consciousness finds its firm establishment through craving and starts growing. This growth of consciousness based on craving for psycho. orporeality leads tothe continuation of consciousness while finding its ‘now establishments in a series of life afterlife. The final freedom means {hat the growth of consciousness and its continuation have been stopped completely by not lusting and not craving. By not craving’ one can stop growth of consciousness that functions to connect one to a new birth, It ie by eradicating craving, one would be able to accomplish the cessation of consciousness, ASexplained at SN II, 9-10, the elements of comporeality, feeling, percep- tion, and formations constitute the home of consciousness (ripadhatuy ho... viditinassa oko). Due to being lust-tied to each element, conscious ness is identified as the “home-haunter” (viltidnam okasir ti vuccan). For a liberated person or zarhigara, all expressions of these elements. that Gesire, that lust, that lure, that craving, that system-grasping, that mental standpoint, that dogmatic bias which is inherent therein ~ are struck off, cut down at the root, made like a palm-tree stump, made things that have ceased to be, so that they cannot grow up again in future. Therefore, a ‘athigata is called “home abandoner” (anokasdr). This means that for a ‘athigata consciousness does not get established because there is no home, that is, no craving, for ito be. The sutta at SN TH, 10 further states that onc who is in bondage to the impressions of things seen, to sounds, smells, savors, angibles and mental object is called “adherent” (niketasir), Craving is understood as that which nourishes the growth of conscious. ‘ness. For instance, consciousness is metaphorically compared at AN I, 223. 4 to a seed that grows with the help of kamma and craving. Kammic ac. ons are the field, and craving is the moisture (kammam Khettam vin 4nam bijam tanba sineho), Three types of kamma or actions have been enumerated at AN I, 223-4: those that mature in the sensual realm, in the form realm, or in the formless realm. The three realms of sensual exist; ence, form existence, and formless existence are perceptible de the types ‘of kanyma, Of the individual who is fettered by craving and is obstructed by ignorance, and who is endowed with kamma type that matures in sen- sual realm, consciousness becomes established in the sensual realm (av itiinivarninam sattinu tanhisamyojandnam hindyadharuya vitnanam Patlitham, evar dyatim punabbhavabhinibbatn’ hot, evam kho .. Bhavo 178 Cina, manas and via, ie h atype of kamma larly, consciousness of one who is endowed wit tat atues ices fom anor fois eam booms cablished fhe relevant realm. Thos when consciousness establishes itself in one of th thre reams iis called Booming (bh, 1. mst be noted ce ha shissame exis repented replacing iia with cotindand patank Ts eonsiousnes i ate of wil can oF wih (tian, I cer wor ries does not mean something materia and subsite bt some: thing mental and unsubstantial. It is consciousness and awareness of one’s existence. fe ob Cod of slr (Aid wpinope ot SN 2c sxrival of th born and forthe lp of the ot yer concious 5 hutriment of consciousness is a condition for future ‘ih vitae Sain puna ibhinDaty paca). Te the three foods are the material foods, contact (phassa), and willful functions of manas (manosafcetand) At MA, 207-8 (a commentary), manosaiicetand is defined as cetnd ar conciousness certain cla (yam keine. However in my view soname conciousness acersin cia isa irae that has been resulted from identifying the four ice cases ti jrmations and consciousness) ¢ (nama). When A ikon lean ii tests ahaserect a co fet tpn ia ff Ha dant vk ent ys sambhavesinam va anuggahay2). As explained at MN 1, 47, craving isthe basic cause for the arising of these foods that are essential for samsiric aig Sect fear iene ees ain es aa? Samnndyl Tsamaday,taphd nocd dhirancodh), As expan ot MN I 261, these foods become ers toceving (cuttio att lanhaniding tanhasamudaya tanhajatika tanhapabhava). Craving comes due to feeling: feeling comes due to contact. wing, and its craving Consciousness continues deriving support from eraving, an thatcnfrcsthe continued evltion of snsciuses. At ANTI 4001 is stated tha te sin internal sense-speres const oe en fa ai ths external srse-spees te ther ad coscioures inh idle (itifanam maj), while craving is the seamstress (tapha sibban Bb sices Hine the eiiag of sane hc form cf bomng ae ‘nam sibbad assa tass'eva Bhavassa abhinibbartiya). As stated at SN TI, 101-2, when there is lust, lure, craving forfour foods, tis a platform for 179GA, Somaraine the growing of consciousness (hare atthi rigo/ nandi/ tanha patitthicam ‘attha viditénam virdlham). Where consciousness has a standing and growth, there comes the appearance of psycho-corporeality (némariipassa avakkanti); where there is the appearance of psycho-corporeality, there is growth of formations (sarikharanamm vuddlhi); where there is grovrth of for- mations, there is future rebirth (punabbhavalbhinibbatt). Similarly if lust, lure and craving for the four foods were to disappear, then there is no standing or growth for consciousness. Thus consciousness grows with psy- ccho-corporeality and formations. Elsewhere it is said that psycho- ‘corporeality depends on formations and that formations depend on igno- ance. These explanations show that various types of formations constitute sycho-corporeality; hence where there is psycho-corporeality there are formations. The growth of formations means the growth of physical, ver- bal, and citta-activities ~ meritorious, de-meritorious, imperturbable and willful formations. Influenced by these formations, consciousness contin- tes its round of becoming. ‘As stated at SN I, 66, when consciousness has grown, then there comes the phenomenon of psycho-corporeality (vifiine virdlhe ndmaripassa avakkanti hot). When psycho-corporeality appears, six sense-spheres et cetera manifest. Again at SN I 67 iti ated that when consciousness as grown, then there is inclination, a kind of “projection of desires” (nati hhot?). When there is inclination, there is coming and going, and when there is coming and going, there is death and birth, and then this becomes the condition for rebirth ‘An important factor to observe regarding the four nutriments of life i the have ee ise nthe uta the umes eer ts materia food, second, contact, third, willful functions of citta, and fourth, conscious- ness. ILis possible to think that this sequence illustrates in ascending order the degree of importance as well asthe degree of grossness and subtlety of each food. If this is the case, consciousness is the subtlest but the most essential. Ic heavily depends on other foods and factors, and without them consciousness disappears; which is o say that with the disappearance of Consciousness, the other foods and factors also lose their footing. Consciousness and Arahant From the above examination of the role of food, I see that consciousness is 180 the most essential factor for both the born and the waiting to be born. ‘Consciousness becomes a necessary condition even for the living arahants ‘until their death, because without sensory consciousness they cannot have any sense perception, Until their death, araharits have consciousness, but it is undisturbed by the activities of citta because citta of the arahant is calm and is free from defilements. When consciousness discontinues in the body, itis called a dead body, For instance, the Dhammapada verse 41 ‘states that, “before long will this body lie on earth, thrown away, devoid of ‘consciousness (apetavifiiino) and useless as a piece of stick.” At MN I, 296 itis stated that when vitality (dy), heat (usma) and consciousness £0 away from this physical body, it lies like a piece of wood (yatha kattham ‘cetanam). This means that being a necessary factor in life, consciousness js always present even in the arahant as long as he lives. When an arahant ‘or worldly person were to die, as depicted in the suttas, people would some- times come to the Buddha asking about that dead person's consciousness. ‘The Buddha would specify where the deceased's consciousness went, but in case of the dead arahants, he would state that the arahans's conscious- ress became non-perceptibl. Further, from the sutta descriptions itis evident that consciousness persists if there is an object for it to hold. In other words, consciousness persists ‘when formations are there. At SN I, 65-6, it is stated:, “That which one intends (cece) and that which one plans to do (pakappeti) and that which lies dormant and continually crops up (anuseti) ~ this becomes an object, for the persistence of consciousness. The object being there, there comes to be a station of consciousness (arammane sati patitthi vinanassa hot). Consciousness being stationed and growing, rebirth of renewed existence takes place in future, and here from birth, decay and death, grief, lament- ing, is the uprising of this entire mass of ill. Even if one does not intend and plan to do, and yet something lies dormant and crops up, this too be~ comes an object for the persistence of consciousness .... whence birth takes place ... (no ce... cezeti no ce pakappeti atha anuseti drammanam ‘tam hoti vinifanassa). But if one neither intends, plans to do, nor is any- thing lies dormant, hence nothing crops up. there is no becoming of an ‘abject for the persistence of consciousness. This object being absent, there ‘comes to be no station of consciousness. Consciousness not being stationed not growing, no rebirth of fenewed becoming takes place in future, and hhere-from birth, decay-and-death, grief ... despair cease. Such isthe ceas- ‘ng of this entire mass of il." The references here to cereti, pakappeti, and 18GA, Somarame ‘anuseti are to volitive formations. Thus consciousness based on kamma and sensory formations becomes established ina life and continues to ex- ist. Since consciousness is present ina living arahant undisturbed by the activities of citta, one may justifiably ask on what basis this consciousness continues. Although both kammic and ego formations are no longer in 4arahant, feeling, perception, respiration, speech, and other types of bodily and verbal activities do persist. In brief, arahants live until their physical death due to these very basic physical, verbal and mental activities or for- ‘mations in life. On the basis of these formations, in arahants, conscious- ‘ness continues to exist until their death or complete nibbna(parinibbane), AUDN I, 68-9, seven stations of consciousness (viifanatthitiyo) or places where consciousness manifest are listed: there are beings who differ in both body and perception (nanartakaya nanattasafifino) such as humans, some heavenly beings and some hell beings; there are beings who differ in body but equal in perception (ndnattakaya ekattasaritino) such as the first born gods of the Brahma world: there are beings who are equal in body but different in perception (ekattakaya nénattasaiino) such as the Radiant ‘gods; there are beings who are equal in both body and perception (ekattakayi ekattasafiino) such as All illuminating gods; there are beings reborn in the sphere of Boundless Space; there are beings reborn in the sphere of Boundless Consciousness; and there are beings reborn in the sphere of Nothingness. These seven, it seems, are the realms where the worldly con- sciousness journeys on. However, with the death of arahant his conscious- ness finds no footing in any of the seven realms for arahant's conscious- ness disappears. In the human world of experience there is a mixture of pleasure (sukha) and suffering (dukkha). Importantly itis not a balance between the two. ‘Thus consciousness comes to contact with not only pleasure but also pain. As itis explained at SN II, 70, when consciousness contacts pleasure, it goes after pleasure, falls into pleasure, and avoids pain (vititanam sukham ‘sukhinupatitam sukhavakkantam anavakkhantam dukkhens). People there- fore cling to and lust for consciousness (viiiAanasmim sérajjant); due to clinging and lust, they are in bondage (sardga sarifujjanti); due to being bondage, they become defiled (safiggd samkilissant). This is the caus this is the condition for being defiled. Therefore, people become corrupt due to causes and conditions (sehetu sappaccaya santa samkilissant). In the same way, when consciousness faces pain, it goes after pain, falls into 182 Citta, manas and vinnana,.. ain, and avoids pleasure (viltfanam dukkham dukhdnupatitam Gukkhavakkantam anavakkantam sukhena). Therefore, people become dis- jnterested in consciousness (viifldpasmim nibbindanti), Due to disinterest, they detach (nibbindam virajjant) and due to being detached, they purify themselves (virded visujihanti) In this way, when consciousness contacts pleasure, itcould be taken to further becoming and in turn, to further expe- riencing of suffering, but when consciousness contacts pain, it may turn t0 the path of purification. This illustrates also the importance of realizing the factor of suffering, the first noble truth, for the attainment of nibbaina ‘As explained at AN I, 236, for those who are free from craving (tanhakkhayavinttiqn, with the cessation of consciousness, there comes eeto-vimutti or concentration-freedom. This is freedom from craving and it is expressed in a simile of extinguishing the light of a lamp (vifii@nassa nirodhena tanhakkhayavimuttino, pajjotasseva nibbdnam vimokho hoti eetaso), Six Bodies of Consciousness ‘When it operates based on the objects received from senses, conscious- sess isthe sphere of sensory and perceptive awareness, Its our ‘sensing things. At MN I, 53-4, such functions of consciousness is classified in terms of the folowing si bodies (vittnataya:eye-consiousness 1-viina), ear-consciousness, nose-consciousness, tongue-con- oases oly psoas, ‘and manas-consciousness. Each body of consciousness is identified in terms of the basis on which it operates. As stated at MN I, 256-7, consciousness arises conditionally and if conditions ‘were to be not there, it does not become. Consciousness is the process of being conscious of something. Reat (1990: 303) puts it, “Without an object (arammana), vititéna does not arise or “become established” (parttha), Given an object, it arises conditioned by that object. The nature of vidiiana at any given time is determined by the nature ofits object.” However, it must be noted here tha it is not the object that solely determines the nature of consciousness for consciousness is also being perfumed by the passive ‘operations of cit. ‘As shown at MN'I, 258 a monk called Siti once misunderstood conscious- ness by assuming it to be permanent, something which travels from one life to the next without being subject to change (tad evidam vifiidnam sandhavati samsarati anafiiam). He had also assumed that consciousness 183GA. Somarame enjoys the results of good and bad actions (yvayam ... vado vadeyya tatra tatra kalyanapapakanam kammanam vipakam patisamvedi ti). The Bud- dha intervened and corrected his misunderstanding by stating that con- sciousness arises due to causes and conditions; hence it arises depend- ently; without conditions there is no arising of consciousness (paticcasamuppannam vitikanam ... aiidatra paccaya natthi viniénassa sambhavo). Just as fire is named from that in dependence on which it bums ~ for example, log-fire, chip-fire, grass-fire, cow-dung-fire, husk-fire, and rubbish-fire ~ in the same way, consciousness is named from that in de~ pendence on which it comes into being. ‘Commenting on Sati’s issue, Hoffman (1987: 62) correctly says that, “in the sutta where Sati is chided for holding that consciousness fares on, what is rejected is the idea that this same consciousness, not another, continues, suggesting that Sati mistook visiAana as aéman, Thus it is not that the sutta rejects the continuance of a psychic element as such, but that it rejects diumavda.” As shown at SN IV, 166-7, once answering a question raised by Udayin, Ananda, a disciple of the Buddha, clarified a method by which ‘the Buddha had explained to him that this consciousness is without a self (vitfidnam anata). Owing to eye and visual object arises eye-conscious- ness (cakkhuii ca paticca ripe ca uppaijati cakkhuitttanam), doe it not, friend?" “Yes, friend.” “Well, ifthe condition, if the cause for arising of eye-consciousness should altogether, in every way, utterly come to cease without remainder, would any eye-consciousness be evident’ (yo ca .. ‘hetu yo ca paccayo cakkhuvinitdnassa uppadaya so ca hetu s0.ca paccayo sabbena sabbam sabbatha sabbam apariseso nirujjheyya api nu kho cakkhuvinna “Surely not, friend.”” Similarly, at this conversation, Ananda demonstrated the dependent nature of consciousness that operates based on senses. Then he concluded, “Well, friend, it is by th ‘method that the Fortunate One has explained, opened up, and shown that this consciousness is without a self.” ‘Under the category of consciousness, the Buddha presented to Sati six functional aspects of consciousness based ou the six senses. In the ‘Chachakkasutta at MN IH, 281, the six sensory functions of consciousness are given in terms of six bodies of consciousness (cha vifinanakdya). Ac cording to this sutta, each consciousness is so identified depending on the respective base on which it arises. For instance, visual consciousness arises regarding material shapes on the basis of eye; the auditory consciousness 184 arises regarding sounds on the basis of ear; the olfactory consciousness arises tegarding smells on the basis of nose; the gustatory consciousness arises regarding tastes on the basis of tongue; the bodily consciousness arises regarding touch on the basis of physical body; and the manas-con- sciousness arises regarding mental states on the basis of manas. De Silva (1979: 19) says that “ vind in these contexts may be rendered as cogni- tive consciousness.” However, since there are many operational aspects af consciousness, this particular aspect could also be termed as sensory ‘consciousness. ‘The arising of consciousness of external objects on the basis of internal sense faculties is highly significant in understanding bondage and free- dom. As explained at MN TI, 281-2, the union of consciousness, extemal ‘objects, and internal senses, is called the arising of contact. It is on the basis of contact, the factor of feeling arises. Then depending on feeling, craving comes to be. As pointed out at SN Il, 72, when craving arises, itis the arising of bondage and suffering (dukkhassa samudayo). It is through the eradication of craving that one becomes free. In this sense, the sensory consciousness plays a significant role in the process of one’s being in -samsdra.s well as one's attaining nibbana (dukkhakkhandhassa nirodho). Manas ‘As defined at MN I, 52-3, manas is clearly @ sense organ (aatana) analo- gous tothe five senses of eye, ear, nose, tongue, and body. Just as one sees ‘through eye and hears through ear, so one knows things through manas. Consciousness together with manas and the mental images comes to gen- efate manas-consciousness. Therefore, manasis a sense faculty, and manas- ‘consciousness is an operation of consciousness based on manas and men- {al images. Hoffman (1987: 48) clarifies this relationship between the two in following terms: “here the relationship between vifiadna and manas is one of genus to species: manas is atype of vipa, the part of the person's ‘awareness which has to do with thinking.” Thus, manas is a sense faculty in its own right and manas-consciousness is a function of consciousness ‘based on that sense faculty. It must also be noted that both manas-con- sciousness and consciousness as a whole function also being perfumed by citza. It seems possible to consider manas as the mental portion of the ‘brain together with its activities. However, it is depending on psycho- ‘corporeality that the sense base of manas along with other séhse bases 185GA. Somarane Cita, manas and viiina.. arises (ndmaripapaccaya saldyatanam), and that itis with the cessation of psycho-corporeality the sense base of manas and other sense bases cease (ndmaripanirodha salayatananirodho). At MN 1, 52, manas is named as one of six bodies of communication (phassakay). Manas functions just like the other senses (cakkhusamphassa ... manosamphassa). For instance, due to the arising of six sense bases. the six sense contacts that include. ‘manas-contact (mano-samphassa) arise (salayatana-samudaya phassa- | samudayo), and with the cessation of sense bases, manas-contact also ceases together with those of others (salayatana-nirodha phassa-nirodho), “foti), where external mental data (abamma) come into focus (bahia ca “ jhamma dpatham dgacchanti), and where the appropriate bringing together {i (ajlo ca samannaharo hoti), then there isthe appearance of the related section of consciousness (evam tajjassa viffidna-bhagassa patubhavo hoti). ‘The related section of consciousness referred here is the consciousness that operates on the basis of manas, that is manas-consciousness. Simi- larly for the arising of other types of consciousness that arise based on ther senses, the undamaged senses, the external sense objects, and the attention must be present. In other words, when both the undamaged inter- inal senses and the external sense objects come into contact together with 4m the enlightened person, manas appears and functions just as the other @ swention, then the relevant sense consciousness arises. senses. That is why enlightened one is also able to see forms, hear sounds, and know things. The attainment of enlightenment does not mean the dis- appearance of manas, but itis the disappearance of defilements from citra (camvifjati kho bhagavato mano, jandti bhagava manasa dhammam, chandarago bhagavato natthi, suvimuttacisto bhagava: SN TV, 164-5). ‘Commenting on manas, Reat (1990: 294) writes: “The predominant Bud- + hist tendency isto list manas as a sixth sense, on a par with the other five, but its separate status as sensus communis is also recognized, ... Again, ‘manas in Buddhism is more than merely sensus communis, for itis said 0 function independently ofthe five empirical senses in certain of the higher ‘meditational absorptions. As the most versatile perpetual faculty, manas is “functional at all levels of perceptual consciousness, which in Buddhist _ scheme, must invariably have an object. Whenever the object of conscious- _ ness is non-physical, as, for example, in these higher (arpa) absorptions, the faculty by which itis perceived is manas.” The identification of manas as the sensus communis is evident from the suttas but this does not mean that manas is active only when one senses through the five sense faculties. On the contrary, manas functions because of the mental data that are al- ready deposited in citta. At SN I, 16, itis stated that the five strands of sensuality in the world become known to us through manas. By abandon- ing desire that is in them one becomes liberated from suffering (pat cakimaguna loke mano chattha pavedita, ettha chandam virdjetva evam dukkha pamuccat ‘Manas is recognized at SN V, 218 as the sense faculty that becomes a relief (patisarana) for the other sense faculties. Mindfulness (sati) is mentioned as the relief for manas (manassa kho ... sati patixaranam). Perhaps, this is so becauise itis through mindfulness that manas could individually and leisurely respond to its own mental images and memories and also to the sense data that flow in through the five senses. Manas functions as the center of the brain that enjoys the subject-fields of other sense faculties. This is expressed at SN V, 218 as follows: “the five sense organs each have their own object, their own domain and do not experience the object-do- ‘main of their neighbor, but manas is their resort and experiences the object domain of them all.” Commenting on this sutta formula, E. Lamotte (1988: 30) says: “the eye perceives only the visible, the ear only the sound, while ‘manas grasps, as well as its own object, the objects ofthe other five senses ‘and those senses themselves.” Guenther (1974:16) points out that ““en- Joying’ [paccanubhoti} of their fields and objects by the manas, would signify that the material presented by the senses to the perceiving subject is arranged, ordered, and interpreted in a certain way.” Johansson (1979: 84) says that manas, “the inner sense’, is described as a father independent center which can produce thoughts but also feelings and wishes. It can therefore not always easily be distinguished from cit, “the mind.’ Its main function is, however, to experience or produce ‘dhamma” The meaning of the term dhamma in this context is identified __ by Johansson as “image,” “mental process,” “phenomenon,” “thing.” He "says further that dhammd refers mainly to “images produced by memory “4nd imagination and not based on simultaneous extemal stimuli.” Then, Manas always deals with the mental data (dhamma). In the words of Guenther (1974: 19), “receiving the sensum is the very activity of the ‘manas.” Due tothe interaction between manas and mental data, there arises manas-consciousness. It is stated at MN I, 191, when there is a situation of where internal manas is not damaged (ajjhattiko ceva mano aparibhinno 186 187GA. Somaraine according to Johansson (1979: 84), “one of the special functions of manas is to produce such “free’ images.” eat is correct in saying that whenever the object of consciousness is im- ‘material, the sense faculty by which those immaterial objects are perceived ismanas. This is also evident from the first two verses of the Dhammapada where it states that manas is the forerunner of the mental data (manopubbar\gama dhamina). Is their chief (manosettha) and those mental ata are made by manas (manomay.d). Again, this is clearly defined at AN 1, 11 where it is stated that manas also leads the mental data that are Unskillfal, connected with the unskilful, siding with the unskilful as well as skillfl, connected with the skillful, siding with the skilful (ye keci dhamma akusala akusalabhagiya akusalapakkhika sabe te ‘manopubbarigama). The term dhamma is synonymous to the all (sabba) and the world (loka). Therefore, that manas is the forerunner, chief, and producer of dfkammameans that itis the forerunner, chief, and producer of the world of perception and conceptualization. This is because the world wwe know is a world perceived, multiplied, and colored by the sense per- ception with manas as its head. Upacala bhikkiuni states at SN I, 133 that now her manas remains where Mira or the evil forces have no access, that i, inthe state of non-shaken, nnon-moving, associated with non-worldlings (agati yattha Marassa tattha ‘me nirato mano). This statement hints that now she is an arahant whose ‘manas.is uninfluenced by cizta with its operations of craving and grasping. ‘The taking care of citta is important because, as it is stated at AN I, 262, when one has guarded citta, all bodily, verbal, and manas-actions are suarded as well (citte rakkhite kaya/vact/nano-kammam pi rakkhitam hot). ‘A AN I, 272-3, itis explained that what it means by stich expressions as ‘manas-washing (mano-soceyya) and manas-silence (mano-moneyya). To understand completely the five obstructions ~ namely sensual desire (kamacchands), ill-will (vyapada), sloth and torpor (thinainiddha), rest- lessness and scruples (uddhacca-kukkucca), and skeptical doubts (vicikiccha) ~ is what is meant by manas-washing; to attain both concen tration-freedom (cetovimutt?) and wisdom-freedom (panavimutt) is what is meant by the manas-silence. Someone who is in the state of both con- ccentration-freedom and wisdom-freedom is also called one who has si- enced cero (cetomuni) without having any cankers (kdyamunim vacamunim cetomunim andsavam). In other words, manas is active when there are 188 Citta, manas and vinnie. ~ jnfluxes or defilements. When citta is free from defilements it becomes "non-active. Both manas-washing and manas-silence are explained together _ with body-washing, and mouth-washing as well as body-silence and mouth- silence. As indicated in the Uplisutta at MN T, 37, the Buddha pats more emphasis on the deed of manas than on those of body and speech: “I lay down that the deed of manas is the more blamable ... deed of the physical body is not like it, deed of speech is not like it.” Again, the Buddha puts ‘emphasis on the deeds of manas, not on the results ofthe deeds of manas— ‘which often manifest through verbal and physical activities. Citta ‘Citta, which represents the passive mental operations in terms of accurnu- lating and accumulated memories and karmic forces, has another word form known as ceta. Both derive from the same verbal root cit (to think): ‘it > cint > cinteti(v) > citta (nt, N; cit > cet > ceteti(v) > ceto (nt. NY. _ Etymologically, then, both are past participles, meaning ‘thought’, and they ‘are used in the suttas referring to the same psychical and emotional opera- tions. The main focus of the Buddhist spiritual path is cita for it is the source of bondage as well as the source of liberation. The primacy of citta in the Buddhist religion is widely noted. Karunaratne (172-3), for exam- ple, says: “if cita is the cradle and vehicle of bondage and misery (dukkha), itis also the means and locus of full enlightenment (sambodhi) and eman- cipation (nibtiind).” Again, Guenther (1974:15) writes: “The importance ‘of citta —attitude— whether it tends to become involved in samsara or whether it tends to find its fulfillment and expression in nirvana, is the key to the Buddhist philosophy and psychology.” Considering, perhaps, its importance to Buddhist soteriology, the suttas ‘make a clear distinction between individual and his citta. One can observe and identify not only one’s citta, but also, though in some cases, cirtas of ‘thers. One can change and transform one’s citta. Johansson (1979:159) says, “there is frequently a clear distinction between "me" and “my citta’.” As recorded at MN I, 218-9, Sariputta once said: “The monk who brings citta under his control, not him under the control of citta, could live switch- ___ ing whatever attainments of dwelling he wishes to live, for example, in the morning one attainment, at noon another, and in the evening another, just as a king changes his clothes as he wishes: in the morning one dress, in the evening another, at night another.” A passage at MN I, 206 also makes a 189GA. Somaramne clear distinction between oneself and one’s citta. It is said that to have a peaceful living one must put aside one’s own citta conforming it to cittas of others. People living in such a peaceful setting are like having many bodies with one cirta. The following passage at MN I, 511 also identifies T and my citta: “For a long time indeed I have been defrauded, deceived, and cheated by this citta, for I have been collecting corporeality, feeling, per- ception, formations, and consciousness. Conditioned by this collection there ‘was growth in me,” In this context, Johansson (1979:159) observes correctly that “here citta is = made responsible for all the false values and activities that keep the paticcasamuppada {Dependent Co-asising] development going.” Thus citta is made responsible for human behavior, for with its karma-formations and defilements, citta disturbs physical, verbal, and manas-activities. It distorts sense perception by bringing to it such ego notions as I, my and | mine. At SN I, 39, worldly person is depicted as a victim of his citta. The world is led and carried away by citta and craving (tapha) towards either the continuation of rebirths or the ending of rebirths, It is the mastery of, citta that transforms worldly persons into conquerors of the world. En- lightened ones know how to control and guide their cizta without allowing Citta to guide them. As citta of the worldly person consists of worldly contents, it always quivers when that person confronts the world, ‘The worldly person's citta is often scattered and unsettled dite to its nega- tive and defiled contents and functions. As recorded in the suttas, there are many defiling factors of citta, which affect all aspects of person’s behavior. Among them, greed, hatred, and delusion are the basics. As stated at AN I, 156-8, worldly person who is afflicted with greed, hatred, and delusion, always thinks harmfully and he misbehaves physically, verbally, and men- tally towards himself and others for he knows not how to bring benefits to both. In addition to these three, at MN T, 36-37, the following sixteen im- pediments of citta are found: covetousness (abhijjhavisamalobha), ma- levolence (byapada), anger (kodha), malice (panda), hypocrisy (makkha), spite (palasa), envy (ised), stinginess (macchariya), deceit (maya), treach- ety (sdpheyya), and obstinacy (thambha). In the Upakkilesasutta at MN Ill, 161-2, the Buddha explained how he had got rid of some forms of defile- ‘ment even before starting his religious practice that led him to the cultiva- tion of concentration (samédhi). Among them are found skeptical doubt, lack of proper attention, sloth and torpor, distress, too much energy, too 190 Citta, manas and. vintina feeble energy, perception of diversity, and being too intent on material shapes, The corrupt nature of citta is often described in the suttas meta- phorically. In his study on citta in the suttas, Karunaramne (172) describes the morally unwholesome citta as: “being sick, cortupt, stained, depraved ‘and impure, obsessed, longing, eager, greedy and unsteady, unbalanced, disturbed, agitated and shaken, clinging, sticking, slow, sluggish and dull, difficult to direct on a steady course, wavering, wandering, straying, and confused, debased, low, beaten, afflicted, upset and unhinged, defiled, cor- rupt and tarnished, malevolent, swerving, swaying, staggering and deviat- ing, and bound and fettered.” These words also describe the general char- acter of the person, For the practitioner itis important to understand one’s character, the eut= rent state of citta as it is the criterion for judging one’s present predica- ment as well as future destiny. If one’s citta is defiled he is definitely a ‘worldly person; if it is completely and permanently pure he isa liberated saint (SN II, 151). The corrupt citta paves the way for beings to be born in Jower realms; similarly, the pleasant (pasdds) citta makes it possible for beings to be born in higher realms (AN I, 8-9). It must be noted here that ven though Buddhism identifies the nature of citta asthe deciding factor jn the process of rebirth, it is vintiana perfumed by citta that acts as ‘ebirth-linking factor Purification of Citta ‘The purification of citta isto be done by following a gradual and progres- sive path, First, one must be rightfully mindful and then he could sit in meditation as a “moral being,” who has developed a good character, guarded his senses, and is now living mindfully and responsibly. As 2 moral being the adept goes to a quiet place and sits properly and meiditates mindfully [At this point he tries (o maintain his citta devoid of greed. and by doing so he purifies citta from greed; he maitains a benevolent citta giving up ma- levolence, and becomes compassionate towards all beings, and thus he purifies citta from malevolence. (On the basis of purified cirta, adept can acquire higher forms of knowl- ‘edge such as psycho-kinesis, clairaudience, telepathy, retro-cognition, cla _ yoyance, and knowledge in destroying cankers (DN I, 82-83). Early texts - categorically state that itis only in the concentrated citfa that higher 191GA. Somarame ‘mental states (dhimma) manifest. This manifestation implies both the at- ‘ainments of higher states and the completion of a diligent and progressive religious life (SN V, 398-9). Such a developed form of citta is also known as adhicitta or higher citta, When citta is developed to the extent that one can abide in the fourth form-state, itis called a higher-citta. In the fourth form-state, adept dwells spreading purified citta throughout is body, and itis said that there is no part in his body, untouched by this purified citta (MN 1, 277-278). This shows how the purified citta affect the whole per- sonality, just like the impure one does. ‘The fourth form-state belongs to higher-citta. A text (MN I, 33) states that for attaining fourth form-state, one should engage in internal tranquility of citta, fulfill morality, engage in constant meditation and endow with in- sight, As stated in the suttas, with the attainment of fourth form-state,citta becomes composed, purified, unstained, soft, pliable, and imperturbable. Based on such a state of eitta, the practitioner directs his citta for gaining the knowledge of remembering his own former dwellings, and often be- ‘comes successful in gaining that knowledge (MN I, 278-280). Similarly he directs purified citta for gaining knowledge regarding death, birth, and rebirth of other beings; he is able to gain divine eye and perceive that the dead are reborn according to their kamma. Then, the meditator directs his citta for gaining knowledge in destroying cankers; upon attaining it, he is able to ascertain suffering, its arising, its cessation, and the way leading to its cessation. He is also able to ascertain impurities, their arising, their cessation, and the way leading to their cessation. When he thus knows and perceives, his citta becomes free from impurities; he realizes that he is ‘now an arahant who has stopped the cycle of birth and death Indications are there to show that there is a clear distinction between citta and wisdom (pada). However, if we accept the arising and development of the five spiritual faculties of faith, energy, mindfulness, concentration and wisdom in one's citta, then it is possible to decide that wisdom is a positive aspect of citta which gives one release from the cycle of birth and death. That isto say, citta is a hroader category where wisdom is an aspect of it. The distinction between citta and wisdom is useful in understanding the difference between two types of freedom presented in the suttas: con- ccentration-freedom (cefo-vimuati) and. wisdom-freedom (partavimutt, Wisdom-freedom means freedom from ignorance, that is to be attained through the practice of insizht-meditation. Concentration-freedom is citta’s 192 freedom from craving, and itis to be attained mainly through the practice of serenity-meditation. A sutta at AN I, 61 states that concentration-free- dom is gained with the absence of lust because cia defiled by lust is not free, To eliminate lust, one must cultivate tranquility for itis tranquility that develops ctta. It is also stated that, wisdom-freedom is gained by the absence of ignorance because wisdom defiled by ignorance is not devel- oped. Therefore, for developing wisdom, ignorance must be eradicated. ‘This must be done through the development of insight. In this way, a rela- tionship of citta, lust tranquility, development of citta and concentration- freedom, on the one hand, and wisdom, ignorance, insight, development of ‘wisdom, and wisdom-freedom on the other is identified. In an ordinary person, to say it in ordinary terms, wisdom is covered by ignorance, To attain wisdom-freedom, one must destroy ignorance through the practice of insight. When one practices insight, his-wisdom is devel- ‘oped dissolving the limitations and boundaries imposed by ignorance. For this reason, the Buddha has encouraged his disciples to develop both citta ‘and wisdom, If the Buddha had understood only the concentration-free- dom, he would not have encouraged his disciples to develop wisdom. Since he had recognized a cognitive problem of ignorance, he put forward wis- dom-freedom as a solution. Thus, in the suttas, not only citta and wisdom have clearly been distinguished but also their equal status, importance, and relations have also been indicated, provided the context indicates that citta means concentration endowed with spiritual qualities resulting from purging impurities. ‘Sometimes, the development of citta is understood in terms of form-states or jinas for jhanas are developed states of citta. For instance, when the Dihammapada (¥72) recognizes this division, it says that “in whom there is _jhana and wisdom, he indeed stands near nibbaina.” In this case the devel- ‘oped citta is replaced with jhdna. In some suttas, the developed citta is identified as concentration (samadhi). For instance, the arahant is often described by emphasizing both wisdom and coricenttation. A sutta at SN I, 53 cefers to arahant as “the wise eadowed with concentration.” Buddhaghosa, the well-known commentator of the Theravida tradition, __wrote his Visuddhimagga while recognizing the importance of both citta | and wisclom in the Buddhist spiritual path, The verse that became the the- __ Sis for his text appears at SN I, 13; 165, with two other connected verses. 193,GA. Somarane The three verses state that the wise person being firmed on‘virtue should cultivate both citta and wisdom. By doing so, the ardent clever practitioner ‘will be able to disernbroil the tangle. The pure arahants whose lust, hatred, and ignorance are vanished, have already disentangled the tangle. Where ‘nama and ripa cease completely and also the perception of impact and form, there that tangle is destroyed. Thus the three verses give an interest- ing relation between citta, development of citta, and lust and hatred, on the ‘one hand, and the wisdom, development of wisdom, and ignorance on the ‘other, What is evident is that wisdom aspect of citta is to be developed to attained enlightenment and this could be done after generating concen- tration by purifying citta from negative aspects and enriching it with positive ones, ‘When they are free from defiling factors, both citta and wisdom are bright, light, shining, and radiant. As mentioned above, a sutta at AN I, 10 states that cita that is free from adventitious defilements is shinning. Again an- other sutta at SN I, 6 states that “there is no light similar to wisdom.” Concentration-freedom refers to the manifestation of bright, shining, un- troubled citza that has formerly been covered with lust and other defile- ments. Wisdom-freedom refers to the freedom from ignorance that comes with the comprehension of reality through insight. A sutta at MN I, 437 also states that some adepts become citfa-liberators (cetovimuttin) or those ‘who have attained the concentration-freedom and others wisdom-libera- tots (pariavimuatin) or those who have attained the wisdom-freedom, due to differences in faculties. Again at AN I, 61, a sutta states that concentra- tion-freedom results from serenity (samatha), and that wisdom-freedom from insight (jpassand). The suttas explain these two types of freedom in terms of well-released citta (suvimuatacitta) and well-released wisdom (suvinautta-pafiia). For instance, at AN V, 31-32, it states that one is called cone with well-released citta for his citta is free from lust, hatred, and delu- sion and one is called one with well-teleased wisdom (suvimuttapafiia) for he understands tha his lust, hatred, and delusion have completely been vanished. Thus when ciza is used along with wisdom, eitta must mean a developed form of concentration on which wisdom, a positive aspect of citta, arises. Citta and Psycho-corporeality ‘The suttas expound a close relation between ndma (psyche) and citta and 194 Cito, manas and vinniina also between corporeaity (rijpa) and the physical body (kaya). More spe- cifically, itis possible to identify citta with nama and the physical body with corporeality (riipa). Although they are interdependent and intercon- nected, in the suttas consciousness (viaana) and namma-ripa are separately identified. The suttas also see a distinction between consciousness and citta. Both citta and consciousness together with manas form the mind of the individual in distinction of his physical body. All ndma-factors such as feeling, perception and formations, deliberation (cetand), and karma-ac- tions that constitute ndma ofthe individual are heavily represented by the ‘contents and functions of citta. Considering its connection to nama-fac- tors, citta could be understood to represent that aspect of the mind that accumulates, gathers, and deposits all forms of formations and karmic ac- tions that are both positive and negative and also meritorious, de-meritori- ‘ous, and imperturbable. With these mental operations, citta supplies karma- fuel to consciousness and empowers consciousness to. make the link be- ‘oveen this life and the next. ‘The textual sources confirm that for the most part both citta and nana are the same. Citta is part of ndma-rjpa, hence itarises and ceases mainly with the arising and ceasing of nama-nipa (SN V, 184). Although conscious- fess and ndmz-ripa differ from each other, they are interdependent and interconnected. Nama-rfpa itself comes to be because of the arising of consciousness, and hence with the cessation of consciousness, naima-ripa ceases (MN I, 53). As it is stated in a verse of the Suttanipata (1037); “T ‘shall tell you wherein ndma-rijpa is completely stopped. By the stopping ‘of consciousness, therein this (ndmra-rfpa) is stopped.” This also means ‘that with the cessation of consciousness mama-ripa ceases, that is, citta that is mainly connected with and part of dma also ceases. ‘What are the reasons to think that citta is part of ndma-ripa, or even it is {just nama? Of nama-ripa, nama is understood in the classification of five ‘personality aggregates, to be the aggregates of feeling, perception, and formations. These nima-funetions are also found to be the functions of Citta, A textual passage at SN TV, 293. for instance, names both perception ‘and feeling as activities of cita (citta-sarikhara). The reason for this iden- {ification is that the two are factors of citta (cerasika) and are bound with "Gitta, This identification is also confirmed at MN 1, 301 where three types, of formations are identified: activities of citta (citta-sarikhara), ofthe physi- al body (aya-sankhara), and of speech (vact-sarkhatra). In this context, 195GA. Somaramne inbreathing (assése) and out-breathing (passasa) are named as activities of physical body; applied thought (vitakka) and sustained thought (vicara) as. activities of speech; and finally, perception (said) and feeling (vedana) as activities of citta. Thus it is clear that formations are connected with both rdpa and nama. Physical and verbal activities are the formations that are connected with rijpa, and citta-acivities are the formations that are also connected with nama. In addition, elsewhere itis stated that feeling is twofold: physical (Aayika) and mental (cetasika). Accordingly both feeling and formations are con- nected with both ndma and ripa. This linkage and the relation between zndma and ripa are very evident from the compounded usage: nama-rdpa. From this it could also be concluded: Both cita and kaya are interdepend- cent and mutually influence each other; citta and nama are for the most part identical; kaya and ripa are identical as well Here I turn to clarify the relation between citta and kaya. The relationship between these two is explained in the suttas through different means. Citta and Aaya are closely connected and when they interact, they affect each other. For instance, when kaya of a worldly person is weak, his citta also inclines to be weak. However, the Buddha’s advice is that even in case of physical weakness one should train oneself to keep one’s citta healthy and strong. The Buddha once advised a disciple (SN IIL, 1): "Though my kaya is sick, my citta shall not be sick’ — thus must you train yourself.”” It is believed that one becomes both physically and mentally weak and ill due to the assumption of a permanent self with regard to the five aggregates. Even when one aspect ofthe five aggregates changes, the person often gets, ‘mentally ill. One who does not have any regard for a permanent self is always mentally healthy, even though he may have a physical illness. A sutta passage at SN IIL, 3 states: “The uninstructed people regard body {rapa as the self, the self as having body, body as being in the self, the self fas being in the body. They say “I am the body, the body is mine,’ and become possessed by this idea; and by being so possessed by this idea, when the body alters and changes owing to the unstable and changing na- ture ofthe body, then sorrow and grief, woe, lamentation, and despair arise inther.” The suttas thus identify the arising of sorrow, grief, woe, lamen- tation, and despair with the sickened citta. This identification of cia with ‘various forms of suffering coincides with the suttas’ recognition of feeling as an activity of citta (safiia ea vedand ca cittasanikhdrd), and suffering as 196 _ Citta, manas and visa a feeling (dukkha vedand). A sutta at SN II 8 also states that cita of those who have already given up attachment to the five aggregates is pure and healthy. ‘The relationship between citta and Aaya could also be seen from a sutta at SN V, 282-4 where the miracle powers of cita are described. This context, shows the Buddha recollecting his journey to the Brahma-world with his ‘kaya developed through citta. When Ananda commended the Buddha for this extra-ordinary ability of traveling with his kdyato a’Brahma-world of the formless-realm, the Buddha indicated that this is not something at which to wonder as far as Tathagata’ (liberated person’s) abilities are concerned, ‘Then he explained to Ananda how a Tathagata is able to do that. With the help of the developed citta the Tathagata could lift up his kya into the air. “ust as an iron ball, if heated all day Jong, becomes lighter and softer, more plastic and more radiant, just so, whenever the Tathagata concen- trates kayain citta, and concentrates citta in kaya, then, as he enters on and abides with the idea of bliss and lightness with regard to kaya, his kaya ‘with but litte effort rises up from the ground into the air.” Again, the Bud- dha informed Ananda another miracle event in which he went to a Brahma- ‘world by a manas made body. Again a sutta at MN II, 100-103 states that if person were to arouse citta and develops it continuously, one day he could be what his citta is all about. For instance, a person thinks that, “at the breaking up of kaya after dying I might arise in companionship with the gods who have reached the sphete of neither-perception-nor-non-perception.” Thus the person fixes, resolves and develops his citta for this. These formations, this insistence ‘of him, s0 developed and emphasized, conduce to uprising there. In sup- ‘Porting this, a sutta at SN V, 370 states that while kaya becomes food for ‘animals at death, citta developed in terms of faith, morality, learning, giv= ing, and wisdom goes upwards in a special journey. ‘It must be noted here that according to the suttas, it is consciousness that fitks one life of the worldly person with a next, and upon his death the ‘arahant’s consciousness disappears. In the context where itis stated meta- photically that cia goes upwards in a special journey, the reference of ‘going upwards isto a well-developed citta, When citta of the individual is developed to a certain higher level, its state of existence equals to a state of the form realm or the formless-realm. For instance, the progressive 197GA. Somaraine attainment of form and formless-states alters progressively the state of ‘one's citta. Therefore, care must be taken not to confuse this progressive citta of a liberated person with consciousness of a worldly person. It is consciousness that links individual's death and birth and again birth and death. Can consciousness survive without nama-ripa personality? There is no mention of this consciousness surviving even for @ moment without the support of ndma-nipa personality. There is no theory of disembodied ex- istence. Consciousness survives only if established in a new ndma-ripa personality. Continuity is maintained on the basis ofthe mime personality Person’s knowledge of his past depends on consciousness. It is said that consciousness often depends upon memory (sari), particularly in the ab- sence of the five sense objects. The sari is also connected with or part of citta. The suttas state that consciousness is conditioned by dispositions (sankharapaccaya viniiénam). Dispositions are the contents and functions of citta. Knowledge of one’s past (pubbenivasanussatt-retro-cognition) follows in the wake of memory (DN I, 134). The consciousness function- ing in the wake of memory (satanusari vititapam) enables a person to have knowledge of the past (atitamaddhanam) (Kalupahana 1992:41). Thus, consciousness is the conveyor of the information of the past. As itis stated at SN I, 122, consciousness of the entightened one ot arahant finds no support (patttha) in a new ndma-rijpa personality because he has no crav- ing for becoming. Therefore, for the arahant, there is no rebirth (natthi dni punabbhavo). ‘The suttas recognize formations as part of nama; these formations are also named as citta-activities. A sutta at SN IIT, 60 explains formations in terms of six bodies of deliberation (cetand), showing the connection of forma- tions to citta, Thus the formations are the deliberations for form, sound, smell, taste, touch, and mental images. Deliberation isthe state of eita in action. It isa function of cirta based on desire and craving, Its essentially a drive, an impulse motivated by one’s inherent needs. It is a subjective involvement in perception and feeling, and itis a type of formation, Guenther (1974:41) states, “That which arouses and sustains activity on the part of the human psyche is called cetand”” The spring of all moral conduct is ‘one’s inner will or cetand. The willed or volitional act (saiicetanikam 198 Cita, manas and vitiiina, kammamy) alone is ethically significant. The moral quality of an act lies in the intention behind it. “It is intention that I call kamma” (cerandham kammare vadami), says that Buddha at AN III, 415. The intensity ofthe act, depends on the extent to which it is performed deliberately (saficicca). Intention or cetand can only be virtuous or wicked. According to the suttas, action is really mental. Doing a good act is actually purifying one’s state of mind. It is a pwfifa-kamma. Buddha gave a causal account of kamma. As Kalupahana states (Kalupahana: 1976: 46-47), according to early Buddhism, behavior of man is determined by one of three factors: external stimuli, conscious motives, and unconscious motives. External stimuli is presented in the texts when it is stated that contact is the cause of behavior (phasso kamménam nidana-sambhavo). The example to clarify this is that an in- ‘nocent little baby lying on its back quickly draws back its hand or foot if it happens to touch alive ember. Such behavior is unmotivated (asaficetanika/ aacetanika), and is caused by purely physical stimulation, Such action has ‘no connection to citfa, The individual is not responsible for the behavior ‘caused by the external stimuli. Conscious motives are those such as greed (noha), hate (dosa), and confusion (moka). The motives of greed, hate, and delusion produce evil behavior. Morally good behavior is motivated by the absence of greed (alobha), hate (adosa) and delusion (amoha). The individual is held responsible for behavior determined by them, The un- conscious motives too influence behavior. Unconscious motives are desire to perpetuate life (jvitukéma), the desire to avoid death (amaritukama), the desire for pleasure (sukhakdma), and aversion to pain (dukkhapatikkae), ‘These motives, though unconscious, result from mistaken understanding Of the nature of existence. The individual may be held responsible for behavior determined by them. According to this kamma theory, ce‘and not only arouses activity but also sustains activity until certain definite results are obtained. For this reason Guenther (1974:43-4) points out that the rendering “volition” for cetand (Geliberation) is inadequate: “In its most sharply distinguished sense voli- tion designates merely the act of making a choice or decision, but itrarely suggests the determination to put one's decision or choice into effet. Vo- litiom is thus the very teverse of cezand which everywhere is said to put something into effect.” In any case, what is called cerandare volitive men- {al formations (saikhdra). Karmic actions (kamima) are also introduced by the word cerand. The 199,GA. Somaraine ‘Buddha says (AN III, 415), deliberation (cetana I call karmic action; hav- ing willed, one performs karmic actions through body, speech, and manas. ‘Thus karmic actions could be understood as part of the aggregate of for- mations. ‘This means that they are ndma-functions; hence they are part of| Citta as well as functions of citta. This karma aspect of citta is also evident from introducing threefold formation: meritorious (puitAabhisaikhara), demeritorious (apuinabhisaikhara), and imperturbable (anew Jabhisankhara), Thus citta-activities (cittasazkhdra) or the deliberations (cetara) are the functions of citta. In this sense, citta becomes a cause for producing karmic actions through one's body, speech, and mana. This is clarified in another context at AN I, 26t where it states that when the individual's citta is unguarded, his bodily (kaya-kamma), verbal (vaci- ‘kamma), and manas-actions (mano-kamma) are unguarded as Well. Itmust be noted here that there isa difference between citta-activities (citta- ‘sarikhéra) and manas-ctivities (mano-kamma). Those of citta are delib- erations (cetana) and those of manas are the rental actions in the process of sense perception. The mental actions are generated by the influence of citta, The citta-activities are the willful activities, The manas-actions are always influenced and disturbed by the unguarded citta, The activities of ita are the accumulative and willful mental formations, Consciousness, appears on the basis ofthese formations (sarikharapaccaya vinmanarn). The Formations are part of néma-ripa and therefore, it is stated that vilitiina depends on nama-rjpa and vice versa. This means that consciousness de- pends on formations that consist of citta-activities, and activities of physi- ‘eal body (Aaya) and speech (v2ci), and the formations that depend on con- sciousness. Conclusion ‘The suttas use varieties of terms to identify the mind, but these terms de- note a variety of aspects, functions and operations in the mental realm, ‘also those in connection with the physical realm. According to the analy- ses found in the suttas, individual consists of thre hasic parts: conscious- ness, psyche, and corporeality. According to the analysis of the five per- sonality aggregates, the aggregates of feeling, perception and formations form the psyche. Since activities of citta are also defined in terms of feel- ing and perception, and again, formations are also recognized by the term deliberation or cetana as a citta-activity or a karmic action, cita must also 200 Citta, manas and vida... bbe understood as part of psyche, if not the psyche itself. Craving and other defilements abide in cia, and it is by craving that whole personality is held together. When cittais free from craving and other defilements, itis known as liberation or concentration-freedom. Craving and other defile- ‘ments are the contents of citta. All these defilements come under forma- tions that are not other than psycho-corporeality. Conceived in this way, all the aggregates that constitute nama also constitute the functions of cia, With these pieces of evidence, I conclude that both citta and nama are, if not identical, almost the same (Somaratne 1998: 99). Seen this way, the functions of citta or nama create, influence, direct, and disrupt the activi- ties of consciousness. They affect corporeality as well. That is t0 say, con- sciousness and citta or nama mutually depend on each other. The state- ‘ment that consciousness depends on ndma-rijpa and vice versa therefore ‘means that consciousness depends on cit and corporeality and vice versa. ‘Thus we could see, on the one hand, an identity between citta and ndma and, on the other, a difference between citta and consciousness. All cogni- tive contents and functions are represented by consciousness and manas. ‘These two operate perfumed by the content of citta or the formations or the psycho-corporeality. Thus, consciousness and manas partly depend on citta because they are directed and guided, rather perfumed by the contents of citta, If cittais free from defilements, it affects consciousness and manas. In sum, citta, manas and vifiéna, though notionally, ean separately be identified on the basis of their specific mental functions, though the three are aspects of the same mind. Citta is impregnated with positive and nega- tive qualities, and it always perfumes manas and consciousness. In this, ‘way, the nature of citta determines the nature of manas and consciousness. ‘Therefore, the Buddhist spiritual path often deals with citta in order to eradicate both its negative and positive passive contexts progressively be- Cause purification and freedom of citta becomes the purification and free- dom of the whole individual. Perhaps, it is because of this that the ‘Abhidhamma tradition chose the word citta and its related word cetasika to represent all of the mental functions and factors. References Original Sources Following abbreviated references are to the editions of the Pali Text Society: 201A. Somaratne AN = "The Adguttaranikiya (6 vols) DN = Dighanikiya G vols) MN = The Maijhimanikya (4 vols) ‘SN = The Samyuttanikaiya (6 vols) Secondary Sources Bodhi, Bhikkhu (editor). 1999 (second edition). A Comprehensive Manual of ‘abhidhamma: The Abhidhammatthasangaha, Pali Text, Traslation and Explanatory Guide. Kandy: Buddhist Publication Society be Silva, Padmasiri. 1979. 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