Static force analysis MODULE 1 Dynamics of machines

STATIC FORCE ANALYSIS

Introduction

In all types of machinery, forces are transmitted from one component to the other
such as from a belt to a pulley, from a brake drum to a brake shoe, from a gear to shaft. In the
design of machine mechanisms, it is necessary to know the magnitudes as well as the
directions of forces transmitted from the input to the output

The analysis helps in selecting proper sizes of the machine components to withstand
the stresses developed in them. If proper sizes are not selected, the components may fail
during the machine operations. On the other hand, if the members are designed to have more
strength than required, the machine may not be able to compete with others due to more cost,
weight, size, etc.

If the components of a machine accelerate, inertia forces are produced due to their
masses. However, if the magnitudes of these forces are small compared to the externally
applied loads, they can be neglected while analysing the mechanism. Such an analysis is
known as static-force analysis. For example, in lifting cranes, the bucket load and the static
weight loads may be quite high relative to any dynamic loads due to accelerating masses, and
thus static-force analysis is justified.

Applied and Constraint forces

When a number of bodies are connected together to form a group or system, the
forces of action and reaction between any two of the connecting bodies are called constraint
forces. These forces constraints the bodies to behave in a specific manner. forces external to
this system of bodies are called applied forces.
Electric, magnetic, and gravitational forces are examples of forces that may be applied
without actual physical contact.
Static Equilibrium:
A body is in static equilibrium if it remains in its state of rest or motion. If the body is at
rest, it tends to remain at rest and if in motion, it tends to keep the motion.
In static equilibrium,
• The vector sum of all the forces acting on the body is zero and
• The vector sum of all the moments about any arbitrary point is zero.
Mathematically,
∑F = 0
∑T = 0
In a planer system, forces can be described by two-dimensional vectors and therefore,
∑Fx = 0

∑ Fy = 0
∑T z = 0
Static force analysis Dynamics of machines

Equilibrium of Two Force Members

A member under the action of two forces will be in equilibrium if

• The forces are of the same magnitude,
• The forces act along the same line, and the forces are in
opposite directions

Equilibrium of Three Force Members

A member under the action of three forces will be in equilibrium if

• The resultant of the forces is zero, and

• The lines of action of the forces intersect at a point (known as point of concurrency).

Figure (a) indicates an example for the three force member and (b) and (c) indicates the force
polygon to check for the static equilibrium.

Member with two forces and a torque

A member under the action of two forces and an applied torque will be in equilibrium if

• The forces are equal in magnitude, parallel in direction and opposite in sense and
• The forces form a couple which is equal and opposite to the applied torque.
Figure shows a member acted upon by two equal forces F1, and F2 and an applied torque
T for equilibrium,

T =F h=F h
1 2
Where T, F1 and F2 are the magnitudes of T, F1 and F2
respectively.
T is clockwise whereas the couple formed by F1, and F2
is counter-clockwise.

Principle of virtual work

The principle of virtual (imaginary) work can be stated as the work done during a
virtual displacement from the equilibrium is equal to zero. Virtual displacement may be
defined as an imaginary infinitesimal displacement of the system. By applying this principle,
Problem
What moment must be applied to the crank of the mechanism in the figure?
Where O2A=75 mm AB=350 mm.

Force Polygon

91,99
F34
F14
19,05

P= 90

h M12 = F32  h
= 920  68.42
= 62.94 N-m.
Problem
Figure shows a slider crank mechanism in which the resultant gas pressure 8x104 N/m2 acts on
the piston of cross sectional area 0.1m2. The system is kept in equilibrium as a result of the
couple applied to the crank 2, through the shaft at O2. Determine forces acting on all the links
(including the pins) and the couple on 2. OA=100mm, AB=450mm.

Solution: P = (8 104)(0.1) = 8000N

Force Polygon

F34 = 8.8  103 N

T2 = F23 * h = F12 *h
= (8.8 x l03) x 0.125
= 1100 N-m.
Problem
Determine T2 to keep the mechanism in equilibrium

Solution:

Force Polygon

T2 = F32 * h = F12 *h

F32 and F12 form a CCW couple and hence T2 acts clock wise.

A four-link mechanism with the following dimensions is acted upon by

Problem
A force 80N at angle 1500 on link DC as shown. AD = 50 mm, AB = 40 mm, BC = 100 mm, DC = 75
mm, DE = 35 mm. Determine the input torque T on the link AB for the static equilibrium of the
mechanism for the given configuration.

Solution:
Considering Link 4 Considering Link 3

Considering Link 2
Force Polygon

F34 = 47.8 N T = -F32 x h = 47.8 x 39.3 = -1878.54 N.mm

F34 = -F43 =F23 = -F32
Problem

AB = 150 mm, BC = AD = 500 mm, DC = 300 mm, CE = 100 mm, EF = 450 mm

Determine the input torque.

Solution:

F56 = ob × scale = 5.6 × 50 = 280 N

F16 = ab × scale = 2.5 × 50 = 125 N

Considering link 5

F56 = -F65 = F45 = 280 N

Considering link 4

F34 = ob × scale = 7.25

× 50 = 362.5 N

F14 = ab × scale = 5.1 ×

50 = 255 N

Considering link 3 Considering link 2

h = 2.55 × 5 = 127.5 mm

T2 = F32 × h = 362.5 × 127.5 = 46.22 Nm

Problem

A four bar mechanism under the action of two external forces is as shown in fig.
Determine the torque to be applied on link AB for static equilibrium. AB = 50mm,
BC = 66mm, CD = 55mm, CE = 25 mm, CF = 30 mm, AD = 100mm

Solution:

Considering link 4 Force Polygon

F34 = 190 N

F34 = -F43 = F23 = -F32

Considering link 2

h1 = 38.5 mm

T1 = F32 × h1 = 190 × 38.5 = 7.3 Nm

Considering link 3

F23 = 400 N

F23 = - F32

h2 = 11 mm

T2 = F32 × h2 = 400 × 11 = 4.4 Nm

Total Torque = T1 + T2 = 7.3 + 4.4 = 11.7 Nm

Problem
For mechanism shown in fig. Find the input torque required for static equilibrium.
OA =250 mm, AB = 650 mm, F = 500 N

Solution:

F23 = ob × scale = 4.7  100 = 470 N T2 = F23 * h = 470  145 = 68.15 Nm

F23 = -F32
Problem

In a four-link mechanism shown in Fig., torque T3 and T4 have magnitudes of 30 N-m and 20 N-m
respectively. The link lengths are AD = 800 mm, AB = 300 mm, BC = 700 mm and CD = 400 mm. For
the static equilibrium of the mechanism, determine the required input torque T2

Neglecting torque T3

Torque T4 on the link 4 is balanced by a couple having two equal, parallel and opposite forces
at C and D. As the link 3 is a two-force member, F43 and therefore, F34 and F14 will be parallel
to BC.
T4 20
F34 = F14 = =0.383 = 52.2 N
h4a

and F34 = F43 = F23 = F32 = F12 = 52.2 N

T2a = F32 x h2a = 52.2 x 0.274 = 14.3 N.m counter-clockwise.

Neglecting torque T4

F43 is along CD. The diagram is self-explanatory.

𝑇3 30
F43 = F23 = = 0.67 = 44.8 N ; F23 = F32= F12 = 44.8 N
ℎ 3𝑏
T2=T2a+ T2b = 14.3 + 1.88 = 16.18N Counter clockwise
 12

Problem No 6
For the static equilibrium of the quick return mechanism shown in fig. 12.11 (a), determine the
input torque T2 to be applied on link AB for a force of 300N on the slider D. The dimensions of
the various links are OA=400mm, AB=200mm, OC=800mm, CD=300mm

Than, torque on link 2,

T2 = F42x h = 403x120 = 48 360 N counter - clockwise

MODULE 2
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 MODULE 4

Introduction to Vibrations
Introduction
A motion which repeats itself after a certain interval of time may be called as vibration.
Vibration is the motion of a particle or a body or a system of connected bodies displaced from
the position of equilibrium. Vibration occurs when a system is displaced from a position of stable
equilibrium. The system tends to return to this equilibrium position under the action of restoring
forces. The system keeps on moving back and forth across its position of equilibrium.

Root causes of vibration are :

i) Unbalanced forces in the machine.
ii) External excitations.
iii) Dry friction between two mating surfaces.
iv) Earthquakes.
v) Winds.
Most vibrations are undesirable as they produce excessive stresses, energy losses, increase
bearing loads, induce fatigue, undesirable noise, partial or complete failure of parts etc.

This undesirable vibration can be eliminated or reduced by one or more of the following
methods.
1. Using shock absorbers.
2. Dynamic vibration absorbers.
3. Resting the system on proper vibration isolators.
4. Removing the causes of vibrations.

Definitions
i) Periodic Motion: A motion which repeats itself in equal interval of time is known as periodic
motion.
ii) Cycle : It is the motion completed during one time period.

iii) Time Period: It is the time taken to complete one cycle.

iv) Frequency: It is the number of cycles per unit time.

v) Amplitude: The maximum displacement of a vibrating body from the mean position is called
amplitude.

vi) Natural frequency: When no external force acts on the body after giving it an initial
displacement, then the body is said to be under free or natural vibration. The frequency of free
vibration is called natural frequency. It is expressed in rad/sec or Hertz.

vii) Damping: It is the resistance to the motion of the vibrating body.

viii) Resonance: When the frequency of external excitation is equal to the natural frequency of
system, a state of resonance is said to have been reached. At resonance the amplitude of vibration
is excessively large.

ix) Phase Difference

It is the angle between two rotating vectors representing simple harmonic motions of the same
frequency.

Simple Harmonic Motion

Any motion which repeats itself in equal intervals of time is known as periodic motion. Simple
harmonic motion (SHM) is the simplest form of periodic motion. A simple harmonic motion is a
reciprocating motion. The motion is periodic and its acceleration is always directed towards the
mean position and is proportional to the displacement from the mean position.

If x(t) represents the displacement of a mass in a vibrating system, the motion can be
expressed by the equation

𝑥 = 𝐴 sin 𝜔𝑡

𝑥 = 𝐴 ωcos 𝜔𝑡

𝑥 = −𝐴 ω2 sin 𝜔𝑡 = − ω2 𝑥

Where 𝑥, 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 represent the displacement, velocity and acceleration of the body respectively.
Types of Vibration
Vibrations in a system can be classified into three categories; free, forced and self-excited. Free
vibration of a system is the vibration that occurs in the absence of any force, where damping may
or may not be present.
An external force that acts on the system causes forced vibrations. Self-excited vibrations are
periodic and deterministic.

1. Free and Forced Vibrations

Free Vibration: If a system, after an initial disturbance, is left to vibrate on its own, the ensuing
vibration is known as free vibration. No external force acts on the system. The oscillation of a
simple pendulum is an example of free vibration.
Forced Vibration: If a system is subjected to an external force (often, a repeating type of force),
the resulting vibration is known as forced vibration.
Machine tools, electric bells etc.. are the suitable examples of forced vibration.

If the frequency of the external force coincides with one of the natural frequencies of the system,
a condition known as resonance occurs, and the system undergoes dangerously large oscillations.
Failures of such structures as buildings, bridges, turbines, and airplane wings have been
associated with the occurrence of resonance.

2. Damped and Undamped Vibrations

If the vibratory system has a damper then there is a Reduction in amplitude over every cycle
vibration since the energy of the system will be dissipated due to friction. This type of vibration
is called damped vibration.

If the vibratory system has no damper, then the vibration is called undamped vibration.

3. Linear and Nonlinear Vibration

If all the basic components of a vibratory system the spring, the mass, and the damper behave
linearly, the resulting vibration is known as linear vibration. If, however, any of the basic
components behave nonlinearly, the vibration is called nonlinear vibration.
4. Deterministic and Random Vibrations
If the magnitude of the excitation force or motion acting on a vibrating system is known then the
excitation is known as deterministic. The resulting vibration is called the deterministic vibration
If the magnitude of the excitation force or motion acting on a vibrating system is unknown, but
the averages and deviations are known then the excitation is known as non-deterministic. The
resulting vibration is called random vibrations.

5. Longitudinal, Transverse and Torsional Vibrations

When the particles of the shaft or disc moves parallel to the axis of shaft, then the vibrations are
known as longitudinal vibrations and are shown in Figure (a).

(a) (b) (c)

When the particles of the shaft or disc moves approximately perpendicular to the axis of the
shaft, then the vibrations are known as transverse vibrations and is shown in Figure (b).
When the particles of the shaft or disc moves in a circle about the axis of the shaft i e if the shaft
gets alternately twisted and untwisted on account of vibratory motion, then the vibrations are
known as torsional vibrations and is shown in Figure(c).

6. Transient Vibration
The free vibrations continue indefinitely in an ideal system as there is no damping. There is a
reduction in amplitude or vibration continuously because of damping in real system and vanishes
ultimately. The vibration in a real system is called transient vibration.

Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM)

The motion which repeats itself after an equal interval of time is called periodic motion and
equal interval is called time period. The harmonic motion is one form of periodic motion. It is
represented in terms of circular sine or cosine functions. The simplest form of harmonic motion
is called simple harmonic motion and reciprocating motion is an example of simple harmonic
motion. The simple harmonic motion can be expressed by the equation.
𝑥 = 𝐴 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑜𝑟 𝐴 cos 𝜔𝑡
Consider x = 𝐴 sin 𝜔𝑡 …………..(1)
where x is the displacement, A is the amplitude and to is the circular frequency.
2𝜋 2𝜋
The motion will be repeated after every time, i.e., time period is equal to seconds.
𝜔 𝜔
The velocity and acceleration of the harmonic motion arc obtained by differentiating equation 1
with respect to time.

𝜋
𝑥 = 𝐴 ωcos 𝜔𝑡 = 𝐴 ω sin 𝜔𝑡 +
2

𝜋
𝑥 = −𝐴 ω2 sin 𝜔𝑡 = 𝐴 ω2 cos 𝜔𝑡 + = 𝐴 ω2 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜋
2

Thus the acceleration in a simple harmonic motion is always proportional to its displacement
from the mean position and directed towards the mean position.
Beats Phenomenon
If two harmonic motions passes through a point simultaneously then the resultant displacement
at that point is the vector sum of the displacement due to the two motions. This super position of
motion is called interference. The phenomenon of beat occurs as a result of interference between
two waves of slightly different frequencies moving along the same straight line in the same
direction.

Consider a particle subjected to two different harmonic motions,

𝑥1 = 𝐴 sin 𝜔1 𝑡

𝑥2 = 𝐵 sin 𝜔2 𝑡

The resultant motion is given by

𝑥 = 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 = 𝐴 sin 𝜔1 𝑡 + 𝐵 sin 𝜔2 𝑡

Where ω1 and ω2 are circular frequencies. If ω1 and ω2 are different then the resultant motion
is not sinusoidal. In some special cases, when the two frequencies are slightly differ from each
other, under these conditions the phase difference between the rotating vectors keeps on shifting
slowly and continuously.

At a time when they are in phase with each other the amplitude of resultant vibration is equal to
the sum of the amplitude of individual motions that is (a + b). When they are out of phase, the
amplitude is equal to the difference of the individual amplitudes that is (a - b). Thus the resultant
amplitude continuously keeps on changing from maximum of (a + b) to minimum (a - b) with a
frequency equal to the difference between the individual components frequencies as shown in
fig. The phenomenon is known as Beats. The frequency of the beats is (ω2 - ω1 ) and it is
neccesary that this frequency be small in order to experience the beats phenomenon.

Change in frequencies ∆ ω = 𝜔2 - 𝜔1

𝜔2 = 𝜔1 + ∆ ω

𝑥 = 𝑎 sin 𝜔1 𝑡 + 𝐵 sin(𝜔1 + ∆ ω)𝑡

= 𝑎 sin 𝜔1 𝑡 + 𝑏 [sin 𝜔1 𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠∆ ω𝑡 + cos 𝜔1 𝑡. 𝑠𝑖𝑛∆ ω𝑡 ]

= sin 𝜔1 𝑡 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑐𝑜𝑠∆ ω𝑡 + (𝑏 sin ∆ ω𝑡) cos 𝜔1 𝑡

From the above equation sum of two harmonic motions of frequency co , 90° out of phase, and
having time dependent amplitudes.

Amplitude of resultant

X= 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑐𝑜𝑠∆ ω𝑡 2 + (𝑏 sin ∆ ω𝑡)2

X = 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 + 2𝑎𝑏𝑐𝑜𝑠∆ ω𝑡
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 MODULE 5

DAMPED FREE VIBRATION

Damping is the resistance offered by a body to the motion of a vibratory system. The resistance
may be applied by a liquid or solid internally or externally.

For example, the motion of the car, wheels in water is resisted by the water itself, the wheels of
car are put to some resistance/friction because of road surface while moving on it. Because of
this resistance vibrations die out over a few cycles of motion.

Mass, stiffness and damping are the characteristics of a vibratory system. Out of three the first
two are the inherent properties of the system. If the value of damping is small in mechanical
systems, it will be having negligible influence on the natural frequency of the system the
vibratory system has some energy which is dissipated during the motion. At the start of the
vibratory motion the amplitude of vibration is maximum which goes on decreasing and finally it
is lost completely with the passage of time. The rate of decreasing the amplitude depends UPON

THE amount of damping.

The main advantage of providing damping in mechanical systems is just to control the amplitude
of vibration so that the failure occurring because of resonance may be avoided.

TYPES OF DAMPING
There are mainly four types of damping used in mechanical systems :
i. Viscous damping
ii. Coulomb damping
iii. Structural damping
iv. Non-linear, Slip or interfacial damping.

Viscous Damping. Viscous damping is the most commonly used damping mechanism in
vibration analysis. When mechanical systems vibrate in a fluid medium such as air, gas, water, or
oil, the resistance offered by the fluid to the moving body causes energy to be dissipated. In this
case, the amount of dissipated energy depends on many factors, such as the size and shape of the
vibrating body, the viscosity of the fluid, the frequency of vibration, and the velocity of the
vibrating body. In viscous damping, the damping force is proportional to the velocity of the
vibrating body. Typical examples of viscous damping include
(1) Fluid film between sliding surfaces,
(2) Fluid flow around a piston in a cylinder,
(3) Fluid flow through an orifice, and
(4) Fluid film around a journal in a bearing.

Damping Constant of Parallel Plates Separated by Viscous Fluid

Consider two parallel plates separated by a distance h, with a fluid of viscosity between the
plates.

Let one plate be fixed and let the other plate be moved with a velocity v in its own plane.
The fluid layers in contact with the moving plate move with a velocity v, while those in contact
with the fixed plate do not move.
The velocities of intermediate fluid layers are assumed to vary linearly between 0 and v, as
shown in Fig.
According to Newton s law of viscous flow, the shear stress developed in the fluid layer at a
distance y from the fixed plate is given by

𝑑𝑢
𝜏=𝜇
𝑑𝑦
Where 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑣 ℎ is the velocity gradient.
The shear or resisting force (F) developed at the bottom surface of the moving plate is
𝜇𝐴𝑣
𝐹 = 𝜏𝐴 =
ℎ
Where A is the surface area of the moving plate. By expressing F as
𝐹 = 𝑐𝑣
the damping coefficient c can be found as
𝜇𝐴
𝑐=
ℎ
Coulomb Damping
When one body is allowed to slide over the other, the surface of one body offers some distance
to the movement of the other body on it. This resisting force is called force of friction. Thus
force of friction arises only because of relative movement between the two surfaces. Some
amount of energy is wasted in overcoming this friction as the surfaces are dry.
So it is sometimes known as dry friction. The general expression for coulomb damping is
𝐹 = 𝜇𝑅𝑁

The friction force acts in a direction opposite to the direction of velocity. The damping resistance
is almost constant and does not depend on the rubbing velocity. The three possible conditions of
coulomb damping are shown in Fig. with mathematical expressions.

Let us consider the leftward movement of the body the equation for which can be written as
𝒎𝒙+ kx = F

The solution of the above equation can be written as

𝑘 𝑘 𝐹
𝑥 = 𝐵 cos 𝑡 + 𝐷 sin 𝑡+
𝑚 𝑚 𝑘

Let us assume the motion characteristics of the system as

x = x0 at t =0 , 𝑥 = 0 at t =0
𝐹
Where B = 𝑥0 − 𝐾 , 𝐷 = 0

The solution becomes

𝐹 𝑘 𝐹
𝑥 = 𝑥0 − cos 𝑡+
𝐾 𝑚 𝐾

𝜋
This solution holds good for half the cycle. When 𝑡 = ω half the cycle is complete
n
 𝐹 𝐹
𝑥 = 𝑥0 − +
𝐾 𝐾
2𝐹
𝑥 = − 𝑥0 −
𝐾
This is the amplitude for left extreme position of the body. It is clear that the displacement x0 is
reduced by 2 F / k. In the next half cycle when the body moves to the rights initial displacement
will be reduced by 2F/k .So in one complete cycle the amplitude reduces by 4F/k. The amplitude
decay for coulomb damping is shown in Fig. The natural frequency of the system remains
unchanged in coulomb damping.

Solid or structural Damping

This is due to internal friction within the material itself. Experiment indicates that the solid
damping differs from viscous damping in that it is independent of frequency and proportional to
maximum stress of vibration cycle.

Slip or Interfacial damping

Energy of vibration is dissipated by microscopic slip on the interfaces of machine parts in
contact under fluctuating loads. Microscopic slip also occurs on the interface of the machine
elements having various types of joints. This type is essentially of a linear type.
K = 98010 N/m
 FORCED VIBRATION

Forced vibration refers to the motion of the system which occurs in response to a continuing
excitation whose magnitude varies sinusoidally with time. The excitation may be, alternatively,
force applied to the system (generally, the force is applied to the mass of a single degree of-
freedom system) or motion of the foundation that supports the system. The resulting response of
the system can be expressed in different ways, depending upon the nature of the excitation and
the use to be made of the result:

1. If the excitation is a force applied to the mass of the system, the result may be expressed in
terms of (a) the amplitude of the resulting motion of the mass or (b) the fraction of the applied
force amplitude that is transmitted through the system to the support. The former is termed the
motion response and the latter is termed the force transmissibility.

2. If the excitation is a motion of the foundation, the resulting response usually is expressed in
terms of the amplitude of the motion of the mass relative to the amplitude of the motion of the
foundation. This is termed the motion transmissibility for the system.

In general, the response and transmissibility relations are functions of the forcing frequency and
vary with different types and degrees of damping.
Note : When w = wn Phase difference will be either one of these 0, 90, 180 or 360 degrees