WORKSHOP PRACTICE SERIES rom Argus Books 1. Hardening, Tempering and 8. Sheet Metal Work 15. Workholding in the Lathe Heat Treatment R.E. Wakeford Tubal Cain Tubal Cain 9. Soldering and Brazing 16. Electric Motors 2. Vertical Milling in the Home Tubal Cain VJ. Cox Workshop iO. Sava and Sawing *, 17. Gears and Gear Cutting Atnold Throp lan Bradley 1 Law. 3, Screwcutting in the Lathe ‘a 18. Basic Benchwork Martin Cleeve un. pees Les Oldridge 4. Foundrywork for the Amateur bh 19. Spring Design and Manufacture BT Aspin 12. Drills, Taps and Dies mir eain 5. Milling Operations in the Lathe este AA 20. Metalwork and Machining Tubal Cain 13. Workshop Drawing Hints and Tips 6. Measuring and Marking Metals Tubal Cain lan Bradley Ivan Law 14. Making Small Workshop 7. The Art of Welding Tools WA. Vause 8. Bray 1. Hardening, Tempering and Heat Treatment In this Valuable book Tubal Cain takes the reader beyond the superficial or the simply practical with explanations of the composition of steel, its additives, and the effects of different temperatures on its constituents. With a grasp of what changes are actually taking place in the metal the care needed in following the practical processes described becomes under- standable and will lead to better and more consistent results. Flame, salt bath and furnace heating are detailed, with information on accurate measurement or recognition of temperature levels. For the average small workshop operative or model engineer the discourses on tool material, hardening and tempering will be of most use, and in this connection this book replaces the earlier “Hardening and Tempering Engineers’ Tools”, providing a broader-based, more detailed and up to date examination of the subject. a b ISBN O- gS5eue- 837=S iHARDENING, TEMPERING AND HEAT TREATMENT for model engineers Tubal Cain ARGUS BOOKS‘Argus Books frais Howse Boundary Woy emel Hempesd Nertoncanve HP2 757 © vous Books Ld 1984 ‘Second impresion 1985, ‘lights sored. No part af hs publication may bo ‘eprotod any form. by pine phatograpy. met ‘Samy tner mesa what wren pein ram the san 0 asz42 627 § Photetypeteting by Patonnance Typaseing, Miton Keynes Prine and bounin Great Brin by BPCC Whestons Lc, Esser Contents Chaptor 10, ‘Appendix 1 ‘Appendix 2 Appendix 3 Appendix & ron & Stoo! Princines ofthe Hardening Process Heating and Quenching in Practice Tempering Heating Eaviment Casehardening (thar HontTreatmons rocessos The Measurement of Hardness Home Constrction of Furnaces Satoty Procautions Trermosoupias and Pyrometers CCarvon Stee Cuting Tools British Standara Stee! Specification Numbers Hardness Conversions 13 2 41 51 64 et 102 107 na ns "7CHAPTER 1 Iron & Steel Know your Enemy’ is prudent counsel for the soldier, then equally 99 must be "Know your Materials for the engi model or otherwise. Important enouah When the matorls are 19 be cut of formed, but even more $0 when we propose 10 ater thelr characteristics And here canbe few such alterations. 50 ‘when wea convert relatively oft and ductile materi info one which had enough to act 9 cutting Yoo! So, | ‘make no excuse forth nial exploration (Of the nature of ton and steel. You can ship" the chapter if you wish ~ it may be that i als you nothing now, and could well seem tobe irelovant ial you want {0 dois to harden # sorter point But to begin at the begining is always 2 sound Boley. and I hope you will bear with mest ‘Won ake lng! Pure iron, known os FERRITE to the metals. specialist, Is 2 relatively soft ‘material, with» tonalle strength of about 28 tonslagin and quite duct It can be iawn Into fine wees a olled eto thin plates about the only uses for it in Practice these days. Its chemical very “active, combining readily with mary ‘thor substances, so thet mettle Kon Ie Seldom found in nature despite the fact that it fe the most abundant of parhiy material (The Cent's core ts almost halt ron The common ores are in the form of ones, some, notably Haemate, almost £05 eric onde whit athors may Contain as litle 9¢ 25%, the remainder boeing lime or silea based stone. Other types of ore contain ron carbenstes, ane 8 ory. abundant source is Irn Pyrites — este on sulphide and Seldom used in the manutactore of ron Uracty. ton ls extracted from the oven 2 Blast Furnaco Fig. Even in arty times these wore large structure, but today they are Inuge. The “Moarth” atthe botiom ts 45 feet across — and the stock 100 feet or more in height. with another 100 feet of top hamper’ above. A medium sized fumace wil canain 60,000 eu, foot of material and wil "make" $000. tons’ Wook: Fig 2. Tho largast fumace in this Coury designed for 10,000 tons per day and keoping it fod with raw materiale ies major part of the plant operator's ‘oncern! “These raw materisie are iron ore, coke {the fuel and mestone to act ar "ux" s0 thatthe stony matter in the ore may be ficient fluid when "melted These moter, blended and sintored imo. ‘niform size and composition, ae fed in at ‘the top. Preheoted air ts blown in 3t he boom, though the "tuyere and this a form by far tho largest mass of material 7fuel gas. By the ime the “burden” reaches yg metal hos cole bu the “grey” east _ 10 rander “ron” more duc. These led 0 ‘he lower pat of the furnace the fox and gqiwhic we use wil appear under the the manvtactue of WROUGHT, INON, Stove will bogine combine fo form aslag —igrassope 68 small opglomerations using @protess which removed mest of wanich melts and une down tough the (gine) or iron. carbide and. Ferrite the carbon from te ron made tn the oko. Sight fower down the ion also gaystls surrounded by flkes of graphite. bast-fumace. Py-ron was melted in ‘ots. Both slag and iron ealct In the (gh lth cooing ie ope ther mar of coal or Ceke-ned tunace (Fig lned Foerth withthe slag floating ontop. At tigation wil vrnin av cabide andthe with ator containing aarge smount of Periodic intrvols the slag i Topped off metal whiter end herder. Hence the won oxide. A certain amount oxi was firough one ole andthe iron from gggasional “hord spot" atthe corer of 8 also charged with the pigdron. About & Brother, bang collected in rasa tases, “eas: the metal hes cooled oo fast. cwt was muted t each heat and when tho formor bait usd for rad metal or ""onin this form every usa cane moltan was, of ours, ninimate cotact omen making and the ion either cost cast wfo complok shapes. ands very withthe ences, The ret was tat the into “pigs” for the foundry or taken, syongimeompression Butt is sszsvong, carbon in the ion combined wih the raten tthe stosiwores inansion and rather bite: teannot bs" oxygen im the den. Yo form enbon Dring the final part of hi proces the Gyntarforgea tis uolessfor edged tools Swi tha rescion was qui vient molten on sn close contact with very aad or mary machine pats. Very early in times, with he metal sppesting to "bo Fav coke snd ‘wil abot sp t0 456 of the hiory of metals means were sought The process aves aesaasted by the arbor (The may not sou uch Unt | ghana ne Pre et oe Saran es tal you that hunk of on of 22 inch tare rant am ata ase eon Re uve will contin os much carbon aus Suawreeicb Bara inn tram Seeoneao S008 of cokell The important tng” Sporeiate st the stages that the ron Sr carbon form 8 olution. js ike the Sugerin your to. iter passing tough Beaty stage. whilst cooling. the Iron Soles at about 130°C, and we now hove @ sof solution of ron (Perel and {atbon, but with sme of the etbon now ombining to. form” an iron carbide ‘ed, Though nominally “ee ithas tobe. However ee the metal cool futher Ie compressed to from 20 0 45 t/sain, and Copacty 10. dissolve. carbon diminishes, heoted to sround” 750°C. using tubo Sousa eee’ censor spboar the compressors of 10.000 HP oF more. 20d rain pounders. 2 graphite. The fin enormous “stoves” 0 achieve. the State does depend somewhat on How fast equi temperature Combvation of the coke at the hearth rests in a high temperate andthe GRAPHITE | acts ity tho. vory hot coke and is redoced to carbon monoxide. Ti, in tn, ‘Gases reach tha top of the fuace they Will eontan sbout 27% carbon monoxie, 2 inte hydrogen, and the rest Is carbon iowide and nitrogen: itis 3 very useful LlacwoneprmrSaia ws "Hh els of manearomas tne ne, pecan ee Sunacran wh “obi” o iodine Satta ton ber speed om 8 oun Wow, he meting gaint ion depends soon i tun eae tn meg Pier 1 430-€ on pore von a tou {00"C. As the ‘cuban comer hrf. panty Mach appre 0 the tet ard tees cago" on oe fuss. ison wet o2 Sige arte os hae he ead fot te Turow andesite St Ur te up ot @ mestasien rw {Gal remmec rove ot est sh {reignite bel on tthe some te fea ip br The roses wes fepente ural the on had Seon ‘recta from the fae, ar whieh ‘tana wal wore fetid wi Foe tee onthe ng and en recharge. ‘SEourt fet cous bw wer 8 row! Whew ae 10 ‘The bars from the hammer were cut into convenient lenaths and. bounc together | faggoted") with on wire. anc these bundles were then ‘reheated tc “welding temporature and retorged inte billets. This process could be repeatec ‘several times: each expelled more of te Femaining slag a what was lft was ir the form of hin streaks. “Tha quality Known 05 “Best” was mets! which had been foggoted twice. "Bs Best” was made from faggoted. "Be boars, and. “Treble Best" from faggoted ‘Bost Best’. "Best bars would have # tense strength along the grain ofthe sag Gf about 23 toneeqin, whilst “Treble Best™ might reach 28 ton‘in. The strength across the fires would be about 18%; least procass cannot completely lminaie athe slag 908 this forms © Under the microscope the main Body of tho metals almost puro Forte intersper* Sod with bands of slag. as seen Fig. 5 ‘Wrought son was too sof for use as 2 cutting tool, aa Worn the earliest nes 2 fnew materia, having a carbon content Imigway between wrought iron and cast Irons, ‘was mode trom bost_aubliy ‘oggoted bars. This was ealled STEEL, a any reference to. metal of this name Drovious to about 1855 must be assumec {o apply to this, and pat othe ml tae ‘we know today. The specially salctes sre (in wi in hc) wore haste Botox comaningerreal or procs ot Gio 10 ve a's torperaire of abost $000%C. During ths tine the. won Mpeetad orton ands the bars wore thin ts absorption penta Mint touh. cone were povided for ng testa te ote Peat deuce om of uaty cruel Uipie 19 tonsa» time ec wom) {ip cotton comon "coud be roughy onl by earth ofthe eat feo short tho. ponevation, would. be Incomplete. Cnbon content eas never Bebo sbovt 88% but could easy be Mis to 18% for log) he manny of ‘or SThe_process_ was. called. the SEamerinion Secs” ond ough ces alec she ately wos tte carbon oni vores trom bor to bar and een Sipe te lengh e tngle be TO Smear this Borji. mem n {746 found means ot meting te bart aftr coronation wil be appreciated fatto rok cuca which wou stand Up th trporatres rtd a ry alot at tne i) Prt, os Peson sted weg charcoal aa foetus simnating, toe. puries ta and ag) om Toa! er “comenting the wrought ‘fon in the usual way he melted broken up about 30, ata me inspec ‘rucbles. This tok about 8 hours oon espe “cos-ron Moni to for bare Stoel rade by tat ee ee en Cre “Stee or “Cast Steet By tly sling the tia cemarted se 082 le, using pisces rom Aferent are mado in aferent heats ~ ‘ery umtorm unity cause shiver Sieror 0 the oid so-cled “biter See "The cam Sars ould be forged, woldad (with some cara) ro make targor pieces, oF, for very large objects, overat rucbles east into on Ieana) mould. Tho ‘tee oui, ofcourse, be hordened lin the fashion later tbe descr - thats what ths Book is about) ut it wes frequenty ‘sed simpy as a tough, song material Te may seem odd that we fst make 3 ‘material high in earbon then remove most ‘OF I and finally, 264 carbon to produce material of the required analysis. but a lise efleton wt show that as each stap ‘also refined the iron. to some eatont Temoving impurities, andthe final step Introduced the carbon in the form it was edod, the provess is Po as logical Seema. The, Hunteman ervcble process tras in use until quite recent, and there ‘may be afew small plans stil operating But the “cast steel” for. t0 be more ‘afin, high-carbon steal of today is ‘made mainly in sete furmaces, snd the arbor added diresy into tho melt with ory tophistested methods of analyst ‘sed wo contol the inal quality. ‘The MILD STEEL we use today wos orginally ragardod as a form of wrought fon made by avec removal of carbon, s0 voiding the woublesome slag inclsions, ‘and he ital patents of Hem Besseme ‘wore foro "now way of making wreught Iron. This he la by Blowing air hough 2 \essel charged with molten iron, and 50 During out the carbon. Later. the epen- hearth process, introduced by Thomas and Gilchrist about 1878, affected the Conversion by the reaction between the ston Both ond the fur however, ‘tel is made by blowing exygen through ‘reaction vessel containing perhaps 300 tone of maltan Iran, brought sect from the blast fumace, Aloying elements are ‘bdded (neluding the assondl carbon! Taqure, but drecty into the molten bath, rather than a in tha cementation process, uz SPECIAL STEELS ha tay, ston, demings te “rs” Abo son Sera mtd ad Ticnten comet mcmee outa Min anlocec or furnace and, age, “costo, A general datincion may ako MNGHAPTER 2 Uae eae tems seehe: sine bese sar cslonaen Whedys hc Oe Resclonshadbu:-wikchcrsibe see's orb oot at thes anos mourge nme cat He mergwenasssoegommneare He cog ionand uwer eanyite“asey ce cele ahh wl hoe Bets ‘choice fs bowidering, and even east iron nickel, chromium, and other elements P. Seer nrc Somme aes Principles of the Hardening awe Set econ bole enter occaly cir reount prada howevm, Shay ol mn an Fert Cpu Wer Fememmrmmaens ss Sitmenestn yy EOCeSS Mid et "casor olsen goal saylg slower espa in ar "Ma wcll conten fom DO% up seen aetna mace han modi the fo 02% cordon sod “Aiedlum ‘carbon offoct of the carbon. Even inthe case of Hfdening high-carbon tee! iz easy — that really, but we are not concemed with Fee a et aan nek meets aioys ot Begple have been ding it for thousands of stomie theory, jut sith hardening sto be toughened by heat treatment. but notion, tungsten, cobalt and carbon — it ie YAP Just heat the metal to chery-ted This arangement is typical of newly hardened suficently for cutting too. the presence of carbon which provides @Ad quench in cold water and there tis slid ion, and thera wil always BO ‘Carbon Tool Stee!” wil contain trom many of thei properties. Wie a salutary ‘all Hovover, like the horse (which is nine atoms, one at each comer of 8 cube (0.75% up to as much as 1.5% carbon. reflection that. our enjoyment cf moe! avs, @ Ndble animal but does not always and one inthe cane, at this temperatu {Nowedays simost all steel will contain engineering. depends entirely on the 080...") this doesnot aivays work, and It is called“ Body-conted cubic erst Soving sements, manganese especialy, seterel found in the core of your lend afte Knowledge of what goes on inside Such crystals appear hare and hare in Bciey oe cen conan atfcn pina! Beaman witch mate faire eathay, the ra, da te neh rey om i aso, give some Idea of what to do on those aveady thor, the Ite groupe Sara ton Woe nc When the occasional awkward job growing larger unt they meet thelr eigh- eo jars. Those who find hat horses never bouring group. Where this maeting occurs io so" are always surpsised how easy it there willbe a dscomtnuity ofthe growth, frome winen someone who knows about so that when al seal ook trough the horses takes over! Ther is, they will say, microscope will shew grey areas with fine Rothing dificult about it you ust need to tas round thom — Fg. (Tho cys Sderstan the nim. the sare with themes are too small to be’ seen Sleek Nothing ifficult unless. you Betuoly aking the tut ane that put fe a lone for us You may have a sight eau L Bcblom with some of the new words? 9 hese | wil explain a8 we go along, but You wail zo find it at the end of the ‘ “Book fo which you can rterf need be. @ CRYSTALS AND GRAINS o Fe eet sna to eaty sho ‘Btoms arrange themselves in a precise: S Gomicasmaiomn meget Sgn shown the tort ite a for yuan accra some ce eas wey ermeaen ne, Gnesatemrnscergrceromtto ‘ See 2 13 Pa MC,Dhaene pane through an ordinary microscope. These reas are the "grains'. AS 8 rule, the fmalior the ‘graina (within reason) the 1b port of the job of heat treat ment is 10 refine” the metal to reduce (rain sie, Pure on (Ferrite) rather arge grains. ‘remperarune —= TiME TAKEN FOR A CHANGE OF io" Cenrionabe Siarmwss “ ‘The motal now cool stil futher, ane whan we reach 1392°C an odd thing Rappens. The fallin temperatures drasted for 9 short wile, almost 2s if ‘hore a source of haat within the meta (Fig) This is infact. the case, for tere is’ change taking place in tho eretal Structure which aetally. releases. heat [ietaurgiste eal his an “arrest point in the cooling of the metal. I you has Shermndom hetammcs otto se suitable equipment you would see the fystals rearranging themselves, ectuaty Aisntegrating and. reforming in 9 new pattem. itis sil “cube, but this time ‘with an atom in each coener and one i the contre of each face, 14 In all ~ Fig. This is called 8. "FACE-contred cubic crystal. Agaln, these crystals form ‘aggregates which moet atthe grain boun- Adories That uch a chango is possible may ‘seem surprising, for though the metal is prety hat Ie 9 solid, and you would have to hit it fainy smarty with @ hammer to ‘change its shape. Things would sour vary ferent if you were one of the atoms! Even. at workshop temperature. tere “would be some dstence between you and the noxt one and at this gh temperature You would find you had plenty of oom. ‘What appears tous a8 a “soli sn act, Wy empty space, even within the i: itis te forces which at betweon atoms which gee us the sensation of (only that. The atoms themsehes ‘tnd sil Twe, thoy cannot chase 3 they don auld or 8 go, but do viortesbout tek mean poston. oct oreon wren generates Dpe cooure tight wo ansodete wit hot etal. In such circumstances it i not so ing tha sor of atoms can ct ‘rite: Thy Goths af te te st femperauren, and a the "aeat amperature they cary out complete ia he met cons turer we meat yet “se ro tina 0 Ms frase» change beck tothe orsna Resy-cened cate shape of Fp ®. THs Ee “bright rea" ana about the Temperature wo should norma us tor fo. Coot down si rer Sor fs fan reat pot again at 770°C. fo chaloe of eral ecwe bts the point a we te an become magnet (te some: alld the "Cure poi) Ts 6m magnetic properties can be 8 i ielctor of temperature for some [Al of these changos occut in reverse “exdervinen the metal is haste, but athe “art points tha metal sooms to “hang “Back” Src not get any hotter for 8 short “while Again. ‘this ean bo a veal fomporsture indication. It is imporant, 1 observe that we have bon falking of 9 oradvol omperature cha tho atoms are toatvely medio went hey “sir “aune raha Ahan “travel. Tho changos al take timo 0 ‘Sompiete. The oresence of other elements ~ impurities, or alloying material — can “Spmatimes make the metamorphosis Slower sil Finly. the actual temperature at which the arrest poi Slightly arent when found when coating. EFFECT OF CARBON ‘occur is very xing fom that ‘The presence of carbon has 3 marked affect on the behaviour of tha, matal ‘When mottan, the carbon is dissolved In chapter —it immediate alec isto lower the point at which soliifestion starts and in ‘édion. to spread the. saliification process over temperature range. The ‘magnitude of this Goprescion and. the 3nge of solidification temperstore ‘depends the amount of carbon prasont Dut in the case of (say) a 0.5% carbon steal thin saifeation point (the Tigudus") i lowered to about 100°C — about 50°C below that of pure kon ~ and the. “solidus”, when ll is sold, is not feached unt 1430°C. In between these two temperatures. the ‘metal Is pest, ‘otal exystais and molten metal being resent together You will have found the Same thing with some grades of solder. Now, the carbon ana iran ae in sclution ‘han liquid, and this state prevails when {old as wel, have mentioned thi in Chit in passing” and it does need some sxplanaton Tf tho iron and carbon wore 3 mixture we snouls Rave measurable particles of the two substances unitormlyeistribsted, They might, however, separate out, 35 sian the pigmont in paint seitlos I bottom of a tin, No maar how finely ‘ground, ‘these particle nach contain Mousands of ‘millons of atoms. A solution” is quite eiffrenc Hare we have the insividual aroms forming the cisper- sion. The seal ie quite afer. 15 au Teosble ~ indeed, qulte normal ~ t find 4h an atoms isporsion ("solution") ina 15caoneteiternct im ee lid — 2 well-made Icelolly is an example, “The carbon atoms are found actully within the Ferito crystals (hey are much ‘raller than the Farsta atoms) as shown Jn Fig 10. The number ef dissolved ators ‘bien een be accommodates in this way ‘Joos depend on the temperature (asin the ‘ease of any lguid solvtion) but M380 ‘depend on the type of crystal, too. (This has an inportant bearing on the harden ing process, 09 we shall oo ator). Further although they ere situated within the fyatal lati the carbon fo diffuse just as can the but thie ert can oscar at any time, not just atthe arestterparsturas. We shall Soe iter that the for and carbon atoms fan aleo be present in the form of ‘Compound’ "ron carbide — but this need not conceen us atthe moment. “To ratur to our newt solid metal the fst effect of the cafoon has been 16 ‘dapress the meling point and to cause a pasty. stage during. solidification. Once ‘oll, he carbon is found in solid solution, In sdction, however, the presence of carbon its the frat eystal form found in pure Won, The matalsoliifes directy Imo the Face-cantre cubic form of Fig 9 ‘but wth many of the crystal atoms con 16 taining carbon atoms, as shown n Fig 10. ‘There is NO arrest point at 1392°C. This “Solid” Solutien". with. faco-contred nystas, is ealad “AUSTENITE” after the Stil folowing our 05% carbon steels it cools we find an arrest point st about 780°C, ‘whore the crystal structure changes t0 Body-cented cubic ~ you wil "hat this eccurs about 120°C lower thon in the ease of pure ton. The ‘magnetic change, or Curie Point” takes place a Yow degres lower “ive, he immediate effect of no more than “O.5% enfbon hae been, fst. 10 Sopress the melting point and to ineduce Gpesty stage inthe soliton, 10 ‘himinate altogether “one of the arest points and ite associated “crystal fmotamorphosis,, and to. reduce’ the forpersture at which the others occur. ‘This may nex a et. sem to be of great importance, but It the inpllatione of thebe changes which matter. and they have a profound effec on the heat teat ‘ment. You cannot harden pure ren, but {en 0,596 carbon steel canbe toughonad {ven if not mace hard enough to use 38 3 uttng too J now follow thi 0.5% carbon steel. it cools, but with more attention t {happening to tho carbon and the fe this ime. At soliication the rite is 2 homogenaous Solution af Substances. However, as soon a the gel poss05 the arrest point at bout hd cools futher, the composition Hive Austerite slowly changes, unt at 735°C it contains 0.83% carbon — imum it-can hold at thls tua. It can only achieve this ont of carbon by electing Ferrite ib, and this jt dous progrosewely 35 he temperature fal. (The stael only con (05% carbon to start with) This fe forms grains or bands surrounding (gta of Austonio, which now form art of he whe. The overall analyse tho stool wil stil chow 0.5% of carbon, TR all concentrates inthe Austente Fig 1. “us Below tis temperature, st 730°C, find another "aves! point, this time fe a change in the raatonahip of the fnd Ferra inthe Austenite Above the carton is in olution, but at "CI actully combines with somo of ton to form Iran Carbide This FE, }eontans about 6.7% carbon tis very ‘indeed and is given the name EMENTITE”. because. it was fist ‘made by the Cementa- 0 process see page 11 “Tis ‘Cementte contains much less Ferris von) than the. Austante trom ‘twas formed, 20 that there wl be Ferrite loft over. In the event, the this ascombly of patos forming 3 ‘comeaponding with the grain of Fa, 22 renmarane 1s utoin Pn ‘Aastente from which it came, Under the Imicroscope these grains have a very Boautful shan, fosambling. that of Motherot-Pear Far this reason its called "PEARLITE™. (1am sory about all these names, but thre is» glossary tthe fond of th book i yu find thom dificult te remember) The overs composition of Pearite t¢ 0.83% carbon stil, so thet 38 the stel contains only 05% we should tupect the Pestite grains to be suiroun 44a by grins of Favre, and thi, n face the cabe, Sea Fig 12. “This recombination of Austenite into Pearlte occurs in af carbon steel when poled slowly. Natural, the amount of Pearite will dopend on he carbon content ina, but itis abways therein greater or less propartion. Being 2 combination of Soft and ductile ion (Fert and vary hare CCementite tis very tough. THE IRON-CARBON DIAGRAM 1 wo wore to look at ste! with ferent Carbon content we should find siilar changes taking place, but at diferent temporstures For convenvanee, engineers nd motallurgste asvemble the data on & hart called the ron-Carbon Equiriam ”18 i F j ram, which shows the fects of aio. and iho aint ves inbpta Be cesie ony wath “vet” ie fl Tico et ker oy enti Bebee vce voted withthe tomparaos Min th meting singe. Trane sttoumy Hirose oe tit score lags Bent vosts onthe Mtibuy ot Sow Boe there is very cient one 1h ‘tani, fort aston clos son ond Sto Tre con bo ee at ort bic Forwn i hmv shown the OOK sel wo hove Bie ester! cc s voce re. Tho Spee crate orccel tenor, Menown by re tw ABE and fe tome Hebe. You wit nesce ther tose Iie at 3's we wit tarealck at is fog orn, Serbo Sng’ rs Bra reiel ote wih eaten we cl on) Tak. hove shown 3 Fret iru res, We nant with Bet be below tan ie ie tins more ta he OSH whch ie pase ike eet te tos Boer tte tor sical vemos. Ins abcut 750°C in i cme ho Fioet cost bate tn noes whch tt oour 800°C, th stot fins coach tendon tie tee Brevis cre wes en Be te meermane te coon is eaten jected bu is jected Eee erm of for car (Comert) fr eee case of cat on tne cto annot exist under these conditions, We find therefore. thatthe grains of Austenite “ore now being surrounded oy tra, stress, “tnd then grains of Cement: there fs 00 Ferrite avaible. By the te the ste roachod the ower ees temperature ‘ine line BE) the. Austenite hos. ag3i9 4altled down with 0.83% ciesolved ‘Extbon, as belore. And, a8 belore, this Wansforms 10 Pea 2s the mel cools ‘through the etoal We now find grains of Pearlite surrounded by areas of ‘Cement, (Fg. 14) in contrast to. the Peorite ond Ferrite of the lower carbon ‘Wow look ot steel with 0.83% carbon ‘You will notice thatthe two Ties repte- senting the upper, and lower critics! temperatures (the “arrest poms") on ‘coincide. Iie after 3 feshon, # "Eutectic ‘Sluion, simon to that found in solders ‘nd braxing alloys, Both the crystal ans formation and the metamorphos's of the eu at the sama tie, andthe ‘changes to Pearlta ciract ‘Thi. “all Pearte” steel ie about the ‘toughest that can bs had with 2 plain ‘carbon steel You will ote that 28-2 cone ‘sequonce of this "Eutectid” at O53 {arbor the upper encal temperatures for the various steels very corserably, slong the line ABE. This has an important bearing on the temperstures needed 10 ‘tect the annealing of the steel. The lower crital temperature. DBE. does vary 2 ttle, but in many published versions of the diogram itis shown as 9 sight line ‘The difeence ison aw degrees. have shown onthe diogrom @ number ‘of litle sketches indicating the atin fo tration — actual micrograph would be 2oF father conlusing and. are sifeuit 1 eproduce. However, by “examining 3 fpeciman’ through the "microscope an Sxperianced metallutgist can easly fecognise the various constituents of Pearite, Fort, and Cementie, and by rating the proportions of each can make 2 estimate ofthe overall carbon cantont ofthe specimen ‘To aur ip: we would expect to find very litle Pearte and a lot of Ferite in 8 Tow carbon (mid) stool, with the propor tion of Peart increasing os we approsch 0.898% carbon. Beyond tis the Cemeniie Wwould begin’ 10" sppedr, inereasing In proportion as the carbon content rose to {he rasnimam seeociated with a “steel {about 1-7% carbon). We would expect the "toughness" and etengih to inereaso laste Pearle proportion ioreaced, up 1 (180% carbon, Thereafter the seo! could De expacted to gat harder, with some oss (of duetity. This sin fact, tha case, Fig 15. But I must amphasise that these con ‘erations all apply omy to steel which hae. bean both Meated and cooled SLOWLY, so that the title atoms have time to find thoi right places, and the hemial changes atthe wer eral ie fave tims to eampote It is typical of @ 20 Caos oa oe ot rlld bar” which has (or shoul have) Been normalised wnen you receive rom tho merchant, Cold arawing (es "aright Drawn Mild Stee) wll not allot the type of structure [Pearite-Ferto, Pearite-Cementte) though it may alter the mechanical svength, and especially ‘he ductilty, because the forming process has latorod the grins. The structures found whan the stee is cooled too quietly for the changos to occur are quite dife- Fant So, let ut now have look at tho ‘oct of thor than slow coating, EFFECT OF COOLING RATE Let us again consider our piece of 1.2% carbon steel at_ (soy) 800°C. which emporature has been reached either by Slow cooling or stow heating. The Austente wil have party. tvansformed. fand there will Be Austonito grains sut- founded by rome Cements. Within the ‘Austeite most ofthe crystals will contain ‘one or more carbon atoms ~ the "sold Solution” eonltion. Now let us raduco tho temperature very quickly. There willbe no time for the toms to rearango thom salvos, time for exystal wanstormation, intead of finding themselves in. 3 tice formation which leaves shem ty of room the carbon atoms ara ped Inside the crystals with Inade- f° space for thor. In addition, the ite is compelled to retain for more bon that It can normally hold at the smperature. The Austeite crystals ‘put under enormous informal tras, this Is just the condition which is elated with hardness. In ation. tho Which fs present ss unebie to alse normally, but instead 1 con- trained into. 9 needle-ike structure wn as a “Acicular” formation) which Very hd indeed in fact, i these los" which help nthe formation of pod cutting edge. This ew structure — ay sttosced crystals associated with lar crystals of Cementite ~Is given ‘name MARTENSITE, and is the basis hall hardened carbon sts have already ror 10 tho need 10 the metal slowly, parly to ensure 3 tho various wansfarmatons have time (oecur, but this also necessary so that ‘an be suro that tho metals hot right Tt soos take time for the heat to ion apples when cooling When Eooling rapidly quenching’) what about ‘metal in the mice ofthe workpiece? ‘Outside Nes Coolad fast, tre, but is clear that (with large. specimens iy) she core may not have kept Up ‘the cooling ofthe exterior. What it etfct on the motal? We can best fewer this question with another am. Fig. 16. This shows tamporature the vertical scale, and time on the ional, Bocause motaluyists and cers need #0 examine coaing rates ‘may last houre or days aa wall 23 those which take ony the oud second or the time scale Is comprossed — itis in "logarithmic". The diagram shown rolates to no particular steel, but i is typical of most svarystee! specication 1 its own "S-curva™ Eko thi Tis mpor- tant t0 realise that 20 fat 9 we are don Cermed, it must be usod ony to Musa the effects of tima/tempereture changes. eal interprataton of tho clagrem is matter for experts Looking at Fig. 18 you will soe that there are two "S” shaped curves. On the [ett of he lin ABC wo havo a zone wha the stee! is Austenitic (n'a state of sl Solution) but itis "unstabio" hha not Vet wanstormed but is ready t0 do 39. On {the rght ofthe ine DEF wo avo ho tbe) Int nal, totaly transtormed state. this area, if we wore taking about the 1.2% carbon steel there would be gains of Pearte surrounded by Cement: it wore the 0.5% sel me looked at warer ‘hore would be grins of Pearte suraun= aby Ferrite. In between the two "S Curves the. stuctue Ts undergoing the {anstormaton process and wil consist of a mixture of Camonite learbies) Peortte Sand Ferrite and, of course, some of the Griginal Austonite — carbon’ 10 solid olution, The nearer tothe line ABC, the ‘more Austenita, whilst lose tothe Une DEF more of the other constituents [At tho bottom ofthe "S's two horizon tallies are shown dotted, At one, marked IMs" the hard Martonsita starts to form, and below the line "MT" this change is compete: the metal eal in the hard com ‘Sion. For “siver steel” Ms les a about 180°C Howovor. Martonite cannot exist Now. consider 3 ploce of high-carbon steel’ at the point "Qt is at about 780°C. IT coolsshowty it wil follow the line GP, taking perhaps 24 hours to coo! down 1 15°C. The line passes tough both of the "S cures, indleating thet {otal ‘transformation to Pearle and Cement has taken place. The materia is a“anmasled~ the steot has had time 1060 ‘through alte changes we taked sbout tater. Now look at he line OR. The metal ae cooled through an. idontical temperature range, But this tine inno ‘mare than ona second, At no point does t (ross the "S" cure. #9 thet no transfor ‘mation to Pearlte te posssin. But HAS ‘Cressed both the Ma and Mi tines insicat- Jing that foto transformation to Martonit hae taken place. This sample. is hardened These are examples of the ‘wo extremes, slow and fat cooling ‘You wil see on the diagram 9 fine ‘O5". which JUST touches tha nose of the lefthand "S" curve. This isthe Slowest rata — the “Ciical” rate — of Cooling which will achieve a fully hardened Martensitic condition. (The Toeation of the point "Swill depend on Fa, 184“ fenenre Tatami Dre Genta ents Nesta re i é hedrcdae AT ET | | 5 10. 20, 50 100200 S00 qf ya. 1. - as os lp typeof steo: it might tically be 2 or 3 seconds). Te quench shown by the line FOU. however, does cogs the "S” curve TASC, at "Vand "Win and out again jewieen "Vand “W" some of the | Austnito wil wancform w Pantie, but as = the cooling curve only las tthe ight of “the line ABC momentary the remoinder “walt cary on down QU to form Martensite “The final stata wil, therefore, be many | Mariensite but with a lie Pearle 36 well It wil pot be as herd, BUT, the | presence of te Pearle wil make loss byte and aot tougher "This diagram helps us 10 understand | what can happen in the centre oft piece "of tee! during te quench. it has a small trors-section, and Is cooied along some Tine such a8 "GR", then the conte of tho “section may follow a line between “OF ‘ghd "OS", ond wil bo Tully vanstormed it will be fight through: hte thiek Blace the cone might very well be cooled flong "OU" eventhough the outside followes "OR". The centre of the specimen would not be as hard as tho ‘outside though t may wall be tougher ‘One of tho purposes for which some of ‘the alloying elements are added to “modern “carbon stools ie tho improve: ment "of the “through harde? Gharaetorietics: the alloy Mosiios te "uve. Aplin, unaoyed carbon st ‘through Foe hati isnot posse for any but a See reat Seen HOW HUGH rita wiibe fxmed. when alloys ore added. For “Siver Stoel”, which coniaing lie Chromium to holy: mators, the ft is 5/16 inch thick, though the. lose. of hardiness a the cont of @ place j inch thick is very smal inde. This "Limit to through Hardening’ explains the Gtfeuitos sometimes met with wens large section carton steel too! is ground ‘down at the poit to Bring ft 19 entre hoight ta emal lathe, ae in Fig. 17. The point of the too! is now located in the tontra ofthe section an will not be 2 hard os the orginal The loss of hardness ‘wl be quite novinoble if 2 half-inch too) Is ground down to 5/16 inch pont-neight. The euro i 10 anneal and reharden. See p37. DISTORTION DURING THE QUENCH ‘As well 98 hardooss we are frequently concerned with the shape of the ‘workpiece, especially when meking ‘Gauges oF form tools. A tle thought will Suggest that there = They tobe 3 een sional change with all the vansformations ‘vein the metal ant tht, n aston, Iighy sessed crystals wil date 43¢ any strassed member will under load Not only that ~ the vary act of cooling ‘siisee 5 contraction nd in 8 quanch this contraction is sucen in the exams, I'he workpiece is not oxacty sym retical there i ak of uneven shrinkage, FULLY Qugcnto toon mane yay gegen soue Peanure 23‘The higher the cooling rate the greater tho ak. In eases whote "shape" ie important we must use slower cooling rate, even ‘hough this may rmean that tho quench line forthe canine of the work may cross the nose of the "S" curve momentedy Fortunately this Is not so important in fticles not intended for meta-cuting and in some cases can be an adventage txpectally for tools subject 10. shook loading. The risk of cracking is nox gre ‘when desing with (sy) a simple "Dbl, but can be acute inthe cose of @miling utter, with sharp corners at the t09th feats. In such a case it prudent to Sherfce 2 Title hardness In order to be re of getting ou tool in one piece, and @ Slower ‘method of quenching must be sought. Industry special mothods ore. usd, not necesseriy beyond the capabilities of the model engineer. but they do need oper temperature contol. The simplest ‘method for us isto quench no instoad of Water. The risk of cracking and distortion IS considerably reduced yot tho loss of hardness isnot great If, however, etor= tion is of the frst imporanee, a8 when ‘making a gap geuge, then it i wiser 10 Use the apecta ei-hardening tol ste "Ground Gouge Stock” (Though it-can ‘aso be obtained in back bar as wl This ‘meterial is alloyed so that oll quenching Siwoys misses the knoe of tha “8” curve, ‘nd full transformation is obtained. tis fot as hard a8 a water hardened straight Carbon steel, Gut is acequate for the ‘TEMPERING us 3 the "Good Shophord tomers tho ‘wine to the shor lamb, 20 the prudent {ool aker tempers his ard stool against shock loads. A high-carbon too! steel, 28 properly neat treated. will have reached fhe maximum ‘avalsbip hardness. but it Wil be vary brite. AS T have tried 10 taplin, the crystals are under consider able ioral stain and any shock loading. or even rough handling. mey ¢2use fracture, This may apply oseasionally even with ell-quenched steel. In adton, the Grain size may not be 6 fevoursbie to lean cutting ection as we Would tke ‘epecially # the Infial terperetare (point ‘Or of Fig. 16) waa not exactly right I “we now reheat the steel to 8 low tomperatore dese cyst (9 some anton, "stress-oioved fra ifthe temperature is held foro le ‘nile some degree of grain refinement Toy be had 28 well For pain cutting Toate, where shock loading s minimal, 2 ‘ery iow tempering temperature wil serve whe usual recommended is. about 230°C, though this i vofer to turing tools one or two inches Square ~ I shall have move to say about this later Iti, in ‘ven prudent to temper the too-shank ‘even mere, so that It does not crack under ‘he clamping fores ofthe took post "Tempering can serve another purpese, though We fave seen that the quench produces Martenste — highly stressed ‘Auctanite crystals intorepersed with hneedie-like Cementite.. For some ‘purposes, however, wervedhigh strength ‘snd resience rather than hraness 9% ‘Sich ~ the classic case being the spring ‘There is no rasan at ail why © apring should be HARD: the engineer expects them to have 9 high vila stress and high resiience. Industrlly it is possible to ‘ehiove this dvecty but this does nec Special equioment. (And. in any case commercial springs are seldom made ‘ram straight carbon took-stael. The only ‘way open f0 mast of us isto hardan right ‘out (preferably in ol) and then "temper ‘back’ 10 the dosed eontion, We reheat ps, 300°C = “blue”. At this ‘ho needles of Martnsite into ite nodules” and. of rea. | shall be covering the [ngeds for various applications later ld bear in tied that 9” serves. tee purposes: 10 Msliave the tight: eeyals ond 29 2 risk of cracking: to improve the ze, so that you can get e keen ge: end. In some cases, 0 trans ‘to's nodule cond improve reslience, | shall in 2 er deal with thin more deta in relation to the special needs boeing established. irbon that ~ 20 alloy of carbon and True. it would ‘contains. few for the. days of charcoal Iron were aver (though ‘was stil using Huntsman fool-rteel mada from Imported ofFa charcoal ion) and tically 'f sulphur and phosphorus was “Today, however, almost al seals ‘thor elamants as wal. We have how drastically the ‘loving elements. The cogrem (Fig. 13 on page 18) le drawn for "plain carbon Stoel, but each aloy wil have a diferent Gharcctarisis equllbtum dlogrem, some ‘very complex indeed. “Aimost al carbon to! stels those days contain about 0.35% of Manganese Is ‘main purpose being to counteract the fftects of the impurity Sulphur. At this nig. 13 and hance on the t Weatment is. negligible. When present in higher amounts —1%5 or more ~ needs spacial trestment. A te Js {'Siver" Steel te one — it Contains no siver by the way: the name: Tofers to Its appearance!) ineiuda sbout 5% of Chromium, party tO. help. in rafring the grin siz but algo to improve through hardening’ At this level there fs ‘some sight effect on the shape oF the ‘iagrams,incluging the "S" curve, but NO ‘special teeatmont is needed, The. ‘Quenching temperature is sightycife~ Font, thet is all, These. stools ote tssentaly “carbon” steels with odatives to improve performance. ‘Ar the alloy content rises, however and, more especially. when a combination ot alloying elements is used, then the fauivalont diagrams 10 Figs. 13. and 15 become very complicated. indeed. (Chromium, for example. forms 9 very hard carbide omits own) When faced with ste! containing more than about 08% of any of thase elements (and they can be Nickel, Chromium, Cobalt, Vanadium, Tungsten, Melyodenum, Titanium. and ‘others the answer to the heat estrone Drablam is, for the model engineer, “DON'T"I A ric pico of 3% nickel 0.3% Carbon steet wil Ui you are sure itis EN21) make ‘excellant connecting rod Dols, but uriess you have the exact heat treatment cata iis Dest lft in the "as ‘supplied state, Even more if you come ‘cross any of the higher alloyed steuls 26and even more so_ again if it has come from “Evens the Scrap" Heat treetment of such, without proper data and eauin~ iment, is [kely to be dlesppolting Mf not fatarrophic. (However | ell, na later chapter, deal with the heat treatment of ‘oma of the medium carbon stots, which ‘terval Finaly. don braping. and to. an oven greater extet, ‘olding, i form of heat weatment! SURFACE HARDENING ‘There are many situations, both in full-size ‘and model engineering, where” a hard ‘wearing surface is needed but the compo- pent also must resist shack loads ~ or Demaps repeated reversal of load, almost {8 bad. Gross hoad and gudgaon airs are ‘examples. The usual suggestion made by furters of articles in Made! Engineer and ‘leewhere isto use Siver Stel, harden, Band thon tamper back. Ths fe not avery {900d solution to the problem. Fst. the tempering racicns tho hardness of the ‘wesring turace snd, ascona. tempored Martnsite not the Dest material for a fosd-pesring “component. Horses. for ouraasi A Bugatt type 37 does rot make tha bast of own carrages. and you would bbe hard put toi 10 make an "0" gauge 28 aco on an 18-inch too-toom lathe, ne ‘matter how acourat twas, “The answers 0 Use @ Md oF matin carbon steal of spacifeaton appropias te the leading conditions, and then tc Imasity the surtace layer of tho etal: that ican. be hardened. You w: femembor that the eariest-method ‘anutacture of high carbon ste! involves ‘tg heating i the prosonce of carbon. This tok a long time, but if we cary out the ‘same process for short time then the arbon will peneiate only 3 shor Gistance. For models we only need 8th layer perhaps as small as 0 005in. wou Serve — and this is what achieved by “CASEHARDENING" There various sways wnich ican be done. some whss ‘dont involved anything more than 8 bl. lama and some special compound, bt ‘are quite practical for de mode! engine ‘nce ths surfece layer hos beer cat bbursed the part can be heated sro fquenaned and, In mest eases, does No need any tempering. The result is 8 cove ‘rnin Is stong and tough, and auras wahich is almott glaes-naré. Further. = Drocess is vory exible, and ht possbie to harden selcively. and even to ca) ‘out machining operations of on part ‘component ater another part has bee? ‘srfaca hordes. give more date © the procedure on paye 64 PTER 3 ictice ‘chapter | shall deal with the aspects of Heat Treatment, but | 9 detal iscustion of the actual devices tl ater. For the purpose ‘chapter, therefore, | shal aseume fyour source ot heat lice the engine Gur Rolls Royce, "adequate fer iis “1 am going 20 leave the con of Tempering to. the noxt 09, 98 this fe really quite 9 tis just 9 piece of good stutt ploked up fom Evans the Serap My advice Is “Don'¥'- | have by me write this the SAE Kst of ston which ‘be found in 0 sora motorcar days. typed out on paper 7 inches ‘thelist would be sever! ‘eet long than one fifth are "plain carbon al the rest are are o less Highly = anc even i you know that your ‘wos corbon steal it hd probably heat treated aveady and would ire proper annealing betore reharden- ‘The chances of finding any steal sao heat treat on 9 scrap-hean these days vslim, Far better to start mith & new Of ateck ter all. you Bre going ating and Quenching in heat treat it it must bo for some tay Iemportan purpose However, there are casos whore mata of more or less known provenence can be ‘eoyeled. and it you ae in ight spot and enaot get now ste! then the following {able may help in suggesting the probable arbon content af old tools ete. | fmphasise the word “od”, for thase days ven the humble cld chisel may be mede ‘fom a non-temperng nickel alo. %Careon Type of Tools 017. Crowbar Plekaces Screwdrivers 08 Large Masonry chisole: Quay rack ils Wood spitting Wedges 09 Cola Chisnis: Shear blades: Blackamth's hot setts, 110 Smaller Colt Chisels: Od wood. ‘working machine cutters! Handa 1.11.2. Engineer's cating tote: Oils Roamors ot 12. 13-148 Razors: Engravor's ole: Saw-flos 1up Wee-crawing dies: Cold Saws Macy of these could be made trom high-speed steel, but this ean easly be listinguished by using the “Spark Tes’ — ‘see the Mod Engineers Handbook. In fry ease, however, the material should 7fist be soneaied (See page 71.) and a small test piece then sawn off nd tes hardened with the esimated ‘carbon Content a» guide eating Wo have alwady soon the need for slow heating, and I cannot emphasise thie ned. sufficiently. ‘The question is “How slow?” If put into 2 eold mute fumace and heated up with tho muff, this wal suffice, With the average mute, in fact, the work wil heat-up slowly fenough i put ino the furnace when i fs ttready at te hardening temperature. (in ome boeks you wil find ths calles the “Rustonsing Temperature”, by tho wa) you are using a molten lea or salt bath thn it le necescary to proheat the work 3 Title anyway, as Pexplin Tater. But wih the ordinary blow-lamp oF gas torch some ‘care IS needed. IIs all too easy 10 ‘overheat thin parts local T tnd 1 take fbout five ar = minutes to bring a small foal ~ about finch x 3 inch long ~ up to the arrest pont, andi taker iti longer te climb the remaining 60°C ot so. This ‘iver good resus, and can be token as 2 ‘Qulde, Botta tobe to siow than too fast A the arrest point thera is 3 temptation to turn up the gas, as the metal seems 9 be ‘aking no progres. This is just he rong thing 1 dol Tho ite toms ae in proces ff moving hoes, and wont welcome being huriod over the jobt Keop heating ‘ta tteady rte ond when the metal tar to colour up further you are very nary at the right temperature. Overall the short ‘newer Is that you mst use your judge- ‘met, and ty v0 get as much experience {3 you can. you fly on torch or kilehon fire neating. Far the odd D-it tat wl bo ‘sed once and thon serappod the hoating rate may net be all that erica But you MUST pay attontion it the tool ie an Important one key tobe used fr years. ‘Once up to temparatre you must hold ‘tho howe for some time. Agoim = "How 28 long"? You have both to mako sure thay the meta i Bot right tothe centre, ANG (We those atoms ime to ditto tho ne, Spot. Fortunately in this ease the answer ie quite daft; matalurgiste and gener tions of blsckemiths over ® contry ‘mare have establisod the rule. heat fer ONE HOUR PER” INCH OF THICKNESS, once the tool = up tothe hardening temperature. Ths means that inch "thick tool should be heated fr ‘About 20 minutes You. know! You hous Inover hold the heat for a5 Tong as thie! fm sony, but that moans that you NS\e ‘never achigved. tho maximum” poss= hardness, ether! Just to persuade you have set up specially and hardened four places of enon steel rom the same Ber holding the tamperature for one, fv, te land fitesn minutes, the lat being forthe {inch stock used. The hardness measured on my “vintage” Shore Scleroscope came gut at 74, 76, 78, enc 81, resper figures ave al low —but equally, they ve ‘ealige thatthe "Shores not suitable for Such small specimens. A subsequent ter! ‘on tho last spaciment showed a hardnoss of above 900 Vickers, and this i= abou" fight. The reduction in hardness for # ‘shorter heating times ie quite evden {the “one. minute pioes ie softer 3s hardenec” then the tool should be wher tempered. TH iS quite tue thet our tools av felatvely smal compared. with those fermeriy used in industry — oF today, for that matter. They. dont conta mut? ‘metal but tharsurface area's smal to= Gnd. the RATE. of heat trensmissicr heeded to get even a finch to! tof! fomporature atthe centr in 15 minutos = ory high. Clery for the odd seriber- pon it eft al that important but for etre tools itaoes matter | shal ater, be telins the use of # molten salt bash ing, ond one of the grest advan~ ‘of this type of furnace is thot the time can be reduced: the rate of transfor ie much eter, Seting the Ii cold mute furaee ane ltting it ‘up withthe fumace is good practice, for tho muffe heating rate Is about Feame a that forthe metal. You can the esting time inthis way. ‘Right Temperature, At fst sight it ibe assumed that wa nood to take Fatal uo to above te eho ical “tha ling ABC of Fig 13, — hi is the care. Fret (or Qh toct-steeis, shat is) we do need "Free Cementite” when we quench, this does not appear until the meta fallen bolow the. upper ertical perature. Second, experience shows the grain site ie more favourable the tal is quenched from a lower peraiure. As a general rule steuls 91% carbon content oF more ate ‘rom below the upper critical those Below 0.9% from above This “general rule — there may be special "or departing from ana one sequence is thet the quench ature does not vary much over the {ange of carbon conten. Note that treating OTHER than for pure har ng this may not apoly S09 ChVL llowing tebio ia crawn up fom a ‘of “authorities” for stele ll of contained sbout 0.38% manganese at today is regarded as a "staight steel The exception isthe “Siver which contains also about 0.45% rs Temperature, °C 790-800 770-780 770-780 780-770 770-780 ‘These temperatures ae for quenching Jn wator of brine. For elt quenshing the ‘metal is best heated pemps 10-20°C Figher, but I do, not advise going above 800", FILE ‘STEEL, usually. 1.25% ‘carbon’ with 0.5% chromium, gives ‘maximum hardness. from OO”, but it must not be heated ‘much above this figure. In al cao it fs much better to obtain the correct quenching temperature from the manufactrors or the stosests ifthe best results are to be obtained. You will ‘not go far wrong with the figuras given in the ‘table, bot as is always the case Perfection demands more care" tthe EN No. or the newer numbers from 8S 970/1972. (which, incidentally, ineorperate the eatbon content ithe Spectcaton number) is known, then Feference tothe British Steel Corporation may produce the required Information, (toak'in the telephone directory oF ty BSC, Swindon House, Rotherham S60 AR). If the SAE number (Society of Automotive Engiosere of Americal known, then “data is given in-their handbook, whieh should be availabe in the local’ reference Horary. This gives flmoot ALL steels made to US. specie. ‘ions. and they dort elif much from BS 570; many have tho some number. Inthe ‘case ofthe oithardaning gauge stees the Proper temperatures are ivan on” the ‘wrapper [AS 8 final point of comfort, these temperatures are not estes! to tow ‘degrees most stonimakers ve 9 range. it ‘nly because there is 3 tolerance on the ‘tual carbon content you are within © ‘you will not be far wrong, PROVIDED you hold the steel there for ‘the proper length of tine. ‘Judging tho Tamperature. This is what ‘separates the men rom tha boys! The ols- timers could eatimate almost 10 2 degree 29stb ooking tho sal bt hey wore (Hate place flan steal st in plo HA wine are mace by the “Maral can be need by seting a fw paces of Secicstoreedlseyiony tral. art sapien: We reeenaceal te yr en Aroscon in = bata chacrl at the toh of he moe, hove « toe or cove hiece Sikh fe fumas chanel Tow fw sy ces Se ovanuiiten Byer emaes ak spurs os dog: has oa ard [liuniagrecmre bin pikcterderteciccens Toe scien cncen se: Teese diteuy "grovted that You chuck the help" yourt haw taken some eur Mgnt" Lis hose fan’ Lane. S08 sche hat avlae ace the tonnes) of te letrunt foward pretopnhe ofa chassis nye mroresnwumennieey mati (ort win ale of eel ‘goin has mo promate ge wore mut and the printer ho cera oencs —Migget anes the weltinown itseaisey tere are Some “Amcaca bcs om mating sic page (07) Wit) lent bat we rprogce thse on poae 2. Exrec™ Wenger Li, Etuta, Pobit seeat, Tee’ ore. weed by Sess Weteatng eu bere Toca on the Ani hase’ ile fn hie ge Pee ages ee oie: ae eee ce ‘Slow ‘of tw mes Now, ‘mato no bolingving ore of te apa typ on cur fame Or Te canbe eed, Test cut ceramic earners tae eauay mistake; this is an EXACT measure of the Crada_90R electric cooker reached and ‘ ature is reached, and are used in work and is effective up to around 800°C. temperature ~ in fact, one form of stabilised at 780°C after running full on for ‘Kilns, where careful temperature | use it very successfully, but also use a. Sremetrmaiee wo of he cose Too 1B rane wah open aver Kanda mmr wr corel rears | we ver eevee bt te 8 fecvoney of bation, ofthe stom treed of Courier Toe GR cased stove pope etter tan eid eh ocected chal tod Wh eto fucure’ia rec fancon ofthe buming Phumache” tne ‘eggoaped gametes tet sey cute aed nitrous, ca a Sante tmprane,an'iisaguaney thine! ley between 1000 ar 100°C Tan thoi sie onto ep ond ‘tmreons the com ofthe lige cht afer about 18 mares Govg wp te | MMMM ot proven miss bo maine ermat ean, tee ore om eb 38 fmt "The problem es in how 10 tre, the Tebed Beng about 7 ‘ches giugdin attic ae al secs ant ve rus ofcourse Ge pula ot bate Brest pe Soe me be Wh my Soe pr tyou mae the ood fom tal quencing) Tas i sfocive leo Bom Stren potaiy wo not copie alr There ae a few other ues. The wer ane or tice am, thon the have te teadantagy tha oe olor Somes oe bttg edo tl nfo fut idea trperure at“ pon” Ry sais Je hate te tooug Gtk wer tromeee oo marae Some, Tatas: my have Se Which tne ecu Wil emf ang beet. Beast atscees seas sie, cnet pscuou te iced her venl Ooh eoarare oon ThisoyIndencon or you ee min | mmmamrts mnt Tow nee, And Gc cravat, eove, cla flow fhe vou «proper ugar For what tout 90°C ofthe rogues tenons Eicialeviecccreccncl cut tawes bace se coten Srdih oeoerotone olsen ret (mpeg. proved you are shove tis ie for Shvor Sto berwean (ene! place of ap steel fr nad ot 4 srouard yon or an hve adopad the rect poi You wl st some hare tre 630°Cl you wil ge SOME. Se cartos Sie! conple ont proved fetowing “nares forts tlctemeoenefec but noe ¥ yo ae holw i) Vor ing eet, thaigh not way good st you ene mat Sth the ween an insanity orm it Gur NOT. on amy esr io the vest pot ver slg ices, Sea oe ee ee eet es faown ale’ Wa toga Beco lew” ous scat ean™ cas [mms rent neta tae iota ran me sae te tite, ach mates pips amr of ony tha sal cate wo be megnat You owt emourcece nan aul ecleren te eel cet tetera wih ont ot julgenen. oop cheng ho ght oe. Sener niet s co mmtece thee oan Gere cc eran: Beeaeal eah Ra Teaes Wier see erotic: “med eo in ee 100% ut nes Siterrapen nr parpeoerhsee for por tocr fot aed hese bomt ne Bove Sona te here ba tt he eget aoleed peered 200°C Chery ot Fikepecmal neipocscrdrekonve ct (Mmmmmmay sep SR FC make oS le Sn een QUENCHING store foe Mis tio “Trans hale Bees ok eo 900° Bright Rea ify Cravont” avalible, of tro tywes, Or muffle fumave for even a new one!) There are three quenching mediums in 100" Nolowsed anges cobur when the tamoerare Be st ome of he cerovarguments common we pa sre bine, and ented or Oe, Secat & eeaeds is ite chee Sis Cheap ont ony to sti end ‘The best thing to do to find someone other fs “swoked" ver the work and if Sealing. Ths i of litte importance in a will serve almost all the model engineer's woes eum tunsch wipro, ekg wfaer we secmue he oroosure Ere kee meee ee eT omen cr ange a ch wi to Ow foes Easinicaise ogo nace? | ee ee a a a ee en Technical College, and have the fwnace shorter, too high, Both are pretty accurate ‘which cannot be formed on the cooling ~ the results are more uniform. Olt brought up tothe vious temperatures so provided they haven't baen instock fo rene that you ean 3 ‘ean bee nuaanes, Hnot essential whan quenching compex ste ey ake: “yeaa SMe ty erent a Newnes Ht aly, It using 2 mute the scaling shapes ~ the slight loss of hardness is ee a”coaptad at 2 fale exchange for the reduced isk of distortion ae racking, fin. sts eotng prose with the = the generation of steam all over th ‘workpiece. This causes en intense. and Yaporieation ‘of water Is. very high However. thi recut in the workpiece steam is 9 vary poor conductor of host Hf thie insulating coating. wore not removed. 5, the work must be agitated Inthe bath: if this le done, thn cooling Dreceedt at ¢ tainly rapid and stony rte {ini the approach Ya 100°C. (As we sh mmporant takes pac, but the presence ofthe satin the steam blanket, For some reason the paling appears to be more evan but I faster ~ about tice as fast os water covn, to 300°C or thereabouts. Brine Ts invariably used for “water” quenching steels in Industry, and the figures quoted 10% saltwater brine Gil behaves quite differently (Assuming » proper “Cold Quenching OF ig. used. “Motor Oi!” wil have aute Uinpreloteble resus) Itt slower in the intial cooling, because oll hea a much lowrar atent heat than water, Onca the ‘vapour blanket” start to frm, however, ‘ho cooling rat (with the sare ogres of Sgitaton! fe very ite cifferent from that Bt water, Below 400°C, however, the 0 Eools tie work very much slower. Using test rig was found (ith ti unogitated fluids) that water would take about 2) standard probe trom 800°C to 420°C. band oi shout 5. anconds ~ no grea Aitfronce. But whereas the water cooles fall to 200°C, oil took 28 seconds. Thi tough the lower erica temperature a both are rapid. enough to prevent the ich slower rate of eoaing In the lower Imaches — below 400°C — with of mea thatthe transformation to. Martenste takes ‘place ina much more lsiureh fashion, and his ices th sk of at tion and cracking considerably. The Mle Cooled trom (sy) 200°C. This test was, ‘though the ertical range for that ~ but it oes give an indication of she diferent ‘behaviour of the two fide. Agitation wi ‘of the cooting curve wil be similar. For model engineers, therefore, we can ‘Ulimate hardness is needed. Ol should b hardened jigs — preferably using Proper olkhardening ste! forthe later a= {ie formulated to avo dletrton. T? brine i made rom “"Vacvum-dred Salt Gesirable for 2 quonch-bath in 8 1 10% Solution is general ~ 12-16or/gallon 20-1 00gmive In usa, some of th we wll evaporate and ths must be made UP [An ld test was that afresh potato woul! 75°; float nit but you can easy make up you! Local ovehmating Is simost inevt- i sole test cramer you want tobe tle exy-scetene i ved goto 225° E {this In mare deal later Tia type ean be DB plosc ube i weighted so tha ineperate, wih ote acuions forming ; ie wth the fop about finch above the inthe grein Boundaviereeeting the : sinatra ten eatooted sta aden or eryting but a sh i ting Kin bine of leing srngthe. The commeanest fey, though, wh ou stort withthe quanen bata 8%, workgnaces which ate ster very thin or t id lt it dowen when it tops 10% you will which have a-very unawen cross section. 235° 5 within the not very important limits, The scriber-point ts just such a cose: itis risation. Occasional ne finds Imposste to, eat the pera acton foo! that has boon propery sted, event. The remedy here 9 frm the ting shouldbe, but somehow Ktaperand th pon by Grncing far nest : not seem to Be hard. A fio can teatment. Footer cebes "sp. where é Fieicrt However, any atompt tosewit tore ta eral! promusion ons lager 245° i pve results in a sanbladevann no eth mass the romedy is foe Rest snk I The case surface decrbrteatn A pice otra tel vith hel nt not i the outer skin of the metal has last some to0 large a piece: something in proportion < Hicarbon conent and tant hardan- to te mam aso of metal) set over he i ible ses! sry more This is the origin of daca part, snd the hole bested un ov Re old biackzoit's rl frge lage snd one. The onder partis protected fom the 235 g Ipfnd small”. The tool was slways forged cirect heat ofthe flame, ard wil each the : [erie 0 that any dacarburied surface proper trnperature jut the seme, both by 5 uuld have to be ground off. The problem conduction from the main body and by 3 Tot seu forhe mada engineer ae ho radation from the shild. The protecting 3 ot hasing sols wih shana sp to's held Mut of couse be removed befor aes" i Gouple of Tochow square, but ‘it san quanching, No problem eae of course i Pen ‘rth ores hosting. ' Mis caus’ by te ston of onygen an" Metal wher Crees wil snost ral ond” ths is ono reaton for _certinly crack on the quench The best z ing the use ol oxy-ges howtng proce fe to step. wrk, anneal the oe : Tomes Icon ano becausesby sea you pace, and start again, However, the ; Bvt recat rom Chi. thot Wiovght ton stot’ buen ought up badly ‘over i piece by he racton of kon oe tmperstxe - elownred, fr enna : BUM Si cascx cr eaclsiing torus sour e kes ox fotor dan 265" x Tis fest place. 2s suggested above. | have this, throw it away: it won't be any use j Wey ise trouble with tools around 8/18. nt a8 tool tee ony. Bp a8 inch square, bu the few halinch ""Whuther water, one, of ol 6 ued ' Nehos were sil made deliberately about some dans wil collet inthe boro of Bis2 ich oversce ate port's permit tne tan In tho cove Of OF (is Toy 295° i futcent gncng own include some. sludge, which, might i SSvernoeting. Tha can ase fom several ineare wih the. quench hn Industry iy faites ‘The frst — sheer forgetuness, siorste methcds are used to keep the Bitton tne work is tet in the Moule too bathe clan but fr vs, simpler mathoos 305" Br Ew can pore; Sw cue Te tp tare sbi: For wats ls! pour h oa # iy 318° ” ie -‘and use tes, Brine may be kept longer {in plate containers, not metal and thon Mashed down the sink with plenty of ‘ater It should last along time seyray- Oil is more precious and costly, ut “Simple strainer con be vse 10 remove the ‘irs Keop oid onthe al-bath when nctin tise. I find thot evan affer two years my ‘on bath seldom needs cleaning. an tte ol more than most made! enginear= “The proper oi should be used if at posable There are various grades, and tach oll company has is ew. | use BP. "duendia A22"" though tho “Quen 19" i¢ almost as good and cheaper. Its Unfortunate that thaso oleae no longer Supalid inthe old one gallon tins. but @ 26 ire (abou 8 gallon! dram can bo shared between friends and 2 200 tre ‘rum could be cheaper sill for club Purchase. Fang 8 special oll @ good "Spindle Oi" of about SAEIO 0 20 viscosity wil serve. But NOT motor il ‘which is blended for quite dierent sevice nd characteristics, and most ‘emphailealy NOT "sod motor oi This 'Sdowrvight dangerous it can contain up ‘0.26% of the heavor fractions of petal ‘and can flash of into fous fe fused for quonching hot meta. ‘The ‘size of the quench beth must accord with the sae and quantity) ofthe ‘fork passing through at any one. time ‘Whotter woter. Brine, oF ell the amount ‘ahauld be T gallon per ib of het mata 10 Iewsig} to avoid uneve temoerature rise Achattineh tool & inchow long weighs ‘Zoout 013510. For vie odd cere punch ‘3nd similar smal casual jobs keep 22108 “Golden Syrup" tn. a8 these have good figs, but for serous work 3. plastic ‘builders bucket” does very well (They ‘ean be hod! with id). This wl hold up to {wo gallons and is very robust ~ i wil ‘even withstand the accasional accident ‘with Rot metal on the plastic! | have 3 38 larger tin foro whieh once hel emulsion ‘ain thi has a fd but arm sorry to is ‘that present ay paint tins have very p00” tops, Mine holds sbout ? gallon, whieh is ‘ite adequate fr al he work do, The. intial temperature of the beth ‘should not be too cok. True, you get 2 better quench the colder itis nave ay ‘ecaunt of tools quenched in oezing e210 ‘mercury! But you do have to compromise against the risk of cracks. Something between 20°C and JO°C te about rgh* However. in tho summor | just use tap ‘rater which has stood In the worshon {or while: in winter draw some kom the hot tap. Ol! should beat about 25°C “These figures are not erica ~ no need to go round with provision thermometers 10 Imesture thom! A seul pow to note Is that brine or water at 70°C will ve 2 ‘Similar effect 6 that obtain from ced ot ‘andi you have problems with 3 “workoiace constantly sracking in the har heating the wat ‘Quench in water at 90°C wil ot harden fatal but it can toughen the soe! lite “The cooling in th cave Is almost eartin ‘ome Peale formation” ‘Quenching Technique. This does require some sttemtion. Far too many people sc the work inthe water and sit it abou lenny. The recommendation soon in tome books that the water in the Bucke! Be set In rotary mation and the tol taker own vericaly at one side is even more Unforunate. Look at Fig-18. The waters pissing the work (or the work passing rough the water same effect wih the fesut that there Je 8 reduction in wats? pressure on the downstream side, This ‘oons that steam wil form more reac fon that side and. it will be. undor ‘Quenched. There is plenty of motion 10 ‘Gaplace steam at the front, and perhaps ‘the sides. but vory lle at the back jon is inevitabie: indeed, skied le ‘combined with an equally tay warical up anc down motion, so that /ork travels on 3 halcal path through uenchart. Al sides get equal ret 1 The motion should be just enough ‘eam bubbles they oer ymoce. Aang more violent than thet ore harm than good ‘long and slender object — sey 2 “oven this gente rotary motion MV be 109 much. In which cese you must feontent with 2 simple up-and-down again, fast enough to remove oubbles but no mare. Vou must ry fr yourself ~ a litle experiment than several pages of mine. The Js to remove the steam Bubbles the middle part of the quench — or tho ‘vapour Blanket inthe case of oi. With 9 very large object you may have to move ‘mare, but sil get, avoid hot coolant Dut clearly a large piace noeds. 2 larger ‘quench tank, and you should net ty 10 get Sway with an Inadequate volume of {aolant In industry, of course, elaborate Systems of ‘propeller, underwater jets, ‘hu 0 on, ero used to get a contrat but endom movement of the coolant in which the work can simply be lowers Even so, it does need 2 fot of experiment and ii interesting te know that tha best files ~ even though made by the thouserd ato tl hand quenched in rine. ‘There is just one point about the oi ‘quench which may be helpful find that 2 Seepish bath ie Better than one of the Same volume but “fatter” This means thatthe type of workpiece which needs at fil quanch ean be moved mote ina ‘erieal direction than otherwise In many 39cases | find that no rotary motion is feeded at al ‘Stage Quenching The cial par of the quench ie to get the work reduced in temporature past the knee ofthe "5" curve {ig 15, just to. remind youD) Once past this point the cooling can be quite 3 bit ‘ower — Martonsite wil til form. Tas being so thete would seem to be a reason why we should nat remove tho ‘werk from the bath once it has got cown 4. sty. 300 to 950°C, and oot the rest of ‘the way ina second bath. This is dane in commercial plants almost universally. It hhas several advantages. The primary bath does not hest up sa much — important it You hove 2 number of peces to.quench. It Using brine, the second bath ean be clean ‘water which wil remove most ofthe sat ‘nd there wil be Tess evaporation from the brine BOM iteett There ino need! Tor ‘gltaton in thi second ath — the metal {an take its ow time, The only care you ‘must. taka. foto. avoid droping. the workpiece, especialy iis Frage. It will be potty bitin athe stage Partial Quenching There is no need 0 ‘quench the whole of fargo workpioca {her howd to heat the whole of for that ‘maton if only part neods hardening. After felorging ‘the ‘end of my. plckaxe, for example an act which wil have 40 annealed it, a6 the forging temperature is ‘bout 860°C — Ist heat up to borweor "Blood" and "Chery" red and quench us} the ond 6 inchs. the point is thon briskly fubbed with 8 broken grindstone, wah te hot pat lai on my small pv to act as heatsink. Thon, whan the point Is clean, | hold it to the ight und the colours an up {temper the point. Thus the pet is har ‘and tempered but the main body of the head is eitvely soft 1 shal be expandinn fon Tempering inthe next chapter, but ca Soy now thot this procedure is quite legitimate, thoug!s nowadays one woul! bbe hapnier or important tools) temper heat cous be hel for long "To sum up. We must heat the me slowly, Both fo ensure that is hot ahs fvough and 80 thot the tansformatiens needed heve sufficient sme to toke place ‘We must “acak" the metal atthe harden ing" temperature. choosing the temporature spproprista to the mater being used. The “quench” should follow Immediately, and this must be dono in 9 ‘manner whien remover steam bubbles without causing violent edesins. th Cooling emedium. find he vonch tank must be proportioned to. the siz0 ane fQuseity of the stork io hen all ‘der you should get optimum hardness very time! It only Temains to temper fd tis we dea wien inthe next chapter in Chil, and to some extent the fof camper also. But whilbt the femperature is fein easly dates {,dopariing mainly an the carbon the tempering tre dopende almost entirely on lise 10 wien the tao! ‘even sufficient to sy" the temper nesdes (ay) for turing iA. will be vory ciforent fom that 110-8 #00! to cut chilod cast “The effect. ab wo have already seen, No improve. the toughness — stance to shock ~ at the expense of tthe hardness. A too! not sublect | shock, such as a fle. may not be pered at al, while a spring will be re simost 10 sot. follows thet rable personal judgement must be Henly to take account of te work ly done in the shop. One reason for pg carbon steel tools instead of HSS ‘how 8 must That the actual shape of the “will vary from staal to steel. with for example, showing 2 "paak” of Toughness at a relatively low temper. tt must be said, too, that tho. loss of hardness may be more apparent than rel, 4nd is ifeut to put a number to, Indeed ‘he point ofa lsthe toc! may well show 4 \vartion of two points on the Rockwell Seale over the surface. (orcnese testing ‘umbers ard ther determination are cow ‘dered in Ch) There isa further pint and ane which bolave soften averooked Just ax quoted cutting seeeds in Production Engin textbooks are geared to industria model engineering, conditions, so are the racommendod tempering tomporatures in toolmker's catalogues” and) metallurgy textbooks. The temper they suggest for a carbon steel athe. too) for example, ‘auras that it wll be in use for 2 full Sores of shits aver e 44 hour week (Actually, probably 2 86 hour week a the time the Book was written’) Some of my form tools have ha no more han haan hhou’'s workin twerty years! So use your ludgement. bear in mind the discussion in Chil "and, above al. experiment The bremior model enginesring cub, Ie ater the “Society of Model and Exper ‘mental Engineers" ‘Tamperatures. Hoving asi sil that, lw ny tb ge some help In tho form of {uldaines Inthe table below. I have run asj T i] Avercan fs worked thle tempers wo have en set we in ee | irae raharrder than ede: intho 80" ex refresh, Mente ied to Won out thee soap race was Met enabiched 0 Tur where in out I have carbon sel tou wae uve ee gab \ cards te Kr Raut he em | sg unt of the ier day eo me a ‘ | me hi : a : 3c hove seoy pointe oun te cating i cole ‘ublenora my eer o"aowadgen were aubertto an Bor 10 hour Be sad ise" ated of otis th actsl Say " ae rein *C. The folowing con be used os It fe obvious that we must temper U 5 dawn tha shank, thorsise the ag al aa ta {Grom wl ens teat, but bre ses : | i t Haig won be sion iter is any 4 ol eee ‘shock fosd= on a lathe tool, atleast the got ud fodaee vad cabanas j } ud 21sec Loh Purle 276°C Per L | a Siw 25°C Dok Purple 285%¢ ey 700 = 0 00 asec Dok Ble 205% | Ae RE ReRRRRRE SRST ERAN ENNIS Siow 245°C Buea Soon ins que a ttt ver i oor 10 18°C Higher than ds Gxovean oe. [MMM caccorow 25660 sine Sunes, eiernsteare and Tis may Se Ove to te serra Siren ters quote veyng temps for speciation | sapect probaly owned 20500 Aoye about 330°C the some tools. In parila, American because, atthe end of the 19th century Feterence books seem to give figures 10 when much of the work was. fre Bees cca ee cies ct ‘strong tungsten amp electrie ght willbe gute 3 fault judged under 2 thease Now. the cuting edge is subject 10 heating. We can use higher eating speed with "High ‘Speed Stee!” simply Because ite tempering temperature Tee bbetwoen 800 anid 700°C: some graces ‘TEMPERING TEMPERATURES FOR VARIOUS TOOLS Avo 200°C Die Deaing) 200°C aseaneee will ill cut when red-hot. We use lowor Ammingstor 255 Dalleryamad 210 2isa38 Ponies petra tame g he ameningtool 170190 Daimat) 220240 20240 ‘again about what we are dong. The tool point does get at all hot it wil hoerTendl 290 Billagel_ 288 200 ‘Of tempering. is 10 increase the "Temper dovin’ and sottan. Cleary, the Chiteonming 160 Enpvarsiels 230280 none ness resistance to shock and lower the intial tempering. temperature Cai oni 210.290 Gao 220 aa0280 ing ~ even though this means 2 the less risk of damage to tha too! point Emmietore 220240 Hemmmertead 230280 dat ht oss_of hardness, Clearly, ina trom wear. And the heer the fool point Sete Sg aie eed inch the risk of damage from to begin with. the longer it wil ako to [2 “Sher Stecrmye wpe ty on Egs hn cron a ey Ts considerable. But in the cate of to's, WHEN EMPLOYED ON THE ‘OF WORK DONE BY MODEL INEERS, | would suggest that the heat it up to danger point ver tn effect) "tempers sel” and ies hardness. For these reasons my practice fr some time has boon to temper lathe tools very 4alightly — just sufficient to etoct litle sain referent and fo give some stress alto the crystal structure; thee ist tome marked Inereace in toughness Ist {temper the whole foo! at between 180°C Sand. 200"C. and ‘hen “let down” the Shank ony. at around 280°C whilst aoping th too point cool ethorin a bath of water or by using the ancient davies of Sticking the business and inte @ now dog orato. This gives excelent results. both ‘with “Sivor ‘Steal™ and with a straight 1.15% carbon steek. use an even more fefined metod for my Wory-urring tools ‘and those for slde-est work when “orn ‘mentally turing” In exotic wood. ond this Ieaeatt with on page 78. Tempering Procedure. To be properly cffctve the tempering process must be {ven time fo work ond we ore alan faced as in the case of heating before ‘Quenching. with the need v9 be sure that the tool is hot right through. If we have 2 tempored surface with a Brite cove we have. not teally reduced the isk of fraoking under load atl The ru fe the same = ONE HOUR PER INCH OF THICKNESS, though this i not quite 20 important in the €ase of 2 too shank Wwhore any temper between 260 ard 290°C will serve For tho toot point. of course, the rule spplivs to the thickness there, not that of the shank. Now, ore of the virtues of the “classical” tempering ‘method — allowing the heat to creep Up {ho shank to the point ~ is that thie heat travels in the main, tyough the 2ore oF the too and provided the shank is hosted gent enough, the “soaking time" will took after ital Even ro, there ie 2 isk ‘hat the tamper may not Be complete: yes "know it works, bt rs 0 easy to make t work better andl we should aways try {or perfection. We wil look at this "easy ‘method in moment. a ‘Tempering should take place a6 soon 1a 5 practicable ater quenching. The tool ould, ofcourse, have cooled to not more than 80°C, end ‘cooling to. roam temperature is ster. The reason for this ‘expeditious tempering is thatthe metal Under internal teas from the quench aod it's ia most usual the workplace hoe 3 “shape” G5 opposed to being just @ block there Is risk of spontaneous cracking ‘ting from diflermtia! contraction 3 all There is also tsk of "oazing” time cracks: these cen appear ool is Iefttoo tong inthe a6-qvanched condition ‘This need for “haste” is one reason why eralogises and. gunsmiths like the “vlazing off procedure ~ the tempering takes lace 3s s00n 35 the work comes ‘out from the Guenching ‘il If for ey ‘eason tempering must be deloyed then i ‘ay help the work ot in bling water for'a querer of en hour or 30 belore setting Mt aside to await the final West Heating for Tempering. First the “easier way" mentioned above. Go and look 2 the cooker inthe kitchen. You wil see that ithae a thermostat on the ovon if 99s oF flectic fod. or builtin thermometers Tei fied by sod Tue You wl think ed that the thermestet_goes up neatly 10 300°C — certainly to 260°C ~ or to “Gos Mark 9°. (Degrees Centigrade — 140 > 11 times the gas mark approximatohy) So, {yu have 3 good thermostaticaly” con tolled, of at loast “Temperature indicat ing’. tempering furace on the promises! The cookery ‘book. will give you the temperatures, and if you time things right you can set your tool in the oven slong ‘ae the joint. The table below gives the Usual temperatures used in this sort of heat weatmont shop, though the time my vary abit depending onthe judgement of ‘the oven-shop forewomen. rah stow 2% Braised pigoon, 45m: Cassoroes, 24 hlast stage of roast duck ete 3h Roast chicken 20m/b: ast stage ‘of roast beef, 15m/b. Gowayopic,1$h:Mince pies, 25m Cheese straws, 15m. 1G Yorkshire pudding, 25m: most pos, 25m: Firat stage of roast duck or 16. First stage of roast boot ‘or pork, 20m jon, you probably have 9 deep ‘hip-pan. Chips are cooked at Je for § minutes of 20. and then at 798°C, but the oll con be taken up 10 about 200-210" ‘octc cooker. (One has 10 be fn 8s, unless the as fresh il spiting and some vapour {you compare the above with the fon page 42 you wil oe that this Tworkshop can temper many of Nools for you while. parorming its office, and iis only necessary {oo for a6 am concerned, anyway) {he oven or chip-pan should not be ‘out of cooking hours” and in this on It worth ting that 3 t001 ‘Ought to be tempered at 200°C Dbtter vated ties “cooked! fr ts ‘2 190°C than if merely “heated the colours run up". The frying oll ys usetl as the heat transfer is ‘The any caveat | would entr i it would be prudent to use an oven or ‘hermomoter a8 the thermstat can, of course, use “frying of” asa ing cil in the workshop, ond you ‘Sil be able to obtain the special “Tomporing Oils" which can be used 12 temperatures as. high as. is normally Needed. (Quenching oil is not suitable Howaver, you do need substantial com tainer ~ a 'thin ene may overeat the ol locally ~ and fusing gas heating. a genio flame, not the sort You Would Use Tor brazing. ‘The Salt Bath isthe normal method of ‘tempering used industry Tempering Sas are quite innocuous, being a mixture Of Sodium Nitita and Potassium Nivate, Iwarte, and Nivatel which melts at 180°C. Again, you nead’a substantial Container, and | use the outer vessel for ‘an old-fashioned slue-pat. Fig 20 shows the setup: the old boring ing | picked uP ato sale fora few pence finally gave up, land you see the pot here on a roplace- ‘ent Ordinary mercury. thermometers Uoualy nitrogen file, are avaiable which {9 up t0 400°C, and are not expensive — they can be had trom laboratory equin~ ‘ment suppers, or ordered through your focal pharmacist. Alternatively the well known "Rototherm” al thromaters can be usod. But for mest of our work 39 ‘oven thermometer from a scrapped ‘cooker will go up high enough ~ though it ‘may be marked in Fat “The salts are marketed dough Edge Vaughan & Co, Legge Strect, Bie rmingham and it may be that by th thie book Ie published the usual mode ‘engineer's suppliers will market thom to father small quarcties. (Direct Supply ftom Vaughens. may involve a "Chib fpurchasa). Thore ar, of course, 2 number Of rand, but the only sort | Rave used Is tho DEGUSSA typo" TS1SO/AS140. It ‘comes a8 8 powder of the consistency of domestic salt but must bo kept dry, 36 it ‘can abso rotator fait quickly. Wie ‘pon-txie, and tho only serious hazard is that ike some woodkilars, fF absorbed Into’ woodwork for your overalls) it 4s‘supports combustion”. | deal with Safety” in heat treatment on page 102. and only mention this now to roassure you that we arenot taking about moteal which s poisonous, "The great advantage of this method tke that ting the oven) fs tho you Nave complete contol of the Temperature 19 ‘within degre or 30. Thor s no probleme ‘th "ie you cn leave the workin as {ong 08 you tke. And the actual time can Dea it shorter, as the et transfers very {eed indeed. The one thing you do have (0 Watch i that there Ie no ll oF water topped In ite holes, as this would be dangerous, The procadure is fest to bring the beth up {0 the working temperature ‘The workpiece eon be set slongsioe tho pot to dry you have any doubts about it being dey. Nth oll-quonched work | Usually wash in carbon tetrachloride oF Similar “degreasent), You need some ‘means of holding the work ~ itis no fun {roping about in hot motton Slt fi it ‘piece of wire wound round wil serve Irnmerse the metal low you wil notes that the temperature fai, Dut wal slowly 46 Fi 20 si opin a ba a fise again — thore is not. 26 2 rule, any heed to Increase the heating rato, Leave the work Infor the proserbad tm, hs fn eye on the temperature you may mas fo adjust the control switch from tine "s ime, but iit stays within 8 few depron, thie il bo sufiion. The piece can oe Allowed to acco! after the time is uc hore is eed! to “quench: quenching la only necessary. when, asin flame heating, stored hatin one par of theo ‘ight overheat the part being tempers, Any salt whieh adheres can east ‘washed of in warm water afterwards ‘Once you have tempered the too! overall in this way the shane ca be "a own” with a gas torch. 35 | have p ously exotaines. With miling caters, bits tap, es, or anyother complicsse tools his isnot naceasary. In the case o! long tools tke reamers you mey have ‘o Use a doop waterbath with some means ‘of naling the tool upright in odor to ‘down the diving aque on the.end ‘The sat bath fs ho ansve to almost a the problems met within tempering. Fo ‘complex shapes sepectaly mil ‘utters itis almost the ony way that tool ean be tempered proper. and size no problem either, proviged the pot roportonad fo the sien of to work yo hed about TOI of salt for one fy of stl but fien'terieal. You must of course remember thatthe tie wl ise wher the ‘wore goes in: dont fit the pot too fl Finally, @ detall point on esting. Wher tol 8 erust will form on tha top of Sa Initial heating must be slow, and It = ‘vegble to apply just a litle hat to ‘outside atthe ton ofthe pot to get litle ‘melt around the crust. fs should ab}? beinplace when restarting 2 sat pot Tempering. This is the method {modal engineers are accustomed 0. / even you have a sal urnace fant worth Tring fe up Fall that eating isa rehardened screwarver thre a8 many jobs in the average Wushop for which. sophisticated sare rit worth while. OF course i have no saltbath, and the use of gatlc oven and chip pan are deried Hthen you mist use "temper colours indieate the temperature It esnrot in way be ciadsined a2 "bod practice’ [method has been used for centuries, [swords and plko heads in the days there were any athe-tols ‘olours are formed by 3 fm of fo which is very thin Indeed and which thicker 2 the torperatureIncroass. js seem that he colour changes. 9 due to tho light reflecod trom tho ofthe metal self passing through @ thicknesses of the onde. Cer The eiference between the colour tech and Figh-carbon steel Is ‘ut is there, as is the cifference jeon thot of quenched and hed carbon staal. The effctis 10 3 variation Io temperature for the shade, but this le only. the odd ‘ertigrade and is not important urface finish should not be too “dull but smooth mat surface Unines you are blueing the steal for mails effects. Tho colours wil, of rum into each othe ifthe work is fed from one end, and they should be cin a fuse light to avole specular “The most usual diiuty isin ing when to stop; the straw may No be too pale. and thon, betore have rime ta think, becomes too dark is pemaps 2 stronger argument for ‘and gentle heating than any thet has ‘none before! It does help to have @ piece (f Cold steel alongside for comparison tt ‘he very pafest straw Is the aim. As S000 25 the colour i right” the piece must be ‘quenched ~ in ol or water ~ to prevent ‘ny heat stored in the shank of the tool {rom taking it further. The quenching ‘eves no. purpose s0 far 66 the actual tempering is concerned. "The work can Be heated in 2 blewilamp, using # VERY soft flame, but whenever possible | use @ spint lamp. It is quite Sequate for most sis of too and ‘hough it takes rather longer than 9 ges bbumer thse all othe goos: Wo are notin {hurry It provides avery clan lame, anc ‘ane hich oes not intrire with colour formation. Even so, ii necessary 10 remove the work Worm the fame 10 ‘observe the colour, as twill not develop propery in the presence of burning fuel. Indeed it i possible actually to remove the cour with @ reducing "ype of fame Naturally, you must keep the work moving about ithe flome in order to gst ever heating i you are tempering the whole ‘Objects which ara of can be oificult. The. Spallad to tho heavy part of the seetion, ‘and you must Keop 0 very caret eve on things. Fine comers may "take off inte the ue before the main body na reached straw. Fer such work labways use the salt bath se domestic oven. But f you Imus usa a lame, go very iowly Inde. The diffeuty with the” dvect| nesting method is that we are applying the heat ‘rom the outside. snd there can bn ‘uarantes thatthe internal structure i UP to the temperature: certainly wor't be YoU heat too icky Te'fame Heating is the ooly means available, then you can try one of the "camivdirect™ methods. One vihich te often recommended iso Bring» fy ‘hick steel pte up to just bolew dull a arand to expose the worksiece to. the fadlant heat. turning H about tho whi ‘The higher tempering temperatures may ‘noed the plate tobe ed hot You ean do.2 ‘mise thing with » frebrick oven just lrrango 3 few ftbrieks to form an open box heat hem with 9 toreh, aa ehen Rod the” work inskde with tongs. again, ‘urming it about all the time. Many Use 8 ‘and-bath. A tay of dry sand Is heated {rom below and the wor ether laid up on ‘ar buried, the sand boing tured aside 10 Inspect the colours fom time to time. (it hes to have a thin plese of similar ‘mateca nid om the surface of the ban that case to act az aninlcaton. The sand ‘must. ofcourse, be Kept well tree whist heating to make cure that tis at an avon omporitite. | would not recommend and for temperatures in the “Pale Straw region, but for dooper colours It works wel 8s soon a8 you see pale colour you Know thatthe others are nat far behind Transmission Tempering This is. the “classiest” way for lathe tools, but it can be extended, The tool is heated at the Shank ond, and 36 this tums bie, so the purple ~ dark straw ~ staw ~ pale straw olour run towards the point As soon 3 the pale tw reaches the region of the ating ege the too! Ia quenched, point down in wter The vets ofthis method 's, a8 | hve already suggested. thatthe heat travels down insige the metal, end we can be fly sure that the tampering has reached the centr, The sffiulty fe oe Ss AMA rae 48 that the tempor is uneven, fom Poin backwards. In the’ case’ of = knife ‘here. wll be. marked ifference hardness. along the citing edge, art porting. toel wall get some a6 its aground, This isthe main reason wh | hanged t0 the. twostage™ temeerng process alroady described. Nevertneoss the method is sound, and if are Is taken [very gentle heat with the flame movet backwards, away from the point, a the work gets hotter satisactory results cin, be assures ‘The ides can be extended. Fig 2) shows & method of tempering # smal milling cutter, of the type (used in Fovology hich ie screwed on to an Brn collet arbor. The copier rod ie theasod Sd seemed into the eater, an! estos with ¢ blowismp, The heat runs dover th ‘od teough the metal ofthe cuter thy teoth. Note thatthe cutter is set on the ‘od 90 shown 20 thatthe tent ere mor) for foes of uniform datance trom the ot fod. Fig 22 shoves a similar deviee In use tempering 2 die. In this case the circus fl fe werlged ints the and of © piace = ‘copper tube, which as four sits in he fond Thar a bal of soe! wo ins {be just below fot not tovening the ce to peovant hot ait curents fom esta the eentte part The tube transmits heat tothe aie from the outer permet and. the whole ig quenched when the utting edges reach the right temperature ‘Again, the heating must be gon. Te tage Fore is thatthe outside ofthe eh acta more or lose a 9 spring in 9} i hotter than the cutting edge ge, more seepy tempered ~ a3 doubt if many pepe make thelr own Saws these days, but similar fan’ be tempared by. ofpning en two washers on a bol ald by 3 he heat is applied by heating the Many other examples wil come to ‘The object isthe same In all cases: 10 heat from tho part of tho too! ‘need ot be hard, towards the fedge: and. second, to arrange 20 thot where. possible the host through the interior of the tool the cutting edge trom within (Of. This 6 appicable mainly to Wien has been oll quanched. AS 8 te moved from the quenching the too! or component ished over lame unti the residual oi ignites burs away. The heat so olnace the ‘aken from the torch or lame empors tho work For lrgerpincas Books” suggest binding some ion ound, 10 Nold more oil The "theory feed Is thatthe temper temperature red with the lash pot of the “This Is nonsense, The flashpoint 's ‘an indication ofthe tempersture at lnder very artificial sonations| i start to ignita. Tho actual tomporature ‘will depend on the mass of the and the amount of el retained, 'as on the heating vale ofthe ei the experienced provtioner and for small clock pars lke else springs Dales, the system works well but Will have experimented a great deat ost moran wil "know thar of ane in old books were the result ‘of decades if not centuries of wal with ‘rom the sperm wale but with the variety avalsle and used today | ‘would nat eave t9 give ay instruction st except to "Experiment fst. It works ‘ery effactvaly but does need experiance ‘To sum. up: the ides! tempering radium i the seit or ol bath wth the ‘domestic oven or chip pan a practicable ‘ternative, With thass methods the exact Temperature of the work is known. od ‘condons can be repeated exactly. The Use of colours to judge the temperature is Safe but neods itl il and experiment 10 judge the tints accurately: the {amperatures will then be within the olerance” for the type of work we do. Tha. actual dogroe of tempering needed shouldbe considered, beerng in mind that ‘most of tha rocommandations in Hand= Boks ete are for industrial concitions, not those of tho modal nginesr. The temper hot should be hed fora period ~ideaty for ono hour per inch of section ~ and ‘Should. be. applied slowly. Tempering should be card out as 000 a possible ‘aftr the inal quench. | wil ade ust one 49final point; in some eases we do went 2 Surface to be of maximum hordness and at the same time to have 9 fine geain — lwearing and rubbing pants aro caver. if thief go, then itis wrth tying a temper ‘at 100°C — just bol the part in water for half an-hour or so. This wil ot reduce hhardnoaz at all. but_wil achiovo some (grain rofinement. For “fine grain” cutting {ols | suggest a procadue on page 78 |Open Fir. There may bea few modet 7 who ov a blacksrith’s hearth, erhaps. more wino have inherited in the eae times, do havea smal ith hand-drver fan and though it ‘mainly for smithy work, and than rely, | nove Rordened large objects “Tho loc job was a pickare point and confess that wnaing the hone it wearisome! The forge was the thing to use — apart om saving gas ~ 25. of couts, the point forging os wal Is the usual fusl~ proper coke, th soft stu eld for domestic fires ‘an alteroative the egg-shaped sfactured. fuel ("Phurnacite’) is ya the eggs are more or less of ‘ize Hovsecoal Is useless and in the eal stages. Once you ha ‘lowing frebed tho Ton must be itean beet preheating. whilst you bring the Fire Piece is than set the heart of the firobed, but where you can see it and sore the ‘colour. f must be turned ‘bout at itervle so that no one aide is raueht from the fan. Siow, evr Is tho order of the day. swoiding the impingement either of direct, coo! Grought or 8 drought whieh has passed though any extra hot part of the fe Overheating must be guaréed against ike the plague, and you must bear in mind thatthe metal wil fag eooier than fis ntl you get used to observing the colour Im contrat to the hot coke. You can Bring “ire up to 500°C and metal at ll in comparison, ‘A usetul expedient 18 to use the sem- Indirect method. Set 9 piece of (say! 2 inn ste! pipe i the midst of the fre Get litle above the temperaure YoU need ~ and heat the work sie it You"are then "able 10 judge the temperature more directv an, further. ‘willbe protecting the workplace both fr ld draughts and from local overheating. itis slowor, but, a= wo have seen, fort heating i NOT the prime requirement. Domestic Fires. This is # practical ‘ltemative othe smih's hearth. doe Smaller ploces. Aftor all Nasmnyih made ‘the castings for his fst steam engine in 51i Bedroom fireplace! The ordinary open frate wil get hot enough only Tor very all work, but any closed stove with @ proper air control can be used for anything hat wll pass through the front fredors, fig 22)" As with the forgo, coke oF "Phumnacite” can be used. have had ‘experience using atvacts “The grate must fst be cleared of aah 1 clinker andthe fre then built up by Using smal quantities of fuel at 2 time tint the feebod is as doop as can be fecommodated. The air must Be ro gots Griform rate of burning right through, ‘Once this i schieved the front doors lor ‘one of them) must be opened and the air ‘a in the asmpan acted vo got tha tre shove, but not 100 much above. the temperature needed Tho tool should be Seti tha uppor par ofthe fre and. as the cove ofthe smiths hearth, should be tomed about at intervals. You ned have to fers thet it wont get Hot enough; the stove in Fig. 23 can be brought up to TOOO*C very quickly indeod. ond if you fine any clinker in your grate, this is an incienion thatthe grate tempereture has, tt sometime, been of the order of 82 Pian tnd "1300°C| The main problem I fin is th Uunka the smth’s hearth you have positive central; the response t0 adjust fronts of the air valve fe som, ond You have to sntispate changes inthe rato oh boring. Naturaly, you must take account of your surroundings "it 1S your hesrtiun, | ‘eral But the main objaction Ihave to | ‘the ute of the domestic stove for harder Ing ie that the front grate-barsprevor 1 tse ofa pine of pipe. However. with Closed stove there fa lite. problem ‘Soaking’: once the fie has reached temperature It tends to "stay put” ‘tte lang enough for the size of wor formaly done, I very useful for anes! ing. as the poco can Be allowed to co teh the re overnight. Even i he feo ‘not “out in the morning this i nt impor tent. Tt wil Bove cooled. though ‘ical range very slowly end canbe et? the aehpan to fish of ‘Some books suagest thet there may a tendency. towards both scaling a decarburisation when using the smith hent®, but this need not caice us o> Inuch concern tis true that 8 heath wt ist can dacerburiae, but we are not ing with the si of york normally Dy the ol blacksmith You may need stake cae tho heating tine is hat an ‘or more, but i ie only @ cas of ing direc iwpingement of the Bast 9 seal wil be formes, of eoure, bat rls withthe closed stove then You Imagine. The atmosphere within the Ts mainly cron moneaide and ‘hare is much less. oxygen than in fan-drven frets goo ie, of course, to remove any scale may be present fom previous Work, lung the “mil scala” on black bot. aie wil be formes in the long neat cated with fie-annealing, and the dance of sale ix important the work be protected. For overnight anneal ' good way isto encase It in relay fre-coment) reinforced. with iron (Or put iin a in box packed with th ite charcoal mina with jamps_ana torches. Most model rs wil have some form of parafin G24 torch for use when brazing Sr is sl that. these should be the fist when heating for hardening | wil ‘al with the vacous types ten. | most Strongly recommend: that you NEVER, fxcapt in the most dire necessity, use Ory-Aeetyene (or Oxy-onything else for ‘any form of hardening operation unless the use of such equipment is par of your daly work Even than itisrisky. Fst the ‘fame gets too close to the work. even for {a'second, that point wil be overheated, Secarburid, and almost cnraily ser from oxide penetration atthe grain boun- Garies Second. i fs very difeult 10 get fen hating as the heat source isso con Cantrated tthe lame fs austed to aveld Sealing theres then risk of excess car burton which would result in cracking fon quenching, Finally Ite 8 very expen Sve method of heating, Few poopie seem te appreciate thet though the flame ie very hot indeed. the tual. heat output extremely low. Infact. the iargest nae In the our | nd to use for welding $ Inch ‘tel plate) gave out rther lees heat than {is my smallest paraffin blowlamp tis 2 ‘ase of horses for courses forts purpose ‘xy.scatyione torch does. ts work very ‘wall indeed, ut-that work Is not heat IWeatmont of tee! Uniess you” own 8 53‘Shortrising” sure hardening pl and that is unfcly! So, Tot us tum ‘The Torch Flame. Though | shal bo rf fing 10 "gas", the same remarks ean t opti to the peratn blowlamp Tho ciferonce inthe fuels ot import ‘the eating value per pound mass ff {quid or gos Is very nearv the same acc ald alongs the work the paratfin.(karasene in USAl Vaporised before burning, so. that th ‘The gonaral fom of the fame is nal eecentias a Gas lame. Su fren Toor crore [ACROSS the tame, but this isthe case, | Wieo 5 2 Yong inner cone it may bo that Treating wil be more ecient ithe arse Gisetes straight ott | hessame for si toe periaps some: flames wil appeer 88 shown in Fig. 23 | lfrance in colour and some fuel wl less difuse outer curtein, though Sctuel shape will deers onthe fusl ut the type of air Supply, ahd the arf the inner core andthe. neat reo causes decomposition of the rest of feel gue, These fuel constituents burn the outer anwolope. sing any excess temperature wil seldom exeeed 1100 bur fost beyond the tip ofthe Inner co the figure willbe in exeean of 1600° here ic considerable difference 10 CHARACTER of flame between those Inhich come from 2 “clf-biown” bumer {Su2h 28 those normaly used on Propane [be Butane, and those which have a Ieparatelycorvollea si supp derived fiom a fan or blower There. ie some 1 | Mtonabiy wide contre! of the 26 ofthe Mame with the soltbiown type. but any ns ange in character (og tom “bushy to owedie") requires 2 change in burner ve | Bid. With the aigae torch theres Komplete contol of the fame, boty ae to || Bae Iwithin reason) and character solely Curis not reaches Because no bumer = BF Manipulating their and. ges contol perfec ann any case theres consice!” Wales. There is no dow that the burners Sbie ‘odiation oF heat from the fams ith seperate air and gas supply and Feat. Beyond. this point the flame €0nt0l are by for the most efficient and temperature eiminishes again. es shove |BMRVenient to use. The sell-blown that 8 sila temperature gradient occu wet WBbopene brazing torch is of course, quite of the work and #f you have the Tall range of burners mil tele sl jobs the largest to the smallest. But thay , = do need careful attention both to gas prescure and to bumar head selection ‘And they do need clear ir round the bumer head except forthe speci! ones fie entrainment holes. When ved in a to devoiop auide the entrance of Kw bow ‘tel out The pavatin therosene) blowlmp is rather more Nlexble, largely becouse the fuel vapour is prehested, but ‘luo becouse the Inflammabity tit of perafin is much wider than’ that_of Butane, Propane. and Methane (N.Sea (Gas) 20 thatthe sive ato is much lost ‘Ail those flames wl if the burner size le Fan ne the tampa nt "economy I is desrable thatthe flame te short and bead rather than one wich, though equally “powerta™ in terms. of heat release i ong and needle-like. With the afges. type this requires only the manipulation of the conte But with the ‘ett blown torch the burmor head must bo selected accordingly. Those described as ‘road biowlsmp” are ususly the most ‘Aoplving the Mame. Heat vanste fom 557 ‘fame to workpiece i very poor indood, On tost, 2 piece of stel about the size ofa 15/18 Inch aq. lathe. tool, lad fat on frabrick, took five minutes to bring up to the hardening temperature — somothing Tike 1500 unts of heat ftom the bumor anstering only 10. heat units to tho Steel Nat very good score! By setting up simple “cave like that ip Fig. 27 the heating time was reduced to 105 snconds: about 600 heat unite. Not good ‘it beter than before. You wil ofcourse, quote my own words and say thatthe five ‘minutes of the fst exemple is rather 100 fot for the heating-ap time, and you ‘would be dite right But we have to HOLD the temperature for about another ‘querer of an hour and if this eto Be dose ‘on the open frbrck the burner must be Kept a ful throttle the whole time. Using ‘tho “cave” It _can be throttled down Moreover, as the work will be hosted Targa by radiation from hot reich ‘vill be heated more every. And isl ‘We have several pieces to harden then we fan save a conaidersble amount of Jas. ‘Th “eave" is realy alte furnace. “Th iteligant use of fsck wil bor save gas and ensure more even heating, tse tivee types. Fis. ordinary frebrick feom 1 103 ches in thickness. These ae fetractry rather than est isultors they will withstand. very. high Tempersrures. Second. lightwweinh tosulating Bricks", of which “Fossa ‘and "Fosain” are typical. These look art feel lia cork and are intended for he! Insulation behind wells of frobick in fumaces. They ean be at TOQO°C at one fond ond dead ald st the other, and oe fvallable inthe same sees as febvick Both firebrick and insulating bricks ean be bhad from most builders merchants. The third type are "Hot Foce” bricks ~ more Iofractory than the insulating type (which fre trable ond mit st around. 1260°C) ‘and with much better heat insulation than ‘the ordinary frabrick These saem to be ‘valable only from spacialist supoters (eg. Messrs Flametsst Lid, Pondletiry ‘Trading Estate, Manchester M27 IFS, 0 MPK Insulating. id, Hythe Works Colchester COZ BJU), They can be cut ‘with asa and cle, and wll ston Teasonabie loads. An azcessory which find most usefl both won open Tirebvick tnd ie fumaces is the ite. cerame “vet” 08 used by onamelirs Fig. 28. use these te support work so that flame tan get banesth and, in Tarnaca work 1° fngure thatthe underside ofthe pee = Fadlaton heated and rot by conduction from the mut Furnaces, The obvious next step from the eave is a proper furmace, Those who do zane ome daromming th ‘of brazing may wll have ane ofthe old le” gas forges which (nthe days had accoss to town gas sowed me ‘brazing tarth, host treatment shop, melting furnaea. They are sil aval otied for use on North Sea 938, Alcoss Ltd trading as Wiliam Aiday (Co. Ltd, Stourport on Severn, DY13 but rather costly, I'm aad. But for Fall the purposes, mentioned. sbove, fy ar, |eliove, the best small gene ‘heating unit vatabla, The only rawoack is the lack of temperature on, but f you use hea suilent fo ‘the cost of Ute you will be pretty rat colours anyway. “Thate are two small furnaces on the sat which | know of whieh may bo looking. at "The fst ie simpli fod — the. Aleosa “Export” Portable Fig. 29. Intended for ute by farrrs abrowd tan reach ‘up to temperature the Supply ean be ced ~ the full heat output Is equivae lant to about 16k. There sro pyrometty ‘and temperature must be hdged by “ealour Very simple almost crude — but “cheap. and effective. The second is the tciomciotinell ban de ie eee “all gt-fred kin 9s used by enamel, tmarkotod by the Flamofast Co. as their Sin type LN1000. Theis vated to reach {850°C in 10 minutos orto, and wil run ‘upto 10002 Tris ted with + pyrometer ‘and manually conteollad ing tae, the ‘manimum being equivalent 10 3hw. The ‘Ghambar is about 7 in x 0 74 in ant ‘can be fied on NSea gas, Propane, of Butane. Fig. 20. “There are others, of course, in varying \dogroas of sophistication and siz. Anyone ‘who practises the art of enameling (or ‘ome types of pottary, for that maton wil Fhave such a furnace which ean usually beused quite as well for heat treatment There is alo the implication that for mode! engineers, being the sort of Ingenious poople they are, it would not be cult to "rake Your own”. This is notes fay aa it evams. There have been more fortunes lost fan eyebrows toot! over the ‘Smbustion of gas than in most branches fof engineering ~ it not Just a case of providing ® jot and lighting the ges! It ‘oes need ot of experiment. na | would gee! that it be done outdoors at frst Golayed ignition associated. with 9 ‘chamber of? cuble foot or so can be more than intresting at times! But see ChX. “Tube Fumace Most of my own work one either In an old electc mutio or 9 alt bath, but | do make frequent use of 2 finged un got-fie! tue furnace shown ie Fig 21. The tube iso is 9 piece of 1} ingh exhaust pips, ree of the deye when | Used “proper ie. “vintage") motorcar, Pou 6 inches long. The tube Is supported inch thick Folsain bricks with a hole ‘cut using the ordiery tank hole cuter ‘One of the core rom the ding is wee {plug the back and ae has a hole from the pilot dril this enables re to s8t home-made thermocouple inedo if now! be. The other core ie used st a “Wront floor” give mare details ofthe construe tion on page 90, but it 19 very useful for ‘those 08d obs which erop uD which are nelther large enough to warrant feng Up the muffle, nor tial enough to ust 10 ‘rect heating Electric Mutts. There are: many small tloctrc mute furaces on the marke fS2me.for laboratory work, thors. for ameling, and these provided the most fsconomieal heating device whore any soaking" 's needed. They do take 9 fair Hime 19 heat up, but once atthe operating perature use very litle power indees Ail aro fited with pyromoters these dav, feo that securate tomporsture convo! Possible even If there ts no thermostat Heating is redant into he work ae iis faey to avoid scaling, Last but not least, they con be lotto look afer themseives Iwith safety, making no foise ang. if not Thermostaiclly controled tore [a ususly f thorml fuse” which breaks the circut fhe sate maximum is exceeded. My own (Fig. 32) was obtained second hand for the proverbial song some time apo, But leven now ones are not prohibitively fexpensive~ about the same cost a aga5 frac one, Mine has a chamber 8 in wide x ‘in x Bin deep and Is rated at 100°C maximum, though mest today go up to 41200°C. Untke the gated type, iti eatvely ‘easy to make your own electri furnace 80 Tong a2 you take the normal precautions ‘nen devting sith lethal mains voltages Reody wound mutfles sre available Irom uch’ me ae Callenkamps, Gettin & Goorge, and other laboratory equipment fippliers (ney are spare pars for their standard ranges of mutes) and these ‘need no more than encasing in insulating Interais and a metal or "Sync (Or its fequieland) case, Heating elements ate fit avaliable, ether inthe form of "Het Fede" or "Heating Bricks” ~ refractory bricks with slements embeced In tho face — or a5 refractory tubes with an sloment wound round, Heme constuction fe dealt with ta Chapter DC and the only point | would maka Te that you should ook tho advice ofthe element suppliers tary in the project. Fig. 33 shows home-made fumace whic is supplied inxie’ form by. Kanthal Electronest, Inveralmond, Perth PHT SEE. though 3s shown it dose need guards iting over the ‘loctrical connections. Sal athe. | hove aay coerre tothe sacbath for tempering, Neva and non- towie sats are also avalabe forthe higher Temparatures needed before quenching They. must not be confused with the ACTIVE sats used in cyanide hardening ~ the constituents of the neuval sls re no more then common alt fsdTum chloride) mized with @cortain amount of potassium Chloride 10" give. the roqulvad. thermal horaeteistcs, The type whieh use (Degussa GS650/WS720) molte at 870°C and can be used up to about 1000°C; tis obtainable from the some sources ae the tempering salts. (045). “The seit is melted in & woldod steel “pot. In industry these may be lage and hhetted by 988 oF slaty ~ usually che 60 former — but for the model engineer the ‘etial electrical tube furnace heating « ‘ot made from ste! tube isthe most ca enone, Gas heating presents certain problems (other then’ these. already mentioned) a an eletic heater is easier {o contr. The sizeof the pet depands on the work you wart to, ef couse, But that shown le Fig. 34 is quite edequate ‘The actual pot te about 3 in. inten Gigmeter and fe 10 in. deep, with the soit bath tae about 73 in. deep. (ou must Slow forthe "Ue to rise” when the work Feput inf Ins, in fact. a small homemade: laboratory fumace, aad | give details of the constuction later. 138, perhaps. larger than i really noeded for model work but You need room forthe sential pyrometer ‘Ss woll as tho work For the nit elt tho salt, whieh comes a8 2 fine powder, is putin to about thes bela tho top ofthe pot and. 98 this melt, more is very carefully acded 3s the level sks. When re malting subse ‘quetlyafarly heavy ton lid should be set ‘ver the mouth ae 9 hard crust may form ‘han the ast sete on cooling snd there Justa risk of spitting, However, so long as the top ad of the beating siament es fbove te sat level tho crust should melt from the outside inwards with no Such trouble "The workniece should be prehested lie eal tohave water oro in any holes, and if any holes are deep or lrge ome consideration should be. given 10 those, os there Isaak of sparing of hot Sait 29 thea (or, worse, vapour] Wapped in the hole expands. The piece can then be Set in the bath wth wire “hanclo” i need be, (A job lke a file or scraper can. of ‘course, have the tang protnuding fom the Surface), The immersion of the work wall attic cos Cenee 30 ewe at fe iy eeiow th bath tomporatin or is no need to acjst the controls i recover vary quicly as heres ford store of heat in the turnace there the workgleca can be lat for scribed time which, fr a salt bath, ibe HALF THAT NEEDED FOR A FURNACE; le 30 minutes per thickness, This ie one ofthe gest tages of the sat bath - the other that the heating is bound to be ‘and tothe coract temperate work can be quenched in water "oro Mos of the adhering salt wil fff” on quenching, in the frst two, ihe rot wil ssolve, This wll $0 no ‘Salt wil, however, collect in the of an oll bath and this must Be out af into. As I have said, the "tsif [s quite hormiess (when cols, ie: molten salt must be (eated with [tome respect 93 that aczorded &9 ‘tal soe Ch. 10.) and debs can ‘of down tne sink with good ff wate. In which connection, the | DOES absorb water easly, ond powder should be kept in plastic in an airtight container. For the same a is should be Kept on the pot ally uch a pot should not be used Poo. The ol level shoul not Be ‘hee-querters fll nor shoul t more than an inch above the top of heating. element — ond. ceraily es not approzch the tp ofthe or. I fens 2 arger ciemater and shorter ‘would help in this rospect. but tho ofthe tube and heating element thon mes rathor high. Safety precautions ‘deat with in Ch 10, but | wl fone point now. The guid ie as hot os molten ress, and you id be wearing proper goggles, constructed. and be solid enough and heavy enough not 1 tip over. fr the hot sat will set the foot on fe just 98 would hot mata Furnace Control. There is no method of control of a gas fired furnace which is reasonabie In cost other then "manual It {posable to obtain modulting fame ‘bumers with thermostats but the cost and complication would be efi to justy for the model engineer. Electric furnaces «an, however, be eontelled automavicaly in two wavs. The easiest and cheapest is the “Energy Contoler” 08 ie used on the hotplates of most elect. cookers This f, in effect, 9 simple tme-site With the ail set at "0" the curent is off Sill the ime: set at "10" ie on al the time, In Between the current is switched fon and off in proportion — og. at "6" the turrent ows for 60% of the time, st" for 40%, and so on. This i very effective land spare. cooker ‘contol [or even one from 2 serap cooker aro usualy rated at bout Show, which fs quite adequate in ‘ost casos. The ane escondal fe plot lam, fri all 00 easy 10 “forget” ard fave it switched “on alight. Again, cooker contvoles have a set of contacts Specialy fr such alamo. ‘The proper “Thermostat” Is far better, of courga, as tho tomporature can thon be ontrolied within close mite. The cor is ‘restr, of source, as ome form of rey fr stolid state santeh t needed 4 wel fs the thermocouple. Ths Tater CAN be the inlesting thermocouple, bt usualy 4 separate lerent. The cost and com pleation does depend, of course. of the Segree of contol needed. For the sort of hest testment wo. are concerned with fone which wil hold the temperature Within +! 8°C would serve ana +! 5°C 1S as close as is necessary al steelmakers quote 9 temperature range. for Products, wavally 20°C wide. Quite{rankty have found hat she only problem with my energy controller type is “forgetfulness! | know orerty well where the dial has to be sot for aty particular ‘temperate, but Ihave, a6 ore then ne ‘occasion been calld sway fom the shop fare forgotten to cheek the Temperature before leaving ‘Spirit Lamps. From the sublime to the tiglelous? "By no means! The. humble Spit amp is quite invaluable and, | weld S8y, essential when dealing with very smll-and dolicate parts. tis cheap. It provides 8 very clean flame, and it neds fo heavy gas bottes oF valing wites t0 feed it My own is one of the ile glass atts with 9 round wick about ih Slameter tot Ido use one fom 8 sit fired model which has lager Na, wick from time to Une. The glass ono wil ring a, 38,4 we able chemist, though they are obe held instock inal cases the {the tongs should be. warmed hanaing. the metal, and on 90 pt should they be wet with either oro tuations where the use of “prs ‘possible hen iron wire can be ound to make a handle oF ‘hvough 2 hole if thara is one. Fig. 28) Remember that when the jets hott ath expands which may the Hod, and loses strength Take ethat its encure, sn proportioned ‘of the ob. At the sam time, use ats th thinnest gauge that wil be 139 that it wil not interfere with cing action. Thro remeins the ff the pert which is 30 small thet ‘hin wre would cause trouble, The the end of 0 9/82 in. diameter 108 vp, ‘quenching temperature quite happy have already retorted 10 the use of sp lamp for tempering. For seriber pois src ‘even tiny boring tools the whole recs ‘Gan be cored ou with this Il ello, Handling, Natraliy. you have to be 2 {erate the hot meta. have already ms [pacsing reference to this from tn fime. In ‘many aricies | have reod futhor hae mentioned holding the = ‘with pers" This does NOT rter 1s» hotmal mechanics too! which, bang Feasonabie quality) hardened will 2. ose their tomper if so. tested. Th, feference should ba to. “Blacker filers" — the layman would call (mom "Tongs", pethapa| Fig 35 shows sucy + pol and You wil see thatthe nose hse almost decorative curves. This st os Some sight spring inthe holding. Ars Ike the link ofa enein can he sipped 8 the hands to hold the nose clove! ons ‘work Such por or tongs come in mor, ‘Shapes, but that shown isthe most ore Torhest treatment For smaller work the “leborator tongs” shown in Fig 38 serve the sam! purpose. Usually made of stainless sto they ean be used to gip ether with 1 fends or within the "ing It, howe important t9 obtain ony the best quai ‘even these do aecasonaly tend 105 their lege” and the choaporvaroty (tet Sold for handing bacon in the fying pa! ‘are useless. Thay can be obtained tious string is needed the part wil all ‘bottom at arate which sips it of fF vapour. The heat content of tiny ports is so small tet the 1S almost Instanianoous anyway. ‘ean be tops from the bost #0 tho ith no fare thatthe coating will bo fusion. Domestic fires and the bracing torch eauinment wil cover ff tha heating arangements peed ‘model engineer whose harcening programme Is “occasional”. The seme Feat sources should cover the newde of nealing, and brazing torches ove ‘dequata for “open hearth” cassharde ing refered to in Chapter & Those who ‘make 3 lot of special tols, whose work involves the hardening of jigs and gaunes, ‘or who make a practice of hardering ‘esring ports their modes (as wa all ‘ugh 40 0) will find that the simple ‘electric or gasfted mule will holo 2 {¢05t deal and the sel-bath even more So" For tempering all but the simplest ars the low-temperature salt-bath i. Mave already incited, fr easier and ‘more reliable than anyother method. in using brazing torches, however. its eosin to set bring. pace n brazing experiance aside. You must" cline none’ te kwere al he tes The temperature is higher than fs needed for Sivereoldering. and i more. important. Further, you have to hold an aver temperature for quite long time — just the” opposite. to. brazing. requirments. ‘whore ong heating ean cause problems ‘a where we daibarstaly got one part hotter than the rest thatthe alloy will “flew the heat” Naturally. its impos ible to cover every eventuality or every ‘exnedant n'a chapter ko this, but i you oop the “principles” outlined. earler always in mind "you should have no lificity in devising #satistactory scheme {or anything out of he ordinary.37 eo pop cnberin 3h CHAPTER 6 Casehardening | "The pin shown i. infact. made of scene mits steel At "a" the in Is ‘machined at tho ends, about 1/18 So er we have been concerned with work the carbon, Indusily the time issu ‘which eds tobe hardened right through — that's casing of appreciable thickness “fools punches, chile ad the ke but 1/18 inch or more wil alow for subss there. sre many applications where quent grinding For model-making > SURFACE HARDNESS only fs needed, depths are unnecessary and we selior the tlossc ease Being 9 crosshead pin. resort to ringing anyway. though we m= Such 9 component coud, of cour, be lap the surface to imorove the fish. Wt) ‘made fom "Siver® steel, hardened, and tiok eases there can be dimensions thon tempered to reduce the bnlen#ss change, but there js no. need 10 wor However the tempering woud recice the sbout this for the depth ef carburat| surface. ‘hardness. and 30\the weer normal fer madelmaking fesktanee ~ and we have had t0 use‘) "Ones the part has ben surface cs ‘xpensive materia. In "Casehardering” buried its Nested again upto the he su tke alow ormedium coon see! in oning temperate and quenched. Ve Incustry,"perhans an atoy_ steel) and CAN temper if we wish but ts 8: tmoaiy the stucture of the outer akin so necessary end even it fs thought des ‘hat tig can be hardened without unduly able to retin he rain aie, 100-140°C| ifthe Me. The hard skin was subsequen- iffecting the core, The main body of out il suffice, However, wo con modiythe| Mmmessured and found ro be between Din wil hen bave al the cherecteyatics of process and so derve one of the gre'| |fBOUS end 0.005 inch thick the “mid” stel originally used but the edvantages ‘of caschardening ov ere are other situations where Eface fz as hard. a8 an untempered twough hardening. We con machine 1 rdening can be used to advantage Fardened high-carbon stet piece’ after Carburising” but befor| |ERkexamle, a complex forr-tol can be ‘To bring ths about we adopt a procest Quenching. This wil remove the case for| Made from mid stl and carburisod known a0 “Carburelog’. You wit recall the machined parts Quenching wil hav] hardening 1 wil have surface the Chopter I that to make "Cast Stee!” no effect onthe machined surfaces, a than tempered carton ste. I wil ‘tom wrought ion the metal was heated these wil be sft. This Is qulte nocrs| gehstand regrning, but the tol ite wil fore long. period in the presence ‘of practice, and many engine and machirs| |mRaMGht longer end if itis to be used Carbon. so thatthe carbon eoitert of the parts ate designed to be veated in tho once we have saved 2 lot of ‘tote mass wes increased For easehord- fashion. Hg, 37's cane In polnt— f° | ‘material Made from carbon ring the process is simiar, but the witha hardened besring surface and tw<| glee Dot pin or 2 lathe contre wil nang Heating tme fs much less, with he result screw threads. f modo. from siver stee| amB@ tempered: caseherdened — there is that the shin only of the meta takes up hese treads would be dad herd unis J. an the wear resistance wl be {and then the care turned away from fonds, down to finish size. One toad Deen sereweut. at"c” the pin is soon rohoating and! quenching ant scale was used. Finaly, 8" you see the fad cut on the other ond (after hing) art the whele elosned! up ond BOTH threads are sof, despite fact that one we eut Boars anc the ‘aftr quenching. yet the bearing Is dead evan took the teeth " id | 65seater In ANY situation where the parts Gubject to shock loading oF where ‘oughness is nase for other reseons but required, casshordoning is the. answer you have the load Bearing core In a state fo take the stress, and the surface con Carburising. There are three main ‘methods In tse, one of which, the ative Saltbath, is not suitable for-model angineer’s uses as it involves molten Gyanide salts. which are lethally poisonous. In industry he next. mast ‘Common mathod is BOX CARBUAISING This Involves the setting ofthe workin 3 welded ste! box filed with 9 cor burieing material. The lide are seslod or uted” with frecioy. The compound used ‘is spocialy formulated: lonely chorea, but’ with’ adaitives to increase its fectveness: Heating times are of the fer of six hours oF so. For our small parts nothing 30 elaborate ic needed. | hve doe stout tn Boxes ~ they ast for {wo oF tives heats — of 2 piece of steel i Inet galvanized ith one end fies With a screwed plug and the other sealed With frecay. (Noto, WreCLAY, not fro Tent wich will et har obtains rom ‘most builders merchants). The earburs ing element is charcoal, bt this, by itso ig slow acting, An “Activator” must be ose and Sodium Carbonate (not Bicar= borate) isthe most easly abtainable. As ‘bout 196 by weight tothe chorcosl ana ‘mie ft thoroughly. Alt dd some. of Compound," which ¥sha bbe mentioning later. About 5% vl ute Other materials can be weed | hove Successfully casehardened using ola Teather bootlseos wrapped round tne ‘metal. for example! Presumably the ‘anning process provided an activator! “The work must be completely sou ed by the compound. which should Decked down hd. The ia must be selec: faoinst ingress of aI is thon heat 0 between 880°C and 920°C Yor 8 lena Df time which is determined by she den Of case requiced. The West” hour wil penetrate about ©.008 inch end ¢ case Sept of 1/16 inch may be reached ater Seven hour, (This assumes we are easing Ila steel For model engineer's werk = apt of 0.008 inch should be adoqua Sand one-hour heat will be long enous any greater dopth of caso may enforce 3 subsequent grinding operation. Note that hace timas ara times AT the carbursing temperature, and you must alow some ‘ona for bringing up tho tomperaur "The bon i lowed to cool ad this ca be outside the furnace i no subsequent ‘machining is requies: The paris can then bo takon out and hore it is worth Suggesting the inclusion of a blank test Thie can bo rooted and quenched bck thot suficient harness hasbeen "Vuse 2 piace of round bat and ott the side to form tat ater ing. Tis i etched with 25% ric fn water nd 85 seen in Figy 38, the of case is quite visible. Tis is of magnified by the "éreulesty” of specimen’ the actual hikers CAN epleulated Ifyou tka, but | am, 98 9 next have to harden the esse, but Bionally @ further operation may be rie. We have held the metal well ifs ciel temperature for quite 2 Songer than we might for heat ing @ carbon steel This may have sed some coersening of the grain. This, eas, bat longer Icon be worth otten To. If he box was heated for 3 hours 1 would elways refine the gra before hardening, This refining is by heating te 2 tomporature which ‘on the carbon content of the ote ae under ” 01 02 03 o« jure °C 910 990 870 860 Heat forthe regular “one hour per inch thickness” ana then quench In ol at ‘20°C. This is NOT » hardening 5, but sololy directed to reducing frei sizeof the core. Infact. with very ston! (below 0.1% carbon ar cooling Il suifice and there ie no need 10 “The component is thon brought up to 780°C. The heating time is hort, 38 ‘are concerned only withthe case: a ‘minutes i enough, and the work ie ‘water quenched. | "have aiady (od on the ned for tempering. Franky, this fe totally unnecessary for cases of the thickness we need — and flor for thicker ones ~ but ff found Sometimes thot surface erating appesrs Ausing the grinding operation, ane nora practice is to temper at about 160°C Experience shows that hii kel Opan-hearth Carbursing. Ciosod box earburising is seldom needed for medal ‘work, and oven lees ofton used nly because it requires the use of a ute ‘Though it can be done by setting the box in an open fre | have done this and iis ‘ute etfecrve. a th temperstares at this Stage are not all that crite. However, Surace hardening on the smich's hearth has been used for wall overs century, ad 15 more than adequate for thin cases. In this process the metal is brought up to bout 800°C fbetween 780 sn B50) Ssualy refered to a8 "bright red”. The art fs then covered with 9 specs! ompound, either by dipping of by roling ‘about url the Surface roquirng hor ening is complotely covered. The Compound. in contact with the! metal ‘mote and carbon is absorbed. The Drocess Gan be repeatod sovera times 8 ‘hicker base ie novaed. (A singe ap provides perheps 0.002 10 0.003 inh ‘The compound | have used for 50-0dc years fe Kasonit No. 1, and it i realy obtainable from mode suppliers end even ‘tom good ronmongers. ‘Some practitioners quench Inmmediatly i no intormodiate machining fs needed) but | preter to. rahest 10 between 760 and 800°C. | always use pein water, though brine is permissible ‘No gran refining ss needed. The resulting 290 til be very hard some would sayit is hardor thon with box erburisin, but it 1s very thin I seldom use less than two patcations end often thee or four but have yet to find. caso whion wat not thiek enough for the puree intends aNataly if intormosione machining is requires It is necessary t0 allow the work to cool. This can be allowed in a. but | Usually elap a place of feck on top °0 reduce the rate slightly It isnot ereal at indeed there fe ti that Is ei Shout the whole process though naturally tho more carfuly the temperatures. are observed the otter the results. An ‘eestlonal problem i sealing. However Wwe are dealing with 3 MILD (or at most. medium arbor) steel and there ie. no reed in this case to het siowiy. When Carburcing iis. only the skin that is tected anyway. Its not possible 0 use seale paint. nor 9 talt-eth, But for nately the compound itself Goes have ant-seale properties. ts, of course. only frudent to remove any esting scale rom Back bar ff one needs vo harder such before staring. Theres, of couse, no reason why you should not heat the mata ina Inte box surrounded.) the compound. | have done thie occasionally, wanen I nave 2 number of very aval parts {ordeal with at ance 1 saves time. You do have tobe ure thatthe contents are up tomporature, of course, and you should lise thin" ahalow) box for that reason But such a procedure does rather spell the innate simcity of open-hearth carburis- ing, and you are unlikely to get beter results by using 8 os It's. occasionally, ‘more convsnient. that i al ‘Now and then there may be difiulies in apelying the compound ~ on a ratchet ‘abe for example to be sure that it ‘works on the desived faces. The ‘Sompaund con be wetted with water and Tes then heated very bbe protected fom the action of the | Wasiiy identifiable by the spark ts) plead and parted off alter which the ‘fompound by wrapping wir or shim seu dons beauty, and you CAN flanged end was finished. i was then round it Tapped holes can be plugccr joherden cast iron! Obviously you must rohouted and quenched. There Wao no tath a screw, and plain hols by inserting regard tothe shape of the costing eifielty at all In rveting the spigot On plugs. Ang, of course, i all you noes: fox outlines may crackin the quench, assembly. harden i the face of atappet ortho onc Foening the end ofa plunger ar sven "Top right isa itfrent situation, This ie 1 tool easy enough to deus means ocker presents ne problems. ' tap nowded for fishing the internal Testi the appieation o compound or Fig. 39 shows & few examples. thread of the Boxwood chucks Used 09 te that particular spot. ett is a baltjoint made to replace my Holzapfel lath. The cost of 3 length ‘Stoes for casehardening. Any staigh: Cerburettor contol on ah ancient of iver ste! this size would be pram Carbon ste! ean be erburised — you car rca. Bright dravm hexagon bar was ve forthe amount of work Wt has to do. ifeircumstancos requive it earburse ser ‘ond finish machined. completely Further, there woul have bean some ik steel! As 9 ule, Rwever the process is re hardening. ‘The thread. wax of eracking even if great care wore taken, hormally apie 10 the low-carbon “Wi rad with thi ron wire and ihiter” the teads have sharp roots ant fine Steels ox. at most 1 those with carbon land only the ball end was ipped in angla of 50". It was made of back mld Gontents below 0.3%. Foo-cutting stots No. 1.'it was quenched direct Stel (le. hot rlled, not bright avn 30 fan occasionally present problems ~ "s the second application Cente top is that there was no’ need 0 normalise ft Inclusions which provido the free-cuting ‘rankshaft for a move! steam engine fist. It was given single testment with quatties may cause surfoce zing) "Williamson" "with ® hardened Kasont No. 1 and quonched directly: The Would not advise box carburising these pin. In this case the bearing surface cutting eigos were very light stoned Imatarala, but have successfully suracs finshed to mension, but he stom afterwards, thas served ts purpose wth hardened them bythe. open-hear? ch fits ito the web was lft 1/32 inch nodes. method. Stesis specifically designed ter “The workpiece was net parted "Bottom felt is 2 dling ig for some (box! casohardering are availabe Those re ‘stock at this stay. Tho eylinder covers ard the associated cyln- Uauolly contain bout 9 of Nebel. hs was given the Kasenit weatment ders, the number going through the shop object being Yo reduce the grain grow being lipped into the compound jstiving the use of jigs It was mace from during the. prolonged Nesting. Straigh* Y suticity to cover it After cooing Bright Drawn atel which wee fist tor farbon steele. intended -specticaly” ter iy the rest ofthe machining vas com- malisad before machining. It was fasshardening by either process are Fr '52¢ (0B0MTS in 8587011972) which = 1.18% earbon, 0.8% manganese, and E> 21 (130M15) which Is 018% carbor 4.3% manganese: somewhat stronger 40 tordsain tensile strength Alloy stoo!s should not be casshordonos ‘without detailed heat teatment spectica tons from the makers. All such steels 2" “neat toate and you may well set oP adverse conditions during the earbursns process if you do not gat the tempecsto"™ Fight Never try to casshardon scrap sto fr offeuts from the machine-shop sh? ‘They may bo: anything, from low grace steel for making docoratve handvats © hrome-nickel-molybdenum-ttaniu™ siloy! On'the other han, wrought io”carburted for 20 minutos ina tobacco tin ising a misture of charcoal and Kasenit No.1 compound This was done to aneure that the Inner surface of the holes was hardenad. Bottom conte fs tho grooved jaw fora tiling view, which was CCeseherdened "open hearth” the part being laid, face cown, in away of compound Three doses store applic ‘Thove was ate scaling onthe back and jar a very ite distortion. I would have been wiser to normalise it before machin ing [BDMS was used) but the fault wae not suffiiont to warrant the making of ‘rother. ‘Bottom right is en example ofa special form tool This wee marie fom mil tee for no other reason than that 1 had no high-cataon of the right ize and only 8 Timited stock of sar whien could be ‘machined down. This was given doses of Kasenit No.1. slowed to eoal, and than febwated and quenched. The carmpound ‘as applied ony the tooltip The result wae outstanding, ‘The case was, thick feeough to perm ght stoning of the top {face to go a sharp edge. and the peor ‘once (emamently tuning grity har ‘woods} surprising. As no tompering was needed the eutting edge was harder shan ‘ould have been obtained with @ cor ventional toot stool And eonttary to unpositon, uch tale have a horde? time furting those exotic woods than when turing most metals forthe oni route fe ‘the eseapo ofthe heats ough the 00) ryt of course na oolant can be used ‘Conclusion, Casehardening ie nat 9 ut stitute for trough hardening with aig ‘arbon stee, but a procese which ears ‘place from is very nature. We can desig 2 component in material which provides the strength, fatigue resistance, or other ‘roverty needed and then surace harder to give the required wear resistance. Th ‘ature ofthe process is such that selective hardening con resdiy be applied and the tisk of eracking le very much recuced. Use ff the open hearth meted! sivas. qu adequate thickness of case for Ou purposes and fs much quicker than Though hardening, withthe need for sub: Ssequant tempor adding "0 the time taken. At the some time, casehardening ‘can be used for such things as lathe tots ‘tc. f crcumstances demand. One fina point is worth making. There is offen no "eal need to harcan a rubbing srfacs u ifig 1S hardened anc polished the Meton lose will be reduced. The emost glass hand surface prodused by easehardanins 156 real advantage in all such appcations rocesses fused. They are carried out in simi V5 ut the these purposes are ferent ing the softening of steel pre- SW hardened, whether by heat wea or by cold working. Normalsing is 3 15 ihore th intemal scare ofthe ig restored to “normal” ater some ‘pestion ~ say forging. Stress is, os name implies, the release rtresoes which may hove been locked processes in tum nealing. The stee will be Martensitc structure and its necessary to change to one containing pearite and either itor comontite, af would have boon the steel bawn cooled lowly rom the al austenitic state. This moars that we Transformation temperature. a then TH at arate that wil alow the vane” % Below0.t me 01-03 03-05 1920-900 870-830 850-800 820-780 800-780 780-760 770°C ther Heat Treatment In the cate of low carbon and medium carbon tess (bolow 0.86%) this will be about 30°C above the upper eitical. but for higher carbon content 8 temporaire semeahst abour the lower eres! wit suffice. The recommended figures are fjiven in the table below. (See iso Fg, 1h in cach case the higher temperenre telat tothe lower carbon content. Nene ‘scrtical to mithin + 10°C. ‘The metal musi be heated slowly and then “soaked” ot the anaealing Temperature for one hour per isch of thekness. jp” the cage of rectanguler sections the smaller dimensions taker It ‘should then be booted as slowly a5 ean be ontived. H heated in a mule vith 3 ‘geod hese insulation ta the chamber it ‘ay be allowed 19 co! down in the Toraen, Otherwise ft ust be sat fy hot lashes oc some similar material which wl fotain the heat Thin at soctons can be cooled berween two preheated insalating ‘ok. The higher the carbon content the ‘more important i the slow rate of eoaling. For "mild stel the proce may bo cooled In air once it has “dropped 10. ound Siver 05-07 07.09 Abweos Ser na 40 mon eis fo nr 400°C, but it i inedvsable to quench it feven from alow temperature. Note that ‘work must be fully preheated before immersing in a gal-bath for annealing. “Annealing hgh speed stee! iso chancy ‘business for the amateur, especially 3= Shy subsequent hardening may well be beyond the eapabiitios of the equipment svaleble. Howe heated VERY siowlyt0 850°C, held thre for one hour per HALF inch of section, and cooled very lowly indeod 3 mute fuunace is almost essential. andthe cooling can be best effected by progressively reducing the. power input Lin thas fallen to around 80°C betore turning tof completly Normalising, tor forging or rolling & ‘otal the natural shape ofthe rains’ will be sistortod ~ soe Fig. 40. The situation may be aven worse if some ofthe forging {rTeg) bonding has boon done at below the proper forging temperatures or when the steel is bright-drawn. To reform and feline the grain etucture it ie again hacessary to rhea! &o.above the crea temperatures but to. 3 rather higher geen. than ie oped for annealing, tepecially for the high carbon steel n “Those must be takon right up ino tho f austenitic region. Fortunately tool stee's Saldom requite normalising. which Resded chiefly to Improve. the Imachineability of mediom and low carbon [and soy) steels. The following table shows recommended temperatures. Cervon% 0.4 02 03 04 06 Temp." 920 900 880 880 B40 08 10 11 12 820 #30 900 925, 10°C up or down from these peratures will sr. Tho temperature must be maintained, 25 in the cave of Snoeaing, for ono hour per fection, and the cooling must og ftom. ig. 41 shows the annealing ond nor malsing angen te vor-earbon diagram Stress Relief. Certain manutacturing Processes induce considerable. stesso: Within’ the metal. in particular cold Seawing and welding. The former sets the Surface skin under compression ani tore may be a fockad-up tensile stress inthe ore. The result ie that whan any part of the surace is emoves symmetry is lost and the shape il stort. In welding, part Of the metal is brought up to very ah Temperatures indeed and diferent con action between this and the cold oF ‘elave cold pars can induce suestos ‘often sutcent to distort during the et! Welding. Tho depres of sess lot heedad is ferent inthe two eases. Cale {iawn oF cold rllad stoel may be reve’ sufficiently 19. prevent etartion ‘uring machining by heating to batween 400°C 4nd 500°C snd allowing the part te 600) in aie [eis important that you ensure ever hosting, otherwise the last state may be worse than the fist due to thermal expan Sion differences. For welded component ineh of 40°C. RANGE: 20°C. 30-40°C. TR EAIN RANGE. fam refering tothe email parts uses in ie, not to home-made bridges. oF fo masts) itis best to give a ful anneal the eoniition in the viciity ofthe weld isquite unknown rts which have boen heat treated wil, of course, Be under considerable Inorerystaline sain ~ this i part of the dering process. ‘The subsequent Tempering process ts a form of stress Tele even though in this case we also faim a some contoled transformation 35 wel, 1) Scaling. In al she above processes Some surface acaling is to be expected Pasec binding with wire and encasing in whiting, fr by the use of shareoal inthe mute the lator is used. However for small arts an ingenious method is described in some ‘ary books. The parts to be heated are sat ina box filed with lake! ive ("ular s Hie’) mized with up t0 5% of charcoal The ator absorbs ay oxygonprosont but is not suticient to couse any enduring ‘Anothar such toclpe suggests the use of fine. castiron tumings as the packing ‘modkur. Tha former mathod doos work, bur the heat ineiating properties of the lime enforoea long heating time. (2} Rohardening. In the course of time tools may be reground soar that he tip is Brought back inte. the more. deeply 3‘tempered regon. This applies ospocaly 10 woodwerking tools, But cold chisels and ‘Serapers sur Inthe camo way and ican ‘opiy to licerest tools well When tis happene there is no option but 10 feharden, Ku might be thought that it ‘would be necessary only to reheat ‘Quench, end tamper again. This 1s wel ‘onough with “coarse” tools made from ‘elatively low carbon steel) I treat my ‘ickoxe, wrecking bar, and sitar tools in {hat way. But Mf you try to reharen 3 high ‘carbon atel foo inthis fachion the rebut wil, at Best. be disappointing ar you may find thatthe Yoo! cracks. We must ‘estore the metal tthe conden i wos before the inal hardening process was ‘ered ut, snd thls means that It should be fly swale fist |have sresdy dealt ‘with the process snd there Is no naed to repeat it. However, 1 can dda etine- ‘ment. the toa af some Importance i to 1 rehardaned it will pay to reternpe to ‘bout 300°C before. commoncing tho annealing process. This vil eect an Slmost “complete stress valet to. the Structure and have never ha a tool execk “hen this procedure has boon followed. | recommend. i strongly for those. 100s winere thre is considerable difference Between the temper in the shark an in the pol. tis only necoseary to heat up ery genty te "blue, allow ito coo jut = Tego, and’ thon 10 proceed with the ful annealing heat {G) Hardening Ornamental Tools. The “Ornamental turer has 2 probiem not set with in most other types of turing. “The art comprises the cutting of fait deep pettrna on the surface of work pre Miously tures by narmel methods 1 an Soemptable shape The final eect depends ‘ie on the reilection of fight from the multitude of facets $0 formed ~ and with ‘well executed work almost dzzing relies tions can be seen on wood Eke Ebony. ™ His problom is twofold. Fist. there is NO means, whoroby” the inelsed. decoration fcan be polished. The surface must be feflectve with “Yoo! fini” The surface finish can never be better than the finish fon the tool, ond. for this reason the Sharpening of the to0l is taken to what might sppear 10 be extreme limits. After forming. with normal gtinding methacs fand a fine India stone tha sudace “rough polished” using hard Arkansas stone, the tool being held in 2 specal ja (the “Geniostar’) which ensures that born the eutting ange and the "pattem angie tre aceuately formes. tis then lopped {ising tha fines olstone dust on © brass lap, and finaly polished (stil using the ‘onioetat) on aan lap with jewoios Fuge. The problem is that modern too! fools wil not give the retined gain sie tihien was normal with the stee! used ‘when the art was being daveloped. and the common complaint that the stash ‘wont take the pole "The secand ificuly is thar sucha 00! may have to make three or feur huncres “outs” each at a different setting of he ‘apparatus, Iie quite impossible to remove It for sharpening once the process has ‘stared. Ae previously mentioned. the only route by which the hast of euting ‘escape Is trough the tool: the workoieces fre very good heat insulators. This mens that the. tool must remain sharp and Inonee, had over 2 long paried ~and sey logs of sharpness can bbe fatal to the ftfectivanest of the work These wo Fequirements, finest grain size and ‘maximum hardooss, cannot be achieved ‘with the noemal carbon tool steels (and ‘oven lass 80 with high-speed steel 1S possible t0 acheve the hardness required by using a fio stock After annealing at bout 770°C (and on no account above 790°C) the woo! can be hardened trom 760°C/780°C and quenched In brne. The vauent tempering should be 9s mit possible at the point | do\ne more all in water for half an” hour for ing frame toos, but slderest tools be tampered at least fo straw in the rk ‘Attemativaly, with "Sivar Stee” 9 neh square shanks. the "ruling ton the inch or so behind the paint fonch in oll at about 20-25°C. The “working end may now be ground — [ere ~ almost to finish siz, but nthe 980 of the heavy sldorest tools 1/82 Inch “Should be let on. Flehestsiowly again but {e 780-770°C only, and quench in brine a 15-20°C. Temper Immediately to net ‘ore than 150°C for atleast 30 mits, “god then "lt dow the shank of sigerest foo's with the actual custing point kent Goal in water At this temper very Of the hardness wil be lost but the hardening stresses. will have been lleved. The metal wil have 3 very fine ‘So far we nave been considering ‘tho "hardoning’ of stol #0 make cuting “tools andthe tke, But there seo. many ‘ther ext0s where some form of hot treatment will improve the quality of the atrial in othor drations. Indood, by fa the greatest arount of heat treatment ih Induetry i iectod wo this end It you reler back to Fs. 13 (and, “perhaps. retesh your memory from the Associated text!) you will ee thet (say) 1.4 carbon steel under normal i. Slowly cooled) conditions consists of grains of pearite suroundod by forte: a tough ‘ater! set in mate of soft material The resulting steel fo forty t0ugh ond tong — "better for some. purposes) than mild steel. Suppose, now that wo were to quench this steel trom 9 bigh Temperature? Thora Ie insufficient carbon present for total transformation into the form af Wan carbide we know as Marten site 69 thatthe structure wil n fet Bo that of hard Martencte"eitued™ swith fernte, It will possess some of the character ofa high-carbon steel (hardness land. toughness) onc. same of those ‘sociated with “mid” ar low-carbon Geel: ductiay and softness. Further wo an tomper the steel This has a conse! ‘ble effect, asin th case of high carbon ‘t00 an in this caso the solacton ofthe Dest temperature Is the most imporant part of the. teaument. The mixture of empered Martesite and fete crstals ‘can bo adjusted to give higher strenth, high Vila poi, bevter impact resistance, and so on. Fig. 41 showe the offect on 3 typical 0.4% carbon steel. and you will ati that thera ie a dip in the Impact resistance od Impeet Test in the mile {amporing range. This need not worry you too much, oa tis stil eonsidereby ngher than that oft unheot treated steel "To give an example, let us consider out old fiend ENB. (OB0M4O in the BS 970 1872 nomenclature) In the normalised Condition typical properties would be 38 ‘agin. UTS: 27 Tiegin Yield: Elongation (autalty) 28% ane an_Iz00 Impact resists figure of 15-17 Alb. Tho metal Ie Austenized by heating to 630-860°C for 1 hourinch, and then quenchad in o ‘The tempering temporature must then be selected. according to the propartioe wo ‘Reed. For masimum toughness and the ‘most srduous fatigue and chock loading Conditions: this would be Between 550 6‘and 650°C and then or cooled, (Note that tempering salt wil not operate at this figure and the work must be done in @ mule) At 600°C the UTS would be ‘round 42 Tan, ‘25, Elongation ‘perhaps 25% — not 2 ‘reat change. But the impact fas gone up t0 80 feo — times as great” os before. The fatigue tesistonce so. will be improved. If we t 400°C wo would vaso tho UTS ta about 50 Tisain, but beth ductity land. shock totstanee would bo less ~ ‘though stil etter than that of the noe tempered malized sto For completion eld point about 28 7) istanee round four raw state with no working on the normalising is. 840.860°C, but if you hove ENB which is bright draw fom the Oi Hardened end Tempered concition [OM.AT. in the stockhoter’s fist 1s. fact, in about is tovghe 3 ylel point of around 467/eqin. and an Taad figure of about 60. You are not ikely to bert this. Howover. most ENB is Stpplied to model enginoers inthe bright ‘onaiton, with Theat weatment and normalising "may be prudent belore [pga mre ctmpmaemare cna mmceota sce cao olonng ent 20D. IMPACT 70 TEST FTLB, 60}— i 1 50| ; vuTiMare ta TENSILE “ STRENGTH ee | TONS/S@.In. $ 2 | ELONGATION~*% E30, r (DUCTILITY), S20 2 300, 0.600. 6 TEMPERING TEMPERATURE °C. ae treatment can be eariad out on fi steal with carbon content 0.2% But it ie MOST imporant you know exactly what material you ing end what weaiment 19 ave ely most fms now cond their ul to specaisis and published dats ar to come by. if the steel can be ied with an "SAE nuraber” (Society ‘Automotive. Engineers, USA) then the SAE “Handbook” or ines Hendbook’ can give some ie. The problem fer the. mode! Fis in soloeting the required ing temperature. eis on this rather the inital quench, that the. tinal es depend, and if range of ering temperatures is offered this is 9. puzta. Perhaps. you might safe yo work st the midpoint ot the but inthe absence of spociie data cannot be sure of what properties you ‘improving, So for any heat teatmont um earbon orally steel is bast to do nothing, or te 90 10 the Jnhead, The makers ef the stel ean "you chapter and verse andi you gi British Steel” Corporation the estion number and the apleation have in mind they should be able to fe you with detaied figures both for | hast and for tempering. Iti for ‘that most of our work does not igh tonite or high impact values hope thatthe cata Ihave given for 1d and ENB wil Help here some etter than "BDMS."isnemsed. ‘#houle, perhaps, ada a ina not. The BS970/1985, with its "EN" bers, was replaced in 1872. with a and far mare logical, specfiction rence. (The number isa, in most ols us tha carbon content. Det ‘eiven in. “Model Engineer's Handbook” and in App. and | would ‘sttongly recommend thet you start using ‘those new numbers — rot least because tel i just not being mace to some ofthe ‘old EN numbers eny more. (This includes 2 favourite of mine ~ 3% Nicks! too! EN2INI Tho "new" British Specification hhas been in use now for over 10 yess, tora {8) Coll Springs. We make the mejety of, ‘ur col eprings from wire which is already hardened and tempered. The act of eating ‘them round the mandrel eteseae these beyond tha elastic imi the springmakers term for this Is "seragging”) and this Actally improves the strength of the Material. Howover, hero. aro occasion’ when this is ust not possible — the gauge Of wire 109 thick for the clameter of he ‘mandrel In these circumstences iis facassary to softon (anneal) tho wie wind the spring, and then harden and tempor again, Unfortunately we seldom have details of the steel of whieh the wie is made. may fe beteon 1.0% carbon, (0.4% manganese, and 0.78 carbon, 08% ‘manganeve. It should be anneaied at Shout 780°C; ths is not esta, bt the mall mats of the wire does moan that ‘Some care must be ten over the cooling ‘hit wire can ait-coo fast enough to harden. Tho spring ean then be woune and | suggest that you allow ether for Subsequent sietching or compression 0 scrag” the soring after heat treatment. ‘loge-col the ends an either Ratton thom fon the grinder or form the loop, a Fequted this 09. Direct hardening with a tame is most unwise. There is rik of getting some pert {0 hot and It is impossible tbe sure of von heating. Set'the spring oF springs inside a steel of copper tube and eat this to 70°C from the outside os evenly ‘you can. The springs can then be tipped Into the oit-bath there ie no noad to ”CORE QUENCH SKIN UE NCH INE. ws, ME. LINE. “TEMPERED MARTENSITE® ‘2ahtate for so small 8 mass of metal and the spring fling tothe Bottom willbe sul ‘ilomt You munt now be very are, for at hs stage the spring will be very brite Indeod — I have kaown fine onas even ‘break under their own weight. “Tho tempering does present dieutes. itis almost impossible to use the ‘colout Indication. a6 any attempt to polish the spring may. result in breakage, The feaqied tamporatie i quite high ~ 300. ‘310°C — well sbowe the imi either for the domes oven or for ‘Boling in Blazing off relered to other. i fe quently resorted to. With oxporienee (or Prior experiment) iis effective, But et me peat tha the flashpoint (or even the the paint) af he ot has naming to do withthe fomporing temperature: this depends ‘entiey on how much ols vetainedon the ‘pring, If there fe not enaugh to bring the Sire p t© 300°C then the process mst bbe repeated, and repeated immodiaaly Gniy strat cay tall whether it le ‘necessary. However, it dows work. and the prosadure Ito extract the spring from the ‘uenching ll ad then helt inthe flame {tthe spit lamp until the off ign Soon as it does 0 move further from she 8 ‘splet fome ond allow the ol to burn a2) Quench in ot when the fame goes ou and then repeat I necessary. sims: Certainly wll befor heavy gauge wie Is ost exe to make-a tal spring # ‘his procedure iso be adopted. "The seit bath ie the kes! method, of Spray lke. an umbels Upside down which has lst ite cover — = made 2 number of springs ean be tempered at once. There is no need ic ‘quoneh from the salt Bath, but once the Spring has cooled. somewhat it can be immorsad in Not wator to remove the sidneing to ‘An attemative 13 the aand-bath, 3 process which can be very effective fo! af springs. Tho bed shouldbe airy door and kept tured about 9s iis heated. test piace of similar bright stool e et the sand (4 piece of the same spring ‘material ig best) and as soon ae the tempor colour appears on this the springs an be sranged in the bed and hot sar ped over, the heating amp or torch ing removed atthe some timo. Sand = ‘not avery good conductor, 20 that amp {ime must be allowed ‘Austempering and Marempering. ‘are fey advanced methods of het nt, much used ir industry. Mar poring Is. af Ile use te the model er. but Avstempering can "hel, iy with he ease wa Reve just been ussing ~ the heat weatmont of small =: Tho provess can Best be under- by reference to 3 few diagrams. Fig. shows. the normal process of ching and tempering, splayed onan cure. The tempering period isnot. of in any way connected with the of tho "5", bocause the trans ns wich occur ere not the some Moss within the, "S". The agra 2 high tempereture temper. 3 be used for’ 9 spring. andthe al wil ond up 2s tempered Marten song, tough, but not as her as Is ded! for euting toss. Tn Fig. 44 tho stel is quonchod from 5 high temperature, but in 3 fot ‘bah, somenbere between 280°C 16 930°C, not cold water. The nching tomperatur is higher than that ‘which the Merensite forms, and the mation occurs. along 8 ine of CORE, constant temperature, as it pastes though the two borders ofthe "S". After atime which depands on the period AB, And te sizeof the work ts emoved from the hot tumporing bath and allowed to 90! naturally in air For siver steel the time for “spring temper” would be 18 minutes at around 320°C and 25 minutes '3.300°C. The time incwases ma lower temperatures 45. minut 278°C and 2 hours at 250°C. No haem will be caused by slohty longer pesecs. ‘The ond result isnot tempered Martensite, but @ new structure (ealed Bainte, but don't at hat worry you itdoosn't matter fat all whieh hes very sinlar properties The great advantago ofthis mothod is that thore is ne thermel sock during transfor. mation to Martrsite (or Bsinte inthis ase)" as there is. with conventional ‘quenching. Almost al eommercaly made Springs — and such tings a rollins and the ke — ae Austompsred inthis way. “The Martempering process's shawn in Fig. 45, just for explanation, as hs main use Is when heat treating very thik oF massive components. The piece 1s ‘quenched from the hightemperature lo 3 ie 4p ernerpannn resem hom esate enema mn TRANSFORMATION ‘AT. CONSTANT. TEMPERATURE. SALT OR LEAD BATH TEMPERATURE. SBAINITE! —_ 79‘sat bath as befor, but instead of remain Ing therefor transformation itis taken out {ts soon ast has reached the temper bath {emperature and allowed t0 co! nat Is subsequently tempered, The advanta ‘over the conventional method isa reduc- tion inthe rise f astrton. Thore are advantages 0 be gained for model fngineors, as even tho heaviest of our workpieces would be regarded as tidaly Bien in industry, and would be Austempered ‘Tho procedure (say 36 applied 0 springs) for Austempering to heat to 2 Somewhat higher figure initaly, say 900°C. The salt bath is prepared and ‘brought up vo the same Temperature would be needed for normal tempering = 300°C for s spring. AS. so09 as the workpiece has been “soaked” for the ‘Recessary longth of time Its very auiekly sh the Absolute miimuim of dey transferred to tho hot sat bath Iti elt therefor 8 length of time which deponds both on the type of steal and is tickne 20" minutes wil sulicn for even the hoavios spring, and 90 minutes ial that ‘Would be needed of heat tasting even 2 Pate ‘CORE. SKIN. 0 large crankpin in ENB. In this ator easy Inowever, do emember thatthe maxi ‘working temperature fora tompering =, bath Is 500°C, and unforunatehy yo, ‘cannot quench tho pice by setting tn ‘ule trsaee! However, mast steals ‘dive good heat treated conditions at ths temper TR few practical notes. First, thit is» “Tramting.provsss, not 9160 ning. one, At Auatempering temperatures below about 280°C. the time. required. forthe transformation inereases quite quickly. and might be 3° long as en hour at 250°C. Fer Austere ing pieces equiing higher temperature {han can be achieved with the sata lear bth may be used load melts at abou! 330°C). The high vormperature salt ba fan be used for intial eating Hf desires, fad no her wil result from the carr ‘ver of this salt inte the tomporing bo However, itis. mast important tat ro LOW temperature elt ever gets into the TWh temperature both: as. detailed "Safety Provautione” a rather serious teaction can oovur. Neturaliy. the high temperature ‘ait. will solidify at’ the TEMPERED MARTENSITE ing temperature snd wil collec in ‘bottom of tho bath: This should be ved from time to time, but tor the punt wo uso itis, porhaps. best t0 the tempering ‘bath. altogether ‘0 meh HTsalt ha et inthe bath om 9 interfere with Resting (As | remarked at the beginning, these Specialist processes, ana do, need + ‘quenching bath. Model engineers Tanaged without them for almest years, 90 that you need not wory ut deciding to ignore ther! However AVE got the equipment and the dor sat, then it fs worth a few exper 5 especialy i you make springs leat ‘all many quantity. ‘The process Is for small. complex parts made fom um aon steel, which might eter eat within the conventional manner. }) Cosmatic Heat Trestment. Not sl treatment is. done. Tor” strength, ness, or other mechaneal properties {canbe spolied both to help resist coro and especialy in instruments ant pcke — for sheer decoration, In madel ‘we may need to simulate tho a "condition. especially when the isan eariy one, 3 Bivong of steel lor “Brovring’ ‘uname ell) is relatively ea — ‘fly necessary to heat the component vot over 300°C. However, the remts be less than satisfactory Unless the paratry wok is well done. In the case ie part is to simulate “ne work" On the protetype it ise irk to work fora polishes frish. The ce should b fina matt. as produced 2 rotary motion of an abrasive, the ‘depeading on the rae of tho part Important point i to nue that the rofice prepared, sree om ot and so and tepecialy Bnoerprints. The ‘wil show up distessinly clearty the "heat treatment. Chemical Adagreasing shoud be followed by washing ‘with not dotergent and water. ad then alt Greg, after which it should be handled ‘nly with cloan tissue paper; the "acd free” grade used by Jewellers is bast. A spirit lamp t bost for small parts: largor ‘may be heated in sand bed or in one of ‘he improuited mute airady rforted to Direct heating with a torch fame is unwise, a8 it is dificult to. got even heating, [Mare decorative parts, 35 for scraws in clocks ard parts of instruments. or even ‘ok hands, must be highly polished st fine emery followed by polishing. paper, tut tho Aish fs satisfactory In this case there are ferences of opinion: some hold that th fina! stokes ofthe polisher Should be “in fine” (or, for screwed done inthe |sthol others hold that 3 randdom effec is more pleasing, You most try both and-vee which suits you best Ik 1S matter of tote In all eases after heating to blue the parts are quenched in al) not for any fmetalugicel resson, but because this provides quite an effective rust-profing ‘The combination of the oxide (ayer and the ol sooms te repel corosva fumes. As to colour tis has to be watched tay arta, a8 the “Unis” of ue flow very Closely. However, |find that for workshop tackle (which I “bho” for preservation Father than appearence) a shade of deep brown ls not unpleasing, whist many of my very eerly 19th century tole are straw Coloured. They are not carbon stool tempered but ook f they have been #0 troateo. Blackamit's Onidle ie very diticlt to Simulate. This hard, coresion resistant Surage tthe result (in ful se) of some time at forging hest {700°C} coupled ‘ith forge working pleco of mild stco| Ig held at this temperature for ay lenath ft time some gran growth is inoue ardocen't matter it the pee bing forged fe this wil comect motters but fis “tical 0 60 this with mode! pars itis practicable, the folowing procedure will Give tolerable resuite: Arrange the manufacturing programme so that any Baris which mater (og. the journals and Grankpins of a. crankshaft) con be Bring the forged” part to size and heat 9 bright ed. giving a few light tas with 8 Mat hammer to distress" the surtace. Dip in ail (don't quench sight out end again reheat, just for few moments. Repeat the process, going up to bright red each time. Once satiated with the “eh, nor ‘alse the stoe| 9s described on page 72 Sn then carry on with the machining faking cave not {0 damage the finish Nawrally If you can effect any actual forging, 80 much the better (8) Forging. It is. perhaps, apposite to Seal with this now, having just remarked fn tho icity of forging model compo. ‘ets! Most books on "Tempering & Har- ddoning” published in the past lay great ‘tees on the forging of lathe and shaper fools. This is very sekiom done. — or Needed ~ nowadays. Carbon steel tools tre used only winen High Speed tots are not avalble. Further, the sir of too! we how use is much smaller than obtaines ven 80 years ago, when haifnch square ‘hanks were common, Even 2 | in. eauare proce of stock wil borely hold the heat long enough to give more than a couse of hammer Blows, ard with 8/16 in. the more usual size those dos, proper forging IS almost impossible. However, here the oad occasion winen a tool mast be slighty cranked, er 8 My-cutter needs bending High carbon too! steel must be held to {airy close temperature limits whist {orging. At 0.7% carbon, as might be used fort special screwdriver, the maximums 2 1050°C, and forging must stop whon i fale to sbout 900° These tempera: an bo used right up 0 about 1.0% Fy 15195 erbon and above, including sor ftoel, the temperature should be some 50°C lower, but the higher the carbon Content the more care must be taken ve void overheating, My experiences th with qin. square tots I can just get tc Blows in withthe Rammer before tenes ing is neodad. 1 always give 3 full anne belere hardesing after any. but the vey lightost fering operation. Orcinary mic Steel can be forged much herter up tc 1250°C according to some authorities dnd fs loss subject to demoge if forcee 00, though I would prefer to rormalisa tmuen "lack forging” Nae een done. In 3) Cates overheating ean rin the meta. onc fatbon tool steel ls especialy 3) sk “Thar iso way in which pce of ove heated steel ean be reamed! except) melting it down. For cetalled Instructions in the use of blackemths fools the reader fffered 0 ‘ona of the many, Books on "Weought Ironwork” Gheugh “on Is seldom usec these days) — iis a specilst ert in ‘own tight. About the eniy use I make oF forging tool steal is t0 reduce sare section down to rectangular — less ‘waste than machining iad tia dos ‘ot eal fr anything more than keeping e tye an the temperature, Forging dow th ‘nd ofa pickaxe or crowbar [about 08% arbor) i easier using @ 6 1B. hammer ‘hough my anvil 3t BB fb, i rather ight for such work {8} High Speed Steal. The hardening of high-spued too!-stee! is really Dovane the ity of the majority of modo) jn with here are com Siderble” variations "in alloy” content Fanging from 0.5% to 1.0% carbon, 05> 10 4.0% Ciromum, 0 to 18% Tungster and some with 8% Cabalt~ and thay m=) ation is not good enough — either tool will erack or wil ot be hard ih the tamporatues aehigh with inal heating. to the range 760- C Yollowed by 2 fey quick heating 1200 or 1300°C depending on the ‘Most can then be cooled in sir, some require spatial of-quench 1 500°C followed! by fing must follow immed there are wie jrements in some 's done botore the tool hae cooled right own ~ from perhaps 150°C. The types! tempering temperatura Is about 880°C Dut in some ceses, especialy fr tools requiring considerable. toughness ot roughing werk on castings ete] secon! omporing is carried ut at (typical) aasrc. The occasions whan high speed oot ‘requires reshardeing are rare. and uniess the exae! analysis ie known and tho “workshop has preciso tomperature contol ofthe furnace this works bast oft tthe Speciaat Even he wil probably decline the work unless the source. ype, and (Fade of metals exaety known.CHAPTER 8 “Thi ensure that is fly seated in Specimen and that the specimen fe eon the supperting. snl The si cating the depth of the imprestion n zeroed. The "major" laa, of 180k5 the most usval ters is then applied at ‘steady rate contaied by 9 mechanism thin the machine, After 3 set time. ut 8 seconds the major load is with ‘The dial then records the DEPTH the impression caused by the major ‘and by this alone: there is no eror {0 "soring” nthe machine frame oF 1 “sting down” of the specimen. nike the Brinel the Rockwell hardness ‘rumber’, not a suface. stress, The Measurement of Hardness {t's untkaly that many moto! onginsers The majority of heraness testing done will be concerned with the actual today depends on the resistance To ‘measurement of hardness. but itishelptul_ ponetration of tha meta nthe Binal tes! foknow HOW it is done when faced with (Fig. 6) 4 hard. stes! ball, 10mm ne oF other of the several “hardnoss diameter, is impressed on the spacimen =! umber" used. The main dificulty i in metal under a load of JO00 Kilogram: ocicing exactly whet to measure, for (about 3 tora). The ciometer of the “Mardness Is not e9sy to put on @ scale. impression 30 formed is measured using = Iie fair enough to say that steel which microscope with an intomal scale. From breaks under SD tonlsain. is “twice as this the surface area of the impression f= Strong” as hat which falls 28 ton/sqin, calculated, and the ‘surface. stress but we cannot be #0 definite with obtained by dviding 2000ka bythe ares haranese umbors ‘Tho result othe "Brinell Number” wh Mineralogiss define hardness as "the is, of course, 9 “slress” indicated bility to soratch” ond use» scale called Klogram/aq mm. This test flied Mo's scale” on whieh Diamond, the about 500 Brinell number, 28 above the hardest. is No.10 and. Tale (French figure the ball elf distorts. For har Chak" is softest at No. On this scale materiale » tungsten carb ball is use Mic Staot would appear at No.6, and white or soft matorae the standart bal = haroorod toat-stgol at No.7 — not a very ysad but te fod ls reduced ~ usualy big aiferencel A comparable test for 500 kg. and a eoresponding adjstmen motalsueoe a standard “scratcher" made made to the formula. The Brine numbe of eismone carving 3 definite toad which Obtained agroo within the standard limits 'S drown aoress the surface of the metal. The Rockwll hardness tester [Fi 47 Load is adjusted to make 2 "standard also uses s spherical impressor, but race ‘width of seats, and this ood is taken'as from industrial diamond. However. th 2 measure of the hardness. This tect Is method and principle of operation are how obsolete, but simple portable scratch quite ferent. The indenter, wih 2rd test eutfts are stil used for casual "on of 2mm, Ie first impresead ito. the ‘ita hardness testing specimen under ond of 109 ‘The Rockwell machine con be used th several typee of indenter and with veral magnitudes of "mejor lood. Fer FS stel, and uahardene high carbon or oy steis, the “Rockwall C scale but “Rockwall 8” with a 1/16 in bal i used for “mils seats anc norsferreus alloys. The "A" scale {or extramely hard specimens and for in, hard sheet materia The advantage af tho Rockwell test penetate even hersened Istel Ie con be usnd for materials beyond en eee ase 24 85‘the range ofthe Bene. The cinaavantoge iS that i not "Abwolute™ ii eal hhareness. comparator and must ‘be recalibrate trom ime to time Both the above make a visible impos sion in the materia. The Vickers Diamond Pyamia (VDP) testing machine Fig. 48 ‘ses a square based clamond pyramié a= the indenter with a included angle of 136°" The applied toad 18 usvally 50K ‘but can be altered t0 sult special con tions (eg. thin specimens or extra hors ‘material this is dane the magnitude of the load must be steted. The "scross Comers” dimensions of the impression ere ‘measured and tabuisted values of VDP Hirde in kgeq.mm | derived from the ean of the to. Inthe Vikers machine the microscope te. “bull in and. the Specimen automaticaly. registers for Gbsorvation of the Impression. The testis Fogarded se vary deeurate ond, for 86 Secor tunataly. the VOP numbers ie very coos to the Ginell hardness number, 20 th “isuslisston’ is easier then wth the Rockwall scales. The main casdvantage of tha Viekors machine fs thatthe lmpres Son is very small. s0 that special surface Broparation is raquirad for rally a6sirate work The Rockwell machine require ony "good machine fish”. On tho other hand the Vickers dows not disigre the ‘surface so much — the indentations are haraly notices. Al tree teats retire ‘the apecimen to be brought to. the Machine. Hardness. figures quoted in Specifications and textbooks wil ll have Deen mace on fay robust specimens, to ‘avoid any artor due to specimen distortion ‘subject to @ smal ily range of 1 or? lait on the Rocko 30 “The Shore Scleroscope (Fig. 49) reins fon 9 diferent princpia.Iis found that Specimens of reasonable sae ate used Dalvended ‘hommsr will bounce 19. agree which beats an almost lines! falationship to. the hardness. The ‘Scloroscope isa portable harass tester jn which a amall_damond faced tee Plunger is dravm up to @ height of 10 ‘Inches within 9 glas tube. Ie shold there bya eaten ane whan release, fas on tha specimen and rebounds up the tube. Ts Sraune of the abound can be rea rom Seale. The. succession of operations. is ‘utomatically contelied. by. pressure ‘Qenorated from rubber ball This vy Useful instrument. and espacally whe” tests must bo made in the works — it ‘etensivalyussd in steehworks for measur ing the hanose of rolls in the mil! Inaves almost no impression at al, bu does have to be taken to avoid cing the hammar on tho same place ore than once, forthe previous test wil 8 work: hardoned the Sulace. "The covelation between Selerascape umbers and VDP oF Rockwell and rina fairy oo0d, provided the Sclerascope ciman was reasonably massive: the SSlandards" provided with the instrument ‘about one inch square x 23 inch long. {On very small proces the specimen itself By bounce a litle on the sunport anvil this ml couse 9 false reading | have fone of these [ae seen in Fig. 49) picked up “at an auction sale fora really sly pric, nd. find that. it. giver. oxcellont Comparative figures when specimens are {tho same ao, But unt te fol is over TP in. square the results tend to bo lows fonon compared wih teste dono on the dame piece with aViskersinstrument Comparison of Hardnass Numbers. The [choice of which test to use is often made from considerations other” than eomparabilty’. The Brine machine te ‘most often used for the softar grades of ‘tes, arcl has the advantage that thee Wor use on scl 2 coer relationship with ithe tense strength: 2 Brinell test may ‘often save the trouble of making 9 tensile fest specimen. At slready remarked the Rockwall testi quisk ntl much used in [production workshops, The Vickers machine leaves very ite evidence of lise, and because His very accurate at high hardnesses i is natural chosen for oo! stone ste. Both the Viekers and the Brinell give the anewer in kg/sq.mm. of impression, snd agree closely at low hhardnese below 220. With hard ‘materials the fact thatthe Brinl all may aero distort and the Vickers diamond will not {asuls ina divergence of the roeuls. The ‘Shore” hardness readings re compar- able with othr tests only won the test Specimen has a mess of a least One pound (0.Skg), but ls indications ore Telable when making compaizons ~ og ‘an incroase trom Shore 86 10 60 will imply 9 ise of approximately 100 points onthe Vickas cate ‘The table of compsrisons given at the fend of the book is drawn from a sot prepared jointly by the American Society for Tosting Materials, Tho American Metals: Society, and" the ‘Society. of but Automotive Enginoers, but Brith 7Standerd No.860 — obtainable from most Iiraies ~ aso gives comparative tables, fand these go down to somewhat lower hardness. Great care, must be taken in comparing the hardness of different ‘loses of materials the fact that (eg) 2 Stel and a heat treated aluminum alloy hve the ‘samo hardness number wil Tefioct the eiferent characteristics of he ‘wo moras, and one ray woll be much harder than the other "Tho hardnesces which may be ‘expected irom various classes of ster ‘depend vory much on the. precision of Temperature conto, the sifectiveness of ‘the quench and, in some eases, the mass (Of the test specimen. The figures given is ‘manufacturers’ spociications aro always ‘Obiained from standard test specimens, hot working lathe tools However. the following may ghe # guige to the "es ‘quonchod” stat. 1.1-1.26, 0.35hHn,0.45¢r(Sivor CChuome Atanganese “nor-shrint” de tee Non-tempering chisel stot 22% Tungsten 125 cabal high speed ste 18% Tungsten High speed ste Fle Steel 1.25% Carbon ‘The above figues wil of course, be con- ‘Seerably morlerated. by tempering: for Carbon steel lathe too, tempering 10 180° will drop the hardness by no more than one point on the seale, and 200°C by twice 8s much. Carbon steel tempered to “blue” (310°C) fe ust machinesble, at Rockwell “igure in the region of 56 5B. At the ether end of the scale, tro exttng mild steel, machineable at 200%7 ‘in, wl have a hardness equivalent 11 fon the "C” sale (whine nt apprepriata to motal es soft ae ths; the Briel figure would be 180-185). A 1.8% Nickel 11% Chrome stel cil quenched and tempared to 43 Rockwell could be machined about 80 fui, and a Nickel-Chrome- Malvodenum alloy steel, hardened ar twmpored to about 48 Rockwell yous need the speed reduced to around 55-50 {min for toasonabie too! He “The File Tost. hove let his one i iss Ils of courte, the "test of tho fis fesor after quenching the pce ‘shown 1 fla, and ithe tor sips oft without cutting we koow that it has hhardenod succossuly. 1 howuer, the fie coffers to cut the material but doesnt fuite manage it, tan something has gor: ‘wrong: the hardness Is not as high ait Should be ~ fora high carbon steel thar i Fine fles wil eut Blue, or even pure tampered carbon steel, but should not ‘make an impression on staw-coleurec ‘ool pains. the workplace takes the ‘edge off the teeth of the file you have ‘done very wall indood. oa 66-67 Rockwell "C" 64-65 5254 65.66 6a.88 se-69 Conclusion. The sifcuty with hardness fpumbers is that though we know, su- Jotively, what hardness is. and what it oes, itis very dificult to devise @ means ff measuring this quality. By convention the surface stress needled "0. cause a" Indentation under 2 known loed is usee but this clearly has leitations: © materia ‘which was vary brittle would pct accept fr indenter without splintering, However by custom the. Briel, Rockwell anc Viekore. tess and itis i spect! apalcation, the Shore, ae accepted, anc ‘can be used for comparing ferent steels oF even dillrent material f due eauton Used. The model engineer should not, ft, Be 190 consered about an odd fe diference. onthe Rockwell oF oll scales, oF tho equivalant on tho WVckors, for itis quite normal 10 find 3 raneo of one point an Rockwell °C '30 divisions on the Vickers between ‘ror i reading the (scope or dal. pally to cifferences in face finish a the point of measure. Tent. and party to actual hardness Uiiforances. So, i you are offerod 2 stool “wich hardens 10°67, andthe sort you ‘normaly use “only” gives 66, don't worry too much!eerie ;——— CHAPTERS ae | Home Construction of Furnaces Geos Firing. | have aeady refered briely gives the deta. The tube ie apiece of 14 to the aificuties whieh arse with ges in borestee! exhaust pipe. about 18 gauge a i in firing. The design of 3 combustion For heating with single propane burner chamber does. require speciclist should nat be’ mare than 8 in. long, 7 nowladge, and of 2 burner even more, otherwise the heating will not be uniforr Jee fand’s lot of experiment. The ordinary The end-suppons are pieces of | in thick = Sei ena Se EVE * 8 ox aieen-see oem, . € tiiveir at mmr ml “orc” sir or sl-blown—is intended to Fassalel bricks with = hole bored through produce aflame which can be dirocted at witha tank-eutter to suit th tube. You wil the work whereas for heating 2 muffle notice that this hoe is nearer the top ofthe {you need one which distributes tha heat briek than tho bottom to give spice forthe Sideways rather than verticaly or "it aflame to develop propery below the tube Fi 80st oem hbo Th Sister tine point” The "D'ahoped mute rtered to Ono ofthe cores tom the boles ised 2 fn page 57 is normally used on the Utile permanent plug athe rear end andahorne- brazing hearth, which hoo b fixed side- made termoceunle (or even a eam mere) Dumer as well a5 the two blowtorches. one) canbe inserted through 3 hole in the ‘The febricks supplied with tho hearth are conwe of it.The other core is slighty sized so that they canbe arranged around tapered and used! (o close the font enc ‘the muffle self to direct the flame holding with tongs. ofcourse. bropery tis most sttectve, ad when |The tuner used ie 9 Sievert No.2952 {var “on Town gas”"| mada considerable which is rather too large, but can be thot Use oft Ifyou ate considering a mute of tled back once the tube ia up to this sort, built into a home-made hearth, temparstre It is ofthe type which usec than a letter to Willam Allday & Co, to be known as a Neck-tube" burner, Aleoes Works. Stourport on’ Sevorn, with the air enrabnment oles 2 he gas Worcs, DYI3 9AP, should being” you feed end of the tuba. Curent typesare Geta of the arrangement used, togethar known as “Cyclone” burners. The flame = ‘with a quotation forthe mute directed. to. heat" up. the tebrcks (or ‘Aamall"mutforte".montionedon page “Hotface” bricks) ane NOT divect athe 58 and in Fig. 31 & small be furnace tube Itself, which Is heated by radiator ‘whieh | rig up fom time to time. Fig. 50 fom the hot rckwork. In the photograph, Fig. 51. you can suo Fg. 817%omcnysoinaien thot the burner is directed between two broken hal-bricks on the lelt-hand sie, but ab rule | uso 0 full brick with 9 "mouse's hole” eut in the bottom. Hot ‘goces scape trom a gep berween the top Brick and his ront one 2 space of about Tin, sutiiont This Vet furnace heats pin about S minvtes, and is not ae ‘expensive in gat ae the bumer Sire might Suggest Once the bricks are rod hot the ges can be turned down considerably, ‘There Is no reason why such a furnace should not be made permanent, with tho Dicks cemented together nit freceme but lam abit shor of space in his depart ‘ent, 50 simply keep the two endplates pd the tubo and bull up ho rest when = 8is needed. | have used a 1-pintparatin Biowlamp in the same way, but tis ‘needed twice as long 10. got up 10 Temperature, I would have been better toa, ha altho brs been of the Fossa tyne. But itch! the work requied at ‘round 780°C. Naturally,» smaller diemeter tube can tbe iad, bu is at al longer than the 6 In (about 4 in. “hot length") you may ‘ed two smaller burners, or Keep moving the larger one trom side to side. 1 have thoen meaning fora tong time to devise 9 {en-shapad heed forthe burner. rather Iie ‘howe used on paine-stioping torches, but ve not had the time! Such Head vole latibute tho haat sideways much beta. Fumace control would be easier, t00. In this connection, you must net be tempted to hurry things up by heating the tube ‘rectly for wll only grow cold again ‘Once the firebck is hot tis only 9 cose of ming adjustments to the burn! to kaee 2 ‘ondy tomperature, and once the Brees sre hot all over the mute tube Keeps prove stay. Electric Heating. This is rather eoser for the home constnictar but the furnace wit bbe markedly. slower in reaching. the operating ‘temperature. You. will ‘Soprecate that a burer such a¢ that ust ‘montonad ‘has ® maximum ouput of something tke 18 RW, and an electric flement of tht capacty would stain your power supples somewhat! On the other Rand, electric heating s lean silent, and 57 to contol ~ automatically need be ‘There fe lite rak rom fie. The one thing that must be borne In mind, however, 18 that you are dealing with lahal vltagos ‘and. Must pay really strict atenion to ‘atey ube ae well as to the LEE roguls tions, Al metal parts. must be earthed, ‘proper inulation materiale applied and — {ule No. 1 the supply should ALWAYS be ‘Sched off when charging or discharging 92 the work. The mate rom which wire ‘wound mutfise or heating tobes are made Terot a porect insulator Wound Mutfles. Furnace mutes ready ‘wound ace available trom Messrs Gallenkarnps. Griffin & George Lid. and ther laboratory equipment supotes, ‘They are, In foct “spores” for furnaces sivlar to that seen in Fig. 32. Spacial insulating materialwill be needed adjacent 19 tho muff teat, and ths 00 fan be had from the same source, Outer Ingultion can be the glase er sisgrwool Insulation used. in (e.g) AGA cookers around the ret A minimum of 3 in. of ‘good heat inauletion fs required, otherwise the heat loss tothe cave will prevent the furnace from reaching Its. proper temperature ~ the alarent rating is only thout 2 KW. The auter case Iasi is — oF ‘a ~ usually Syndany sheet, about $i thick, joined with self-apping screws but as this contains asbestos’ it teow replaced by similar material based on Calcium Sifeate. This may be avalabie fiom builders supply merchants but itn Gitfeutty Messrs Cope Insulation Led Washington, Tyne & Weor NE3S BL, (or atthe oes offices) can give the adress tf the nearest ele ‘The actual erangement of the turaces 1 a matter for your own taste and ingenuity! Dont forget thet the. door needs insulating (a lace of hat face brick ‘wil sve) ands itt has 2 metal handle, this needs earthing. You "can add 3 Pyrometer indeed! would most strongly fivise this, se the virtues of muffin esting. are ‘considerably. ciminished ‘otherwise. Those an of course, be ‘btaines fom the same source 96 the ‘muffle, compote with Nange for sewing to the cose and a bracket to hold the indleator. Commercial furnaces ate ted ‘with "thermal fase this sina more t 3 pair of reds projecting inte the chamber, Jated of course, united with 2 wire of table metting part (slver for 1000°C, pie) and wired in series with the nding the furnace oversuna and gets hot the fuse mots and cuts off the 00. ‘Radiant Element Fumace Kit. Fi. 52 photo. of a furnace designed by famthal Elgtroheat Lid Inversimend rth PHI SEE specially for home com ructon. (The photo was taken, by the / efore the essential earthed guard ‘been fined over the terminals It con ‘bit either as an 8 KW unit rated ot J350°C or wih 4 KW loading. for 100°C, The ater is probably adequate ‘all model engineering purposes. The ing slrents in this eave ere slo ride rods, the ends of which can be inthe photo, and these ara set in tho p of the chamber. Heating it entirely jim, But T would advien uses 10 bring furnace up to temperature before lng in any work otherwise the upper face's lable to be heated faster than > lower. Tne furnace body is made ely of Hot Face Insulating. Bricks ch are sawn and tiled to the deta eawing supplied by Kanthal, but the thember bag fe special refractory plate Which wil stand more wese and tear than wil tho. surface of tho bricks. Fig. 53 ‘hows sectional vows ofthe fumace the Sze sof course, dotermined by the number of elements used. ‘Thermostat Control ie availble. but rather expensive and 8 simple energy controler ts really Quite adequate. A. thermocouple’ Dyrometeris an essential ithe best fs 10 be got out of tho eauipmont. Tis, once ‘ut up, a profesional mace without the normal casing and hinged or sing ‘door and the chamber size fs more than ‘Sdequate for most model engineer Electric Tube Furnace. Over tho yours 2 umber of home-made sect tube firnaces have bean described, using cinary electric fire elements and home fred ‘oramic tubes. Thora are. several iden problems. The frst is that such laments are rated to work in row ait Le. tosing heat as fast as they can. Once they fre encased in insulating. material Tey ‘vil repay bum out. They rust be erated for furnace work. Saoone its not teany to make a fe-cerent tube without eablisters and spain Tir, euch a tube is Usually very ago, and it cannot be Strengthened by moulding it round te tube as some makers have suggested the ‘expansion of te tube wil burst the cay However, for those wing to expe mont. and face one oF two tales wit Srquarimity, Fg, 88 shows the stages 'n ‘making the tube, The "mould" ie a pic St steal tube of the desired. interns iameter, Turished with two thickne \washors. Weed paper is wound 12 the tube — three layers — and the pndlates or spacers are. grossed Th firacomant that seen is "Kos is made Into “worms” of thickness jst over hl! ‘tho desved thickness of the tube. (Th 2uld not be mote than J In. and 3/16 i ter. These worms ate. then wound und ‘over the paper liner and well ineaded together, The frst lover is lowe! to sit ary. and then 9 second tale top. this one being smoethed_ and ineaded down using the two end washers = gues. This t00, Is ai-aried for several yon 2 hot restor, afer wien the be is withdrawn. It sticks,» blowlsmp be sraetes down tha ini to fie the 9 Dut on po account must the rece. mnt tube be made rely hot st this fae. With the steel tube estracted the ment rust be further ir dred ond the ger this isis the better—up 0 a weee ‘must then be "fred" ond this process wt algo be very slow, [The problem is ft molsture nthe interior ‘may form fa pockets wich If the surtace) Fire the inside with 3 brazing torch, very Wl raising the temperature to red heat ‘any spas form, these can bo picked off ind "petched with firecoment monoeamese You will need two elements, fom the local electric shop, of 1 KW. rating Corauly “unwind "one by threading Toneth of 9/16 in. rod through ard pling fff the wire Ave kinks Meseure the fangth. and then wind on to = bebdin, Unwind part of the second element. ana ‘ut off one fith of its length. cute th ‘ana thlet to make a twin wire. This wil then be cut in two to form te connecting Wires and leo. serves t0 reduce the Zopled voltage to the actual heating lament. You wil need two smal con: nectors mace by ring $n steel fod in and tapping fortwo sill set soresthe standard brass connactrs wil not do, ‘25 the temperatures oo high Make two wooden plugs to fit inside the coment tube, one witha contre-hole it! Wind iron wire round each end of the tube, about in from the end, and twist, tighty: these are the anchor pointe forthe ‘ends of tho element. Tis il Be wound ‘musing the athe From the known length of the element and the diameter of the tube you can atclate the number of tums Seinct an fasy serowrcutting pitch vic wil perm {hie humboe of turns on tho bobbin — something between 12 and 14-101 will Drobebly serve. Seta piece of wond in the foathoiger witha noteh to quide the wire (Fig. 85) and attach’ one ond of the stock end anchor. inches free. Koop 9 {sir tension on the wite and with the lathe running. at about 60 ‘pm, wind on the Wie. At the other end, anchor the wire ‘gain. Neto if you havo more than foot lett over but los than a yar dont worry, tut if there is more than that you should 96 awind with a finer pitch W the ainding does nat teach. the ond, use. yo. Judgment os 0 whether t tolerate» hu, Uinpeated part of the tube or to coarsen the pitch This part of the job takes very litle time. Fig. 86 shows the wound tub: “The winding must row be covered 1 very thin layer of cement — the w= shoul just show. This, ones et wl fo binding to pravent adjacent coils Touching. whan ‘the wire expends sty heat. Relore going any further, test ve arzangement. Attach the two twin feed \oltge dropper lengths, one at each eh, land e piece of moins eable to these wi the normal twin porcelain joiner, Maks ‘ute that there i ho risk of any part of th bace wie touching anything, and sat all o9 2 piece of fwebrick- Uso ® plug with 12 ‘amp fuse and switzh on. DONT TOUCH ANYTHING. Afr 9 short wie the tue ‘should star to got hot, ond yeu must rots the final tomporature. If this is 0 ett than black, pll out the plug, cut sou fone fith off each of the twisted end lengths and try again it gete to dull eo and stays there, all should be wel: ono? insulated it should reach the desis temparatutes. Ir howover, it burn ou after half an hour. you need more on the ‘ist end lengths! ‘Once satistied i is worth doing theres! othe work. Insulate the feeder wicos with Geramie beads, and then make up a easing of insulating bricks carved out, feeding the ‘nites outwards between two backs. Make 4 terminal block fom Fin. Sypdanyo aro fx this to one of the bricks. IF you se bots then these must be earthed, ae must the protective cover over the terminals (of metal) How you arrange thie fe up © you, but you ned at least vee Inches 91 spoinercunce. sgl | MORGAN TRITON INSULATING WOOL. FY | (xagwooe || eer TUBE aSmm BORE sem, THICK texeni To Suir Tangle ORSAY BOE HIGH ALUMINA, |} --erfe my 280 vert WinbiNG |) RANTHAL wor psp: | oR SIMILAR. ro Sur ere Nex6 STEEL SELF , | TAPPERS AT PITCH, Sie ai SyNANYO. OR CALCIUM SILICATE team hee a)atmnALL. ROUND, ye }SINSULATION [egicae cor b 1 tof. fe 12 9.88 onnealtunsinn e957 ea chngr omer st Insulating brisk ll round. Any gaps can be months of service, and sever give way at ied with ground-up ragments, Close the once. Others hove bull thorn and had back ofthe ube witha bck lag. and for thom in serve for yaars. A great de That itis worth) just lean a frcbrick depends on (a) tho homogonelty of the sins the other end to act 9¢2"door. coment, it must be well knead before Ti'give. thoes. instrsctons “without and during application. and () the quality sranty’! | have made such a furnace of the elamert. You can, of coursa. buy [ore hed satisfactory results, but have alo the proper resistance wite rom Kanthal Thad three burn out on me all some specified fortis service, and this wal not 7‘ed deating and be less tkely to “blow Sat the operating temperature. (The wire ‘may get up to 120°C with the ube at '900°C). You can, of course, buy a tube, teo, from Morgan Rofractores Lt butt you are going to do that you might ae wll bey a. raady-ound tobe, thor from Kanthal Eletrohest or from Morgane snd have done with High Temperature Salt Furnace. Fig, 57 Shows my 24 In. x 10 lo. noua sat furnace for temperatures. up to sbout 960°C, rated at just under 2.8 KW. This 's, perhaps, rather Iatger than might be oeded, and a 24 In. Bin. would do for ‘most applications. but it was originally ‘mado (pot by mal a stmall laboratory furnace Fi. 88s the drawing, The tubes 98 3B in. bore Morgen SOE High Alum: ‘wound with @ Kanthal element for 240 volts. I buying a wound tube fs impo {ant to specify the power input~ 2p to 2 KW inthis case ~ the apalied voiage, ans the operating temperature of the cera tube. This wll be highor han thet in S81 pot ite, so that a sketch of 1 rangement or 2 copy of Fig. 88, shou be sent with the enauiry. The outer easing Igo jin. Syndaryo, though today one the Calcium Siicate substitutes. trom Cape Insulation Lid would be used. Tr lvmedlate insulation material round th Slement is "Trtan” Kecwool cera foe, supniied by Morgan Ceramic Fibs Li, Bromborough, Wir [82 3PH. The standard grade ts good for 1250°C. but Sugaest the "High Duty" rated at 1400"c ‘This is packaged into the space betweer the element isa and the heat inal stn bricks ~ which are cul roughly to leave shout 7 inch gap between their surface ‘nd that ofthe element. The Lott of te tube i packed withthe woo aso, th = ‘st not lie above the frst col of tho Fig. 59 shows the actual pot. This is ‘made from drawn sce! tube, with th Bottom ‘welded on. with full thickness Benatation. The 0.0. of the pat must bout fin less than the bow a the heater ‘ube, 0" that it may be necessary tc mochine the steel tube to. 9. smallet ‘hckness. This ie not diffcalt and 8 ov finish wil do. The support fangs twessed 33. shown. This prevents 20) Splashes of sal trom geting tween the ot and the heater. The handle shown “= fot intended for carving the pot around ‘ton hot, but simply to make it easier to it A ld of some sort Is needed, Bath 19 fut dint when not in. use, and to ‘the pot when reheating, Thera se ‘Sight risk that the lower layers of at may melt and expand boforo the crust top mets, and ifthe iter spits open der tho proscuro there could be ting out of fot liq. Fg. 60 shows furnace withthe top cover removed. ran ie dasa. ‘Non ofthe cimension® is eteal — you make the ste of She Roster tuba oF eting pot to aut your needs and adlust to suit. However, iis Important 10 low for plenty of insulation =the more ‘etter a9 this wil spoed up mating ime and reduce ‘current consumption oe up 10 temperature, Reducing the Jicmeter of the pot will not reduce the eral sizeof tha caen very much. As tO jet, you have fo allow sutiient for the fide ta Yon ae you immerse the workpiece snd the top level Of rscten sit must Isiwaye be below the top af tho winding he oscing of the esting. element ands aimost irsly on the volume ot Rie pot but I don't advise going below 1000 watts (1 KW) a5 the heat losses are by no means negligible ‘Note thatthe stl pot and te ternal box i of metal MUST both be earthed 35 Ihe insulation resistance of the ceramic fube is not pertect. The eurrent shoul of course, be svitched off when manipula fing the wor. There Is no rea! need to [inculate the leads to ond rom the heating erent, but the ite earamic beads used 3m cooker circuits and electc Ties are ite adequate. "The actual Inada are Feontnuation of the heoter ending, but Houbioc end twisted, 20 tat they wl aot fost very hot. The terminal Block is ot ‘Syndanyo or Caleiom Silicate, chovgh porcelain terminal blocks ara sometimes vallable_ on the “surplus” market. The ‘equation of the furnace ie best done with bn "Energy Contolier” 9 thermestotie ontrel would be vary expensive, Those on Slectne cookers will Rane 3 KW. do not cis bulging i into the furnace casing. fi tose controllers inearprate 9 therm Sitch to elect the tmentervals. andthe heat tom the fumace would upset ham. “Heater Bricks”. A relatively new development tein’ tha form of hist Insulating. Bick with a heater element fembdce in the face At fst ight the ‘would seer to be the ideal module forthe onstruction of 3 smal furnoee. There fe fiso 2 variation, uth the “Bick” sn the form ofa hollow tube, making the basis of 3 tube furnace, There ote wo problems fhe fst is that the units are wound for no ‘more than 60 volte, s0 that wher @Reley tonsformer Ie needed, or one must ust four unite, The second i thatthe hot face ofthe bricks wil ot carry any Wad: You ‘would need supperting end hoat war parent” floor ora mata tube fusing the {bular type, Both fear and tube would havo to be of heat reiting ste! ot of Considerable thickness any reasonable 99lo was t9 be expected. However, these ‘210 not sficult problems to get over ond faders. who. are intorested in. this ‘development should write te Messrs WJ Fuse & Co, Lid, Willord Rosd, Not. tingham NG2'1EB. The bcicks are known as Watiow Ceramic Fibre Hoare London Electric Wite & Smiths Co, (LEWCOS} Church Rood, London E10, a wal as other manufacturers, an in all ‘Stockport Cheshite. Such sloment wire is avalabo othor as the normal round ee fr 88 erp, the latter for the higher Kv Fatings The matorial must be slectac fo the operating temperature of the wie wi wl be high than land select the highost rated eloment re {can be rather expensive “The robiem i 10 elect a compromise between three variables.” The overs rapgtoves tesistance needed to limit the current to the desires power eq for 1 KW at 240 ‘working temperature init the ourent 100/280 = "4.17 amp, say 58 ohms. Nest, the surtao are ofthe wite must be ‘buch that itean dissipate this powee A not ‘urypical rating fs 6.8 wats/sa, inch of ‘surface ares. S0 long asthe length of wire ‘needed for this efiteion Is fess than that needed 10 provide the reqvied ohmic Teslstanco the elament wil be safe, but if the copeste condition hols, then it wl probably burn ut. Finally, there must bo ‘enough’ room to. wind this caleulated Tet of wire on the carrie tube. is fot safe to wind at closer pen than about Y@TPA, as thor ie thon risk of adjacent turns touching rach other “The following calculation table shows how four gauges of wire have deen ‘assoggod to meat the roqued citer for #1 KW 240 volt heoter element. Note net these figures, though typical, should not be used in an actual furnace: the table Ig just an exerci to show how to 99 aut he job Required curont = 1000/240 = 4.17 amp, Required resistance a te operating temporature of 120°C, 240/417 ~ 57.8 ‘ohm. Power capacity of the wire 667 ‘iatisiegin,surace area, hence A~ 150 Grins. Outi slameter of hoster tbe is in 1.05 fecreurforonce Wire requires a greater lengths to dieipate the power than is needed to offer the Fequired resistence: ts therefore, unsuit ‘ble. All he others will handla the power ‘output if wound to a resistance of 57.6 ‘ihm. The 18 gauge oloment wil nocd 2 twining feng of aut 7 inch an ths is Teasonsbie for 4 Incea diomator — oF ould be wound at 12 TP aver an Binch Tenge if desired “he resistance: per foot and surece ‘area por Toot for in mee units) fs quoted by the suppliers, as is the safe issipation in wars per unit are of wie. In somne tases it may be necetsary to change #0 fiat strip heaters, in ordor to match the resistance per foot tothe requir surtace fre. The wire manufacturers wil be able to supply tables which help conideraiy, ‘but da aot expect thom to act t8 "Con sultants™ forthe price of 9 few pours ‘worth of wire. (The 19. gauge eloment {ilo would need sbout €8 worth) Conclusion. This chapter has necessarily Deen briefer furaceemaking Is not very common oecupation Tor model engineers, and there. isnot much ‘published information. Hewover, | hove that what Ihave verte wil help you to ‘vid some ofthe more cficlt problors. would, however suggest that bafore ‘embarking on the manufacture of sny But the simplest mule you explore the Second hand marke. “Exchange & Mart” ‘may being fot something a even if tho fumace requires e new mule, or perhaps the thermocouple of tha pyrometor. tho coat of ropaie may wall be fess than the Wire Length Read, Fe Turns on Winding Length Gauge ForPower For Resistance 4 in-cla inches. 18 622 269 248 17 is B28 148 139 10 13 993 104 95, 88 20 103 2.8 78 36 ‘This table shows that the 20 gauge ost of materials foro home-made afat ‘The litle. gas-fired. tube furnece is. of course, a vty simple matter. os you must have febricks around any heat Meatment hearth anyway 101CHAPTER 10 Safety Precautions Sataty in the workshop Is, most of the time, no mors than “applied. common Sense’ and I fear that mary ofthe Parla mentary Enactments 09 tha subject seer fo assume that most psople working in Industry are hal- wits, However, caren Sones isthe moce easly spated some: thing fs known of the hazards, and my ‘Object in this chapters to present these to Yau no more. Te those readre who have doen sucking this ore of egg alti tes Tecan only say that many ethors have not: fand i YOU tied to ute thelr tools you fright well do yourset 9m injury straight way. Fire. This is. perhaps, the most obvious anger. At 780°C the workgieco wil. fet burn 2 hole inthe Moar ~ or through ‘your Boot. Wore, itean burn tough your [pee hove ia soconds, and though te hose {Bilure valve (dare | assume that your ‘equipment has ane?) will shut off the Suopy, the inal burs of Name can sot fie t0 other things. The secona hazard is ‘tom the heating flome ise The practice ‘of moving the torch aside to observe the metal is normal, but how. many Dractioners think on as. to where the ‘ame is now pointing? | have myset set fire to 9 carelessly placed piece of cotton waste this wey. 102 The answer to those is twofold Fist the heataresiment spot should. be 3s fireproof as. possible. it working on = Bench, then the top should Be covered ‘with two Tayere of rick, with staggered Joints, £9 that flare eannot pass thveugh Botte, use 2 purpose bulk steel frame ‘withthe bricks at in| know that spaco ‘often compels the uss of wooden to> bench, but i any great amount of he: tteatment ie dane then the berch should be mado accordingly. The brazing spot should be so equipped, and this surely fhe right place to\86 other “hot work” as ‘Second. nave fire-oxtinguising goor available. Fre can get aut of hand ry fuieky Indeed. and’ prompt action may Save you a lot of misery ~ ad money. Te ‘quench bucket is the fst resourco, oF ‘curse [but note later the remarks on st baths) sand is the socond, and proper fre extinguisher the thre. | use the "Dry Powder" type, and have a CO, ‘exingusher a8 8 Backup. (We are 12 Iles tom the fre station). These (poe tre both safe for use on slacteal fos ‘and my workehop, ike yours. has 3 ot of tring n't A very sensbie arangement i= for tha wie ofthe bench (brazing or hes tvestment! to stand in a shalaw fay €o1- tiring on inch or 50 of DRY sand. This will each any deoppings safely, and from We quick shovel of sane can contin 5 mall fire whilst reaching forthe ‘xtnguisher ‘The other hazard trom hot metal is burning yours The fist pint 10 note ks that cold water won t hurt a burn, and to ‘ut any sre of dreasing over e dry pave teking for trouble. So, suice on cold water ‘ind get someone arefuly to woth the ‘rea around the buen Then i itis 3 bad ‘one redhat met on the back of the hand, for example ~or of any size do NOT Spply anything sticky. A dey burn dressing ‘ul do ile erm, But even @ clean ped ‘made trom lean hareeerchiefINOT i) And loose bandage will keep the lesion floan on the way #0 “Casualty” at the local hospital. Don't neglect this — 2 burn attended to prompty by experts will lie wouble, but lave til next day and you may wall bein touble. For minor urna. then the acrilavene based burn ‘roasinge can be used, fut even hero, se ‘the advice of your doctor iin doubt. Keep these dressings in the workshop or rearby, but don't forget ~ it is the cit ‘ound the buen which wil cause infection, 40 see thot your paws ae clean Clothing. Wet is up must come down land. your feet are. winerable. Carpet Sippers ara-not the best things to wear with metal at 800°C 9 couple of feet higher "up. Wear leather shooe. Cotton ‘wl overs are safe or az safe as con bo — but those of man-made fibre can tray melt # overheated. Splashes rom ‘quench-tanks can be hot, and those from ft ete ARE hot Protect your trast tnd neck: On the steelworks we used 10 have sweat rage which could be held in ‘our teeth. (Though nowadays | have no Soubt that special hot- mata ithing is do Figueurl. But_an old scart is useful ‘thing is worse than hot pice of sca lumping off @ too! in the quench ang lodging down the open nock of a shirt! The use of gloves ie debatebe. If there tnd to minke you clumsy and increage the fk of eropping workpieces thon parhape bettar to do without thor. But you hate ‘pal of reasonsbiy suppe chrome leather ‘nes, these shouldbe warn when waking ‘ath hot hightemperature salt for molten aad i you use tha). There ate some so- called “heat proof gloves on the market. but they are not suitable for this cass of work = maybe at tempering temperatures but they wor't stand vecrhot metal The abject of the glove Is, of course. to protect ‘our hand from accident. not to ene ‘you to pick up workpieces! One important Boint~ te gloves shouldbe such that you {an whip them off smarty thoy wil keep the heat from the hot metal om your pew, but the glove is then hot. and thi heat will aval trough soon afterwards Finely, wear 2 eap. Quench 2 piece of ste! with s hole i i and the ode ae that a lump of superheated tor wil loan ‘up, to land on your bald patch. (So you thave har? Good. but would go tough that. tool. Thore is absolutely no need to ‘fase up a8 you were molting TOO tons of ste! when you are about to harden a fn. form tot but that toot IS hot. and you should a8 said at he Beginning, use your ‘Splashes. You may wll have dumped 3 {ow jobs into the picke-bath in the pas, ‘0 you know what happens. Don't lean ‘ver the quench tank, and if the work sof ‘any size a all, wear proper goggles. These ‘re dirt cheap, but MUST be to British Standord 2093/2. These are hast proot {nd will nt shatter from heat a8 glass ‘wl They have litle sid: piocos that sop things from coming that way. and can be ‘worn ever spectacles. They also have @ Iie “top set" which prevents st rom falling into tho space between specs and 103the eyes. you do get arything In your tyes wh well with ool water and! go #0 {he doctor ts ust ot worth taking ony ‘ak hre Splashes fom tho ol-quench tank ged Beno more serous than rom water “fhy stud not ba to hor bar pain eat fora bur; wash ours the pct and apply» dry bur desing tl You con get mosis! stenton The rine {th ters ont om the water quench in thot the. sat fs an tiont But ont reglct any iy rom hor sass. rom Se iter wat ne mee erat ‘Tush thar they are hor ae tht they are Dim, ars om ie hat ubseent beacon can aie Salt Bathe: Gonerl. AL ho oui baana fre dangorove I they can overturn. The frst ral, therefore, tht the fmnce. or i used the hotplate for tempering salt Should be secre in ths respect hesty Bot on ep of » fey stove fat not Seceprbie ond. you ore unable "0 Strange for realy #00 support, dont use the ‘yotem at Second, the ahs Seclum nitite and potassium nivate for fermpering. and sodium and) porasiim Chlonde ior Vcstensing, se, shovgh ftrictiynon-ton, rating jst tke Echen sat The cold sit should not be andod wth bare hands ne any powder toiles should be dealt wit sing bush shovel ‘Ass can sbso o hve wate, one n contain “water of estan ua tried. At ft met therefore there wll Bo aulte's bit of Wothing ae tis waters ling. Str the matt ith? pot ony fafa apply heat vary sow. at the tol rh ce down "cot ntonse the tempersture ~ and then ode ite tor saft Use mata setop to putt ont "tp it out of the bag", Lat the Imolstre evapora an agai add more Satin al quontien ot tie, unl he r04 tecjicee amount sin the pet. Allow plenty ff spacs forthe tie torte when work puri. Inthe cage of the elecrscaly ected high-temperature furnace the sa: level should be below the uppor end af the sioment There willbe no frothing on remelting 0 long as you have had aid on 50 that Eannot absorb any moisture, and even ‘then it wl be slattvely sight. However, IS worth again repeating tat tho salt may form enuat, ane when re-molted the expansion of the liquid below may cause thie to erack and send out a 2purt of hot Salt So, Koop 2 substantial lon the pot ‘it the whole is meted. ‘Never stick your head over the top of salt pat in service, always observe at an angle, always. woar 52082 grado 2 nmpact” goggles anda cap. and gloves it ‘yeu can possibly manage with thom. ‘All work put tno the bath must be water-"and ilfree, and should be Immersed slow. Porcular care must be taken when ollauenched work is 12 be tempered at shove about 220°C, 98 ony residual oil may “flash of” Prior degreae ing ie recommenced Ht she tempering bath is above 245°C. Slight surface oil con ‘amination should eauss no trouble in he ‘Austenising bath, but if there are. any holes in the workpiece these shoulé bo lasted. of ol before immersion. No ‘ures or other dviens for ise in sat Det should be made ‘ror tube. Great fare should be taken to endure that ro foreign mater falls into the bath whether old oF hot I is impurative that no water Should fall into B sait bath. and. wet should not be used to extinguish any fr Aadlacent to one ‘Avoid overheating any sat bath. They should not be lett "on heat when leaving the. workshop for more than tho ocd minute or wo, ever if thermostatic Gontral is fited. Overheating can be tempering salt if atures go above about 850°C. INO ACCOUNT MUST. TEMPERING (LT GET INTO THE AUSTENISING POT. ring Salt. Thi is 9 mature of jum ‘Nitite and Potessivm Nivate Tan intate the sin, but are classed “non toxic" Seep and water ean be %o wash off the shin. and on sh solution if any powder gets In the “The sat oks lke coloured sugar, £0 ft it SHOULD BE KEPT AWAY FROM ILDRLEN, but i any is taken by mouth plonty of water fo eink and cal tho tr In the event ofa bun from moter it (a) Flood the atfected area with tr of Sodium Bicarbonate soution () move soled salt and wash again le) 363 thermal burr apely 2 modicated Iv) bum dressing and see the doctor or. ftensive, take the patient tO. the pita “The satis not inflammable nisl, but song supporter of combustion: wend ‘loth contaminated with the salt wil 1m. vigorously. Soma organic com leaned. as there Is a reaction with y= leaning solutions heated above 550°C, orides of itogenmay form, and these can be beorbed by th skin, nd inhaled ean be igerous Symptoms are blueness of the "The sali supplied in plastic sacks, and ould be adled fom these into the pot ith a metal spoon or lacie. Storage con ins. Used. salt cen be disposed of by washing down the sink with a good flood of water Within the temperature range. and ‘quantien used by model engineers this 431 con be regarded es nom-hosardous provided reasonable care la taken High-temperature (Austenising) Salt. hie ie 2 mbtre_of Sochim ‘Chore {common salt) and Potassium Chloride It ‘i viwualy nor-harmfl an ean be treated fas if it were household salt gets nthe ‘es, na ext is akan By mouth nthe fevent of burns from molten salt these ‘Should he vated 3 for the tempering Sait, but the bum may be severe and immediate resort to the casusity depar- iment of te hospital i recommenda, Spilage of the cold alt power is Lnimpartane. though ie wi sear) water land may damage rust) metal. Spilloge of hot salt can be contained with dry sand dams, and tho fo any ack with COs ‘extinguishers: water should not be used ih the presence of molten sat ‘Material merged inthe bath must be ‘ry, and the wrk should be ot In slowly to slow any st trapped in holes 10 escape Slowly — a rapid immarsion may cause Spurting. Care must be taken when Fameltig, with a substantial in case & rust forms on the top of the beth, and intlat malting must be slow: tis salt tolts st ost 670°C, so that frothing at this stage should be reduced 10 2 ‘minimum withthe éepth ofthe bath being Increased only siowy “This tol Is inhorenty fe, but the hard fem very Roti prosent. It ‘Weated 28 8 molten metal with the sme Precautions, “dangerous situations are Unley to" aise, though | repeat my previous warning: on no account allow any tempering sa. or metal contaminated therewith, to get into. the hi tamparature lt, colo bot) Caretul tention to protective clothing a al mos 105i the order of the day. Storage and Aisposal conltions' are the same as for Tempering st Electrical. Elnctical haards in the hoot treatment shop are exacty the same as those slowhore, but rather more care ‘must be token over toiing esc. Metal at {Quenching temperature wil burn Yough Inaulotion and eause 8 short-cut very ‘Qlcky, and wil tel sot the ineulation on fire, Wires within furace casings shou be insulated with ceramic beads, obtain able from the local Elecicky Service depots, Gass-fibre insulating sleeving is avaleble, But this is normally rated only for the temperatures found in. domestic cookers. ALL metal parts of 2 furnace ‘must be properly earthod, the earth wie Being net tons in ameter then the main leads and preferably more. Those connec tions especially when earthing ® hotpoint (eg. the pot in a sol furnace) must be Ingpected end cleaned regu, 22 oxie formation may set up an unacceptable tcrth leskage resistance Cables © the supply socket must be outed swey from risk of comtoct sith flame, hot metal or salt and. permanent, fcoverod: by metal shield or conduit — 108 Which must be earthed. Fusing is bes ‘done at the 3-pin plug-top, uM fuse ‘lsewhere (orf circuit breakers are tes tothe contol bow) theta must be arange to bresk the “Line” ereuit only: om NO) account must any fis be set in the ‘Neutra’ eonaetor. Faure of fuse her loaves the apparatus ive 1 earth Finally, because no hrnace Mute is porfct insulator, It common prudence to switch off the sieut when handing the work This applies especially 10 motte: furnaces: a Sat per sth an earthed pos ‘should be quite sate 0 long ae the earth onnection Is sound, Conclusion. The careful practioner wi) most fow dangere in heat woatment, bu fo amount of “precautions” wll save th arolese from injury. Heat weston’ practice i probsbly Toss dangerous the” brasing, as though temperatures may b: higher tho amount of heat present ose Ilse this chapter, Ihave boon “teaching Imy betters how to suck eggs” con # ‘yell with the thought thet abot ogo hore-boles, and such cannot be Blow" st all-Any material much above 7O°C now's falbe treated with respect! PPENDIX1 hermocouples and Pyrometers It ie possible to obtain mercunrin-gass thermometers which will sfaly rgistor ‘up 9 360°C quite cheaply and nitrogen fied) mercury thermometers in. special {g]ass can be had which read to 600°C ‘They aes rathrfragie. but can be uso for temparing — though I make 2 steel Drotecting sheath for mine. Th? wel Known “Rotatherm’” temperature inaieatrs, based on @ Bi metalic eal con ‘be bought t0 read up to 300°C ithey are Used as oven thermometers) end are more robust. The mercunrin-steet dal ther- ‘memeters will operate safely. up to 150°C, but they are both expensive ond bulky. None of these, however, wil sve or temperature indication when Resting Tustansing) for quench hardoring. The thermo-slecic pyrometer is the only practicable ancw ig. 61 shows the principle. f the Junction berwean the two ites at "A Is heated. ang that ot "8's kat enol, then the meter "MI wil show that 2 voltage i= aveloped which sepends on the tamporature aiferenes at the wo junc- iors. Note that itis the temperature DIFFERENCE which matiors: if the moter shows a voltage corresponding o 700°C. fand "8" Isat 80, then tho temperature at ‘AY wll be. about 780°C. Further. the EME generated does not vary exactly with the temporature:ploring EMF. against temperature ciffernca shows. 3. slight ccuve te the graph. This moans that the true temperature may not be exact that found by adsing the hota colt junction temperatures. We wil deal with th ‘problem later, ba it is aot Serious for he Treatment purposes, ‘The norm! arrangements that shown in Fig. 62. "Ais the hot juneion and BB ‘the sires within the immersed length — the meterials being the "thermostectc dil. GC are caacting wires leading to the meter "Mand oR” is 8. series fasistance. "'CC are plain copper com ‘Suotors then the eMlessve call Junction wil be at DD. This may be close to the Furnace, and OD could be quite Rot The blectve cold junction can be moved to the: meter either by using special alloy onqacting cable (called a "compensating lead") or more simply by continuing the thermocouple element wire from A right ‘vough te M and This Is the method | the meter need not be all that fae way from the furnace, and one has 10 buy @ yard or 60 of thermocouple wire Snywey. The function of the raslatance i to reduce the etects of changos of rasistanes In the crclt which may occur 107‘8 the couple element gots hot. If the ‘resistance of BB and CC were, sy 05 ‘him ard that ofthe meter 1-5 ohm, chon ‘any. change in the former would. be Spprecable. By inserting this. “ballast ‘esistanes” ay 100 ahr, thon the chonge in raeistanos ‘of AA’ and CC. with temperature wit have reggie efect. it sons 3 funhor purpose. too. Kt can be ‘sed to maten the indieator to the por ticular thermocouple use. We shill make se of this when “adepting”Instauments or home-made inaieatrs THERMOCOUPLES ‘A numberof diferent atioys are used for ‘the thermocouple elements. The cheapest ie copper against "Constantan” [60% ‘Copper 40% Nickel) bit this cn operate ‘safely oniy up 10 about 500°C. Chrome Eureka {60% Ni 10% Cr vs 40% NI 60% Cul can be worked intermittently up 10 50°C, oF 700°C continously, and has the merit that delivers the highest EMF? SC of any, lran-Conetantan fe the next best in this respect, and ean work con: tinuously at 750°C and inormittonty up 16 TOO"; Itis cheap, ané wall suitad to ‘ur work, provided you recalibrate is tied fer long periods (days) shove about BO0%C. Tho commonest for high- temperature work is Chromel-Alumet (0% NI 10% Cr vs 94% Ni 2% Al + St ‘and. Ma). which ‘con work all doy. at 1200°C. I does not develop quite such a high ENF as the previous types, but sut- Ficlant for our purpose. There are other 108 Fi. Pn i etn B. alloys, notably those based on Platinum but rone likey to be of interact tus. Al ‘these thermocouple alloye ara now made to. Bish Standard Speciation, ari the. folowing table, taken from "Ths ‘Model Engineer's Henabook" shows the EMF daveloped in millvlts when the cols Junetion stands st 0°C. This assumes thet tho wire is to the eelevant BS, but the ‘itference between this ana ethers og. t9 DIN sta is nogiie ‘The EMF in Mifvoits developed by couplasisglveninthesable. ‘A=Coppar-Constantan 19 851828 ron-Canstantan fo BS1828 {Chrome NiAluminum 857827 reo a ek oe ost 0 9 oo 50 9% 202 258 202 300 2/2 4245.27 4:10 18027 663 801 aa 200 3 918 10.78 8.13 250 45611.a6 13.86 10.16 300 5461467 16.39 12.27 380 26 17.58 19.09 18.29 400 7262089 27.85 16.40 500 19° 26:10 27.38 20.65, 00 FE — 33-11 24:91 700/366 — 39:15 29.14 00 4% — 45.53 3330 poo raze wooo ang 200002=C a 000 BO F982 ertnnarepatnd Now, lotus suppose that we are using fan tron-Constantan couple with the hot [unetion t 700°C and the cold at 100°C. The: indicated voltage will be 29-18 — 5:27 ~ 33:88 mV. This corresponds to 8 temporature of 613°C. fed on the cold Junction temperature and we find the sum tebe 7130C ~ 136C highar then i fctualy i, So, the cold junction mus fire, be Kept 98 coo! as posse (in roaly Accurate work ii set in fee ina thermos flask) one second, we should keep a ther mometer nearby to check the emperature. Ifthe ealé Junction Is Kept vwitin 4/~-2°C of 18°C, the emer will ot ‘exceed two of three degrees ifthe cold Junction temperature is simply added to {hat indiested an the meter. the meter land thermocouple are CALIBRATED with the cold junction 915°C the exon will Be rogligl “The. constuction of the thermocouple ie simplicity eal can, indeed, Work ‘ult satistactoriy the wires are tighty {twist together, This will ead correctly, bur there will be a timelag bewoon v A % C. R {esching the temperature and thet inceted. Th ends en eal be welded swith ne sheath, though one is pretorable inthe latter case, Twin thermocouple pairs, about 30 gauge insulated with foe hoatresistant slooving, ao avaiable. For the knockabout work of heat treatment | ‘would tond to favour the 18 gouge wie but it 1S onty a question of facility: there isno diferance in the effectiveness “Toe couple wites must, of course, Be rsuloted Behind the geal Junction. and tithe single or twin bore ceramic or ses Insuletors con be had for ths purpose from scientific Instrument. suppliers (Gain & ‘George, Gallonkam te) or from” Morgan ‘Faetractories, aiteady ‘mentioned in connection with muffsSome of these are seen in Fig. 63. These may, In tun, be protected by setting the ‘noi inside 9 steel sheath. The ond ean bo coed wither by folding over and har meting. of by welding in plug. The sheath should be fay close ft on the Ineuletors This will protoct the couple from knacks, and ais fn the ease of the sai pat) rom a gradual eroding away of the wires. On the other hand, the sheath wail eause a ime-iog in te indications — your indicator wil tend. t©. read. the Temperature ae We wae 3 oF 4 minutes tater, depending on how heavy the tube 's.Thera fe no need, for out purposes to Ase stainless. eel Once clear of the ‘ctual furnace the wes may be Insulated ‘with ordinary sleeving, oF you can use the ‘las fbre type If thoy are katy to get hot Such sleeving can be obtained [or ‘ordered trough radio service shops. The Indicator. The. maximum reading using Kon-constantan will be about 50 millvots, and for BS1827" NiCr NA Shout 38 mV. It you have a “multimeter with 2 milioit ses, well and good, you {an usd this, Othormiso you must ether buy one or make one. There was 2 time ‘when surplus” micro-ammeters wore ‘esdly avaiable, one those are of excel lent quality. Those reading up to 50_or 100 2A would be the most suitable, But uh'meters are net expensive new and {tn "ean be ordered through radio ‘Service shops. A060 meter wil do riely but you must know ts cal resistance, and ifthe not tated in the catalogue, obtain the information from the makers before buying it ‘Now, let us suppose thet we have the meter, O-5QuA, adits resistances ‘patty 1000 oh. We are homo and ey for one millvlt will give 3 detection of 1 imlerowemp, end the scale can be used rect. (the extemal resistance of the ouple won't matter. Suppose, however, 110 that it ig otherwita, and resistances of ‘round 750 ‘ohm are. common. Lat us Suppose it ia shown as 735 ohm. This is ‘ohare the resiatanoe "R of Fig. 62 comer in Irwe make the 1000 ~ 735 ~ 265 ‘ohm, then we have 2 total resistance of 41000, andthe master il read erect Such ‘resistance would bo "bull up” with one ‘41200, one at 50. and one at 18 ohm: ‘sin, from the radio cevie shop, “High ‘Stability 1% Tolerance’ type However, suppose the metar has a resistance HIGHER than 1000 ohm, wat then? 1 have ong here, 0-100 pA, 1260 ‘hm, Apply Oher's lew. C — E/R of, mere ‘conveniently, B= CR, 100 pA» 1260. @~ 125,000 microvalts, or 125 millvolts. So, fora meter with a esistance exceeding 1000 oh the canvesion fis "Actwal Mv = Seale My » #1000 ‘nore Ris the meter resstance. Its at ‘ey as that! ig. 64 shows tvs motor, ‘one ceular “Ex Government” one, which {ie etil_a6 good as new: a rather small ‘Japanese meter, realy toe small scale length: and a large 0-100 meter which, in Tack, the ond | would Use Kespta resistance of 1250 atm, Calibration. This is simply a chock onthe tabla, and ought to be dove justin case the meter resistance isnot as Stated (hey all ate made to a tolerance) and after 3 petiod,n ease there has been 3 change it {he cheracteriscs ofthe couple elements. ‘The lower end is dane t 100°C. The ther ‘mocounle is eot in the. steam above Boling water ~ NOT in the water isl See Fig. 95. though it can be done in an lectic Ket Just 35 easily. Make sure that the cold junction fue, the meter. if use 25 In Fig, 62) Is at 15°C. Lat the junction sock for about ten minutos and ‘observe the reading. Lett coot ite. and Fepeat. Do this hee times and take the fmean. For an intormodiate tomporature {yu can, i you have tempering salt Bath Bi ine oan sane ‘and mercury thermometer, use this. Stop the end of the couple to the ther ‘mometer bu with care and abit of thin ire and raise the temperature to some Figure about the limit ofthe thermometer Make sure the neste fz stable, and Toko feadings, three, with the. temperat falling about 30°C an then rao agatn between each, and note the mean of the wee For higher temperatures the following canbe veed Less. melting 327°C. Zine St 818°C (but ba careful of the fumes) ‘nd pure _sluminium (from an old Savoupan) SBBC. tn the case ofthe lead you wil need a layer of rosin on the Torlace to. prevent oxidation, and my need to skin off xide a8 well The dil ths case i ferent. You Bring the metal Up above rating point and immerse the Couple, Take away the heat and start noting the temperature lndieator every 20 econds or sa, Aa ft cools You wil find an orest point’ developing (ig. 68) and than as the metals soli, the temperature fall agsin. Now reheat. and again note the temperatures the milivots Again 88 om rontees msn in am‘there wil bean arest in the INCREASE in tomporature. Repeat this. couple of times, always removing any scum which forme on tho surface of the metal. The ‘ean of the arest points Is the acta! ‘malting point of the metal. You can do another at 801°C. with pure salt Note, NOT the household variety. Ask at the Chemists for "Sodium. Chloride. BPC" — {hiss common salt but chemically pute ‘Once ll this hes been cone you can ithor make up 2 table or rake a new fale cut of paper "0 stick on the ia! t tee table, a have other uses for micro: fmyrters and dont wont 10 te say oF ‘hom up on one ob. ne ‘The final alternative is expensive, but Sefiritely “in the mood". You ean buy (or ‘some of you may be able to make ora! Know) a gold state digital indicator. which will read out the temperature light ‘miting eodes It you have several ther ‘mocouples, high temperstures. and low ‘you can buildin to this 0 correting cuit which wil allow for the use of copper- onstantan at one end ofthe tempore ange and Platinum Rhodio-piatnum st the other @ universal pyrometer indicator ‘Tis is nota book on slectonics, 80 that | ‘must loave tho detall for you to sort out Sutfcent for most of the electronic, minded to know that it can be done! APPENDIX 2 Carbon Steel Cutting Tools Many readers may never have made a utting too in thelr Ives, apart fom she 264 Debit. and would regerd anything ‘xcopt high-speed steel (or evan tungsten arbi] 28 being 8 very inferior tool indoos This is @ mistake. The ONLY reason for using HSS Is that it can operate at a higher tomoeratre, ard can therslore, Gut FASTER. HSS is much mote expen Sive; iis not as hard as properly Wosted carbon took-stael at the proper cutting Speed carbon steel has 8 longer too lie, and for finishing. cuts bolew BOtvmin. iasts much longer. And. (again, when ‘property treated carbon stool wil give 2 better finish: Nore rue that "you cant take heavy cuts”, This is noneango. Ihave bby me a table of “speeds ond feeds” tor carbon ste! athe tools which ist ets up 1 one inch deap at feeds of one eighth of ‘inch por rev. Finally, carbon stool well {acho “the really hard stuff Une que ecertly It was used for machining the hile cast Iran oll used In steelworks the surface deliberately made as hard a5. the hard spots you cat machine an your Castings) and watchmakers habitaly cut hardened and tempered steel pivots with a cabon stew raver ‘The ony cisadvantage which afficte the materials that "tempers at quite 8 low ‘eure, HSS is. italy. tater thon atbon stool, (Fig, 66) but whereas the lator weuld start to lose some of ite ‘cutting harness at about 270°C at the tool pot the former ean be operated £0 hot that the cutting ol! wil smoke ana Indeed, | have seen speci grades run for demonstration purposes cutting at a dal fed heat. The same is thie of Tungsten bide is vinue le not is hardness itis fended a 2 FAST CUTTING TOOL, Dethaps at the times he speed of HSS. “Tis isthe erux ofthe mater, You can buy @ couple of feet of carton tool ste! forthe price of one short HSS tao: you can filet bend i, forge i and harden eto ut tough aloy see euen hard ea rn ‘nd you can got super tool finish on the work. But you MUST Keep the cutting “peed down and keep the tool point cool For roughing cute the specs shovld be about one thi! that used for HSS though IF the eootant supply i good you ean try aster) and for norm! finishing cute the ‘machine should be run at abou two tics that used Tor HSS. In fect. for brass or froo-cuting mild stool taking model ‘engineers finishing curs there may be no na1200} ‘CARBON ThOL STEEL HIGH SPEED re) CER 205, 580. TEMPERATURE ~ °C, need 10 reduce speed at all. (I am, of Course, assuming that you use the prepes” HSS cutting spends: many model engineers. run at carbon ‘tee! Speeds all he time’) Carbon steel wil cut anything that can be cut by HSS. and many that we often use corde for (and oan chip st the egos elthe) but it foes take longer. But what isthe hurry anway? ‘Gn the question of "quality of irish” it ig not always aporesiatd that the surface ‘tthe workpiece fs, whon faking very fine tute a rellection of the surface af he 00 Hf the tool point has grooves tom the ‘grinder it most leave grooves of ribs on fhe work. Carbon steel has a finer grain than mast HSS, ana if gran refinad, sven more so. Properly hardened, and tempered only s0 f0r a5 is essential, it takes up a better frish fom the olstone, ‘thus giving an even Better fiish fo the ‘work. In “Ornamental Turing” we have 10-00 further st; we rely enily on the na "oo finish forthe decorative reective surfaces which are so much acmied. ane ‘ven go to the fongth of lapping the utting edge with rouge onan ion op! ‘With the ever increasing. cost of al aloystee's land HSS in particular it does make some sansa to reconsider the place of the "old fashioned” carson steel. We 418 not all that concerned with optimurs floorto-foor times, ond few of us would over consider working our tools 9s hard as ‘hey do in Industry. (The “ecenomie too! fe" may be no mare than 42 minutes on canelathe ‘werk. I would net of ourse, suggest that we abandon HSS Wwlesale: that would be folish. But for what fis worth | wl conclude this note by observing that ALL the eankshafs | have made, and that i quite @ lot, Mave been finished. an! most of them rough Using carbon steel fools onthe evans, fand. most “have been turned on. tho Tourals that way a8 weil. Why not give ? APPENDIX 3 British Standard Steel Specification Numbers The Old British Stands 970/1955, chreeteriaed by the "EN numbers wich many of us i use, was replaced by the fnew 85970 in 1973.1 realy sme that Wwe started to use a! Khas one great advantage, in that the 8S number seit Giver us the carbon content for many Stoel. The number comprises three gis followed by lets. followed by two more ois. The fst three digits serve two (000 to. 199 re all “plain” carbon steel with some manganese content 200 to 240 ara "Fev-cuting” versions of the above 300 to. 499 are all “Stainless” or “Heat Resisting” stets 500 10.999 are all “Aloy" steels and within” the number the main alloying ‘slomants canbe identi. ‘We a7e concerned (for heat testmont) ‘only with the plain carbon steels and, perhaps, thee free-cuting equivalent. The first digit can be ignored; O and mean plain and 2 means. “foe-cting™ The second two digit, (precedes by 0 or 1) {ve the manganese content multiplied by 100: thus 148 moans 0.25% manganese. preceded by 2 these digits indicate the sulphur content. again, 100, 224 wil be 30:28% sulphur see. ‘The second group of two digits ingieates the carbon content multi by 100. Thus 45 inicatos a 0.45% carbon Steel, The letter showrs the basis of the Speciation. "M" means thet the stec! must meet the mechariesl propertas of the material "A means that t must be to the ‘specified chemical anaysis. other properies being secondary: "H” means {hat lt mut meet the requirements OF War ‘denabily. Most of the steel we use is to the: M"apecitestion “Thor i, of cous, 2 tolrance on the figures for enroon and other materials thus 0.2% carbon may lie between 0.16 and 0.24% — though the user can Iprovided he pays) spect closer mits Rss general. rule, theretere aoproximate heat treatment procedures fan be’ deduced from the specication ‘umber. Thus 080M30 is'2 0.3% carbon 8% manganese steel. which may be heat treated by quenching from about 878°C and tempering to uit the applies tion, We cen aleo deduce from the ian Catton diagram on page 18 that it should tonormalised ot sround 880°C. “The specication does not cover "Tool Stasis with more than T¥6 carbon. nsAPPENDIX4 Approximate Conversion of Hardness Scales : sg (ASTM Conversion Tables) ea a am ROPE GEE MONEE Stan a Bs B Hf ee bs HH swore vixens roommenn Urs 7 ee ie one wg * si 2 mies ue ™ oF © ‘Toate cy 354 34.9 163 re 5 So he ei B Be : 2 Ra 2 2 8 & : BB Rhos oy Setar a ee : fie Hades gr Sapna ee : a ee ee Bf he 2 & i fain ae - BSI) = sf B AE g % fim 2 2 a Bi ee a os 3 a iss a Ma soi et wi es os fF Be ie Ta Sel Sle a 33 Sevcmmctieeen ioe yor £ 8 gt 2 peek aan 6Glossary of Terms Ais! ASME. ast Accular Altoy Ste ‘Annealing ‘Arvest point ‘Austerpering Austerite esl Bainite Bister Ste! Body Cemred Carurise Caseharden cast Stoo ‘American Iron and Sto! Institute ‘American Society of Mechanica! Engineors ‘American Society fr Testing Metorats Cystls forming @ needle ke structure in place of the more usual gras Steel containing elements other than iron snd carbon, though up t00.36% Manganese found in al etols. Avheat tstmant which softens an altady. hardened steel Points at which the temparaturecpases 0 rse fore short period when the steel i= heated slowly. and similarly {when cooing ‘A constant famperature transformation process. mainly sed for smell pants, eprngs ete Fig 4 [Asolid solution of ea00 i Hon. tian Stondaris institution, [A structure obtained when Austenit is transformed at = Constant low temporatue, loge hard, but tougher than Martersite Typical the result ot "Austempering ‘A square or rectangular bar, usualy the raw material for [ater not forming processes. ‘The name given f0 the ste! after the completion of the omentaton process. The surtace of the moral I 3 this point covered in seae Bstere ‘poled to crystals, one with an atom at each comnar and ‘one inthe goomttis centre ofthe lattice Concentrated solution of eomman salt NaCl in water ‘Any process which eauses absorption of carbon AA surface hardening provess which retains the norms! Structure of the statin the core of the par. Normally achieved by surface carburising Heating, and quenching ‘The nome gwen 10 high-carbon steel which hes boon melted ater the cementation process is complete. Aton= time synonymous with tool-steel iis now Habla to be Confusad with castings made from “mild” steel. The terms ‘Crosble Steal" or "High Carbon Stoo ae tobe profrred, ‘Comentation omentive ttc Temperature Cryst Care Point Dannemora Decorburiee EN No, quits Diagram Eutoctoid Face Centred Feagoting Fenite Gauge Stock Grain Refinerent “The process by which Wrought lon coused to absorb Carbon tough the ful thickness ofthe metal. o produce “Blister” or “High Caton’ sto, Metallurgical name for Iron Carbide, FajC. So named because it was first identified in steo! made by cementa- fer. ‘The tomporature ot which structural changes occur inthe metal Usually, but not ‘always, coincident with the “Arrest Points An orcerly avangement of stoms, olmost alwavs in trac gtomoe shapes on eytlse lways of ‘The tomperature above which steet loses its magnetic properties ‘An ironworks in Swodon, which was reputed to produce an kon remarkably toe rom porte. ‘The radvtion of carbon content usualy onthe surface of the metal Caused as a rule By the action of oxygen oF ‘non oxides at high temperatures, “The "Engineering Number the icentifetion numberof steels used in 88.970)1955, now superseded ‘Acchar ploting the erieal temperntures of stel against the carbon content Fig 12 ‘Tho. composition of steel at which the upper critical temperature coincides withthe lower. "Eutocold” steal IGorvrely pea ‘Appl to exstals, ona with an atom at each coma and ‘ona nthe cent af ach ofthe faces ofthe ation “The act of welding together bars of Wrought lon to make bless Metallurgical name forthe almost pure iron absarved in the misrosructore of stat. (Not to be confused withthe ‘aimered ferste” used for coil Cores ete In electronic ‘equipment ‘An ol-ardening earbon-chvemium alloy steel compoun- ‘ded to reduce Gitorion on quenching t2 2 minimum. Sometimes known as “ground flat stock Aagrogates of crystals Thote form when the mot! ‘oldies, but may change thir shape and disposition 28 teools. ‘Any process which either reduces oF makes more nif the sie of the grains.High Carbon St High -spees stoot (200 member Lace queue Menempeing Morensite Metting Range Notte Neuteal Sat Nodular Normalise on.aT. Poarite Puceting Ne) 120 ‘Steel_with a carbon content above 0.85%. More Accurately, steal which shows feo Cemantito in the Ussilly a. high-Chromium igh-Tungsten alloy wth enhanced hot-oraness, but may not be 8 steel a al “Stolite” i en alloy of Cobalt, Chvomium and Tungsten. with noon content ‘The energy in foot pounds aquired to brook a standard specimen under 9 prescribed Irmpact load. A test for shock resistance, ‘A framework of Imaginary lines. joining the location of jomeina ens ‘Tha tamperature above which tho morals ntrely avid. Hoot westment prooess designe to reduce distortion on large or emp companent Fig. 45. ‘The structure formad when 2 combination of Austenite and Cementte is cooled too quickly to allow the normal transformation te Pearle ‘The range of temperature between the Solidus and the quid whare the mtal isin a pasty state, with both ‘id ane liquid present. ‘furnace in which tho work is protected from the direct inapingoment of the heating farma eis now appiod ais to most sleeve resistance tumaces. [A salt which is used 5 a heating medium but which ‘altar carburiees nor deearburses the met -condtion where the Iron Carsce grins are in the frm ‘fnadules rathor than the normal needle-like shape. Heat treatment intended to restora distr grains & ‘thet normal shape. A form of grain rfinement (it herdened and Tempore. ‘The aoimal transformation product when Austenite is lowly cooled though the lower eral temperature. It Consists of sub-microscopc plates” oF laminae of Ferrite snd Comontit, ‘The process of converting cast on inte wrought ion Rockall Harness test number cn the "e”scae, the one ‘normally used for hard materi ‘The name sometimes used fr the crtcaltemperatutes. SAE SCune Seale Solid Solution Sovidus Steel Siver Stee Tempering TTT. Cove Transtormation urs. vor. Wrovaht ron Yietd Point ase fo Auer Engines US) ve showing wenstormation ats agaist tomperture and time. (Fig. 16). si kon Oni tring on the surtae of hot st The condion where the atoms fone Sod substance ae

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