Handout Magnetic Particle Test Level II - Rev. 3 - 28 Agustus 2009 PDF

TRAINING HAND OUT
MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING
General

Editor:
Wing Hendroprasetyo, M.Eng.
ASNT NDT Level III (ID No. 144934)
NDE CENTER
DEPARTMENT OF NAVAL ARCHITECTURE AND SHIPBUILDING ENGINEERING
FACULTY OF MARINE TECHNOLOGY
SEPULUH NOPEMBER INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY (ITS) – SURABAYA
Kampus ITS Keputih, Sukolilo
Surabaya 60111
Telp./Fax. 031 591 4533
Mobile 0816 542 8017

www.ndecenter.com Page 0

Rev. 3, ‐ 28 August 2009

CONTENTS
page
CHAPTER ONE 4
Introduction 4
Theory of Magnetization 5
Vector Field 8
Magnetic Materials 8
Magnetic Flux 9
Flux Density 9
Right-hand Rule vs Left-hand Rule 10
Chapter One Review 13
CHAPTER TWO 14
Circular Magnetization 14
Longitudinal Magnetization 17
Chapter Two Review 20
CHAPTER THREE 21
Introduction 21
Alternating Current (AC) 21
Direct Current (DC) 22
Penetration Characteristics 23
Magnetic Hysteresis Curve 24
Chapter Three Review 29
CHAPTER FOUR 30
Direct Current Field Distribution 30

Alternating Current Field Distribution 35
Chapter Four Review 37
CHAPTER FIVE 38
Introduction 38
Current Requirements (Circular Magnetization) 38
Current Requirements with Prods 42
Current Requirements (Longitudinal Magnetization) 43
Fill Factors 44
L/D Ratio 46
Demagnetization 47
Leakage Field Indicators 53
Chapter Five Review 54
CHAPTER SIX 55
Magnetic Particle Testing Equipment 55
Limitations of Magnetic Particle Testing 58
Safety Precautions 59
Magnetic Particle Mediums and Their Preparation 60
Control and Verification of Equipment Functions 62
Chapter Six Review 65
CHAPTER SEVEN 66
Magnetic Particle Applications 66
Testing Medium (Powder and Suspensions) 67
Surface Preparation 68
Location of Discontinuities 68

Demagnetization Requirements 68
Application of Magnetic Particle Testing Procedures 69
Chapter Seven Review 79
CHAPTER EIGHT 80
Introduction 80
Categories of Discontinuities 80
Classification of Magnetic Particle Discontinuities 81
Classification of Discontinuities by Origin 85
Casting Discontinuities 86
Processing Discontinuities 88
Service Discontinuities 95
Preservation of Indications 96
Chapter Eight Review 98
CHAPTER NINE 99
Introduction 99
Identification and Comparison of Dicontinuities 99
Training and Certification 100
Chapter Nine Review 102
CHAPTER TEN 103
Procedures, Standards, and Specifications 103
A Magnetic Particle Testing Procedure 106
Chapter Ten Review 110
REFERENCES 114

CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION PENDAHULUAN
A magnet is a material that has the ability to Sebuah magnet adalah material yang memiliki
attract iron or steel (and some other metallic kemampuan menarik besi atau baja (dan material
materials). Lodestone (magnetite) is naturally logam lain). Lodestone (magnetite) adalah magnet
magnetic. Other materials can become alam. Material lain dapat dibuat menjadi magnet
magnets artificially. When any material is buatan. Apabila sembarang material dimagne-
magnetized it has a magnetic field that will tisasi, ia memiliki medan magnet yang akan
attract certain metals and other magnetic fields. menarik logam tertentu dan medan magnet lain.
Because magnetization of certain metals is Karena memungkinkan untuk memagnetisasi
possible, it is possible to reveal discontinuities logam tertentu, dimungkinkan pula untuk menam-
by using a medium (iron powder) having pakkan diskontinuitas menggunakan suatu media
magnetic attraction. (serbuk besi) yang memiliki daya tarik magnet.
The medium is applied to the surface of the Medium tersebut diaplikasikan pada permukaan
test object after or during induction of a benda uji setelah atau selama induksi medan
magnetic field. magnet.
The sketches below show a build-up of the Gambar berikut memperlihatkan pengumpulan
magnetic particle medium over the disconti- media partikel magnet di atas diskontinuitas
nuity in the magnetized part. dari suatu benda yang dimagnetisasi.
Magnetic particle testing is a relatively easy and Pengujian partikel magnet adalah metoda penguji-
simple test method that can be applied at an yang relatip mudah dan sederhana yang dapat
various stages of manufature and processing diaplikasikan pada berbagai tahapan operasi
operations. manufaktur dan pemrosesan.
The objective of magnetic particle testing is to Tujuan dari pengujian pertikel magnet adalah untuk
insure product reliability by providing a means memastikan keandalan produk dengan cara
of: sebagai berikut:
A. Obtaining a visual image of an indication A. Memperoleh citra visual dari sebuah indikasi
on the surface of a material. pada permukaan material.
B. Disclosing the nature of discontinuities B. Mengungkap sifat diskontinuitas tanpa
without impairing the material. merusak material.
C. Separating acceptable and unacceptable C. Memisahkan material yang diterima dan
material in accordance with predeter- ditolak dengan berpedoman pada standard
mined standards. yang telah ditetapkan.

THEORY OF MAGNETIZATION TEORI MAGNETISASI
An object is magnetized when part or all of its Suatu benda termagnetisasi apabila sebagian atau
magnetic domains have their north and south seluruh domain magnetnya memiliki orientasi ke
poles oriented as in the sketches below. kutub utara dan selatan seperti gambar di bawah.
The ability of a magnet to attract or repel is Kemampuan sebuah magnet untuk menarik atau
concentrated at the local areas called POLES. menolak terpusat pada daerah yang dinamakan
The north and south poles exhibit attraction KUTUB. Kutub utara dan selatan memperlihatkan
and repulsion as shown in the sketches below. daya tarik dan daya tolak seperti pada gambar.
With all of the magnetic domains lined up, the Dengan semua domain magnet yang tersusun,
magnetic bar develops a total force equal to magnet batang menghasilkan gaya total yang
the sum of all of the magnetic domains. sama dengan jumlah semua domain magnetnya.
These are the MAGNETIC LINES OF FORCE Di bawah ini yang dinamakan GARIS GAYA MAG-
which form a closed loop or circuit. NET yang membentuk sebuah rangkaian tertutup.
All of the lines of force make up the MAGNETIC Semua garis-garis gaya magnet membentuk
FIELD. MEDAN MAGNET.

The lines of force associated with permanent Garis-garis gaya magnet dari sebuah magnet
magnets have the following properties: permanen memiliki sifat sebagai berikut:
1. They form closed loops between north 1. Membentuk rangkaian tertutup antara kutub
and south poles. utara dan selatan.
2. They do not cross one another. 2. Tidak memotong satu sama lainnya.
3. They seek paths of least magnetic 3. Selalu mencari lintasan dengan tahanan
resistance. magnetis yang terkecil.
4. Their density decreases with increasing 4. Kerapatannya berkurang dengan
distance from the poles. bertambahnya jarak dari kutub.
5. They are considered to have direction; by 5. Memiliki arah, menurut kesepakatan, dari
convention, from NORTH POLE TO KUTUB UTARA KE KUTUB SELATAN DI
SOUTH POLE EXTERNAL to the magnet, LUAR MAGNET, dan dari kutub selatan ke
and from south to north internally. kutub utara di dalam magnet.
The force that attracts other mag- Gaya yang menarik material
netizable materials to the magnetic magnet lain ke kutub suatu
poles is known as MAGNETIC magnet dinamakan FLUX
FLUX. MAGNETIS.
Magnetic flux is made up of all of Flux magnetis tersusun dari
the lines of force. semua garis-garis gaya magnet.
The horseshoe magnet will attract Magnet tapal kuda akan menarik
other magnetizable material only material magnetis lain hanya pada
where the lines of force leave or tempat dimana garis-garis gaya
enter the magnet. meninggalkan atau memasuki
magnet.
If a magnet is bent into a complete loop as Jika sebuah magnet dibengkokkan hingga mem-
shown below, the magnetic field is entirely bentuk lingkaran tertutup, seluruh medan magnet
within, thus NO EXTERNAL FORCE. berada di dalamnya, dan TIDAK ADA GAYA LUAR.
However, a crack in the circular magnet will Namun demikian, sebuah retakan pada magnet
disrupt the flow of lines of force and create a tersebut akan mengganggu aliran garis gaya dan
FLUX LEAKAGE. menciptakan sebuah KEBOCORAN FLUX.
FIELD IS ENTIRELY LEAKAGE FIELD WILL
WITHIN, THUS NO ATTRACT MAGNETIC
EXTERNAL FORCE PARTICLES
Leakage field (flux leakage) are actually Kebocoran medan (kebocoran flux) sebenarnya
magnetic lines of force that leave the part and adalah garis-garis gaya magnet yang mening-
pass through air from one pole to the other of galkan komponen, bergerak melalui udara dari
opposite polarity. satu kutub ke kutub lain yang berlawanan muatan.

REMEMBER that iron particles will be attracted INGAT bahwa partikel besi akan tertarik HANYA
ONLY in places where lines of force or flux pada tempat dimana garis-garis gaya atau flux
enter or leave the magnet. Since there are no memasuki atau meninggalkan magnet. Karena
magnetic poles in circular magnet, there will be magnet melingkar tidak memiliki kutub, maka tidak
no place for the magnetic lines of force or flux ada tempat bagi garis-garis gaya magnet atau flux
to leave or enter the magnet. untuk meninggalkan atau memasuki magnet.
Whenever the leakage field is forced out of the Pada tempat dimana terjadi kebocoran medan
part, iron particles would be attracted showing magnet, partikel besi akan tertarik dan membentuk
an indication of a discontinuity. suatu indikasi diskontinuitas.
Even some subsurface discontinuities may Diskontinuitas bawah permukaan bahkan juga
be detected if the leakage field is strong bisa terdeteksi jika kebocoran medannya cukup
enough as shown below. kuat untuk menarik partikel besi seperti dalam
gambar.
Now let's look at a magnet with a shallow sur- Sekarang perhatikan sebuah magnet dengan
face irregularity, such as a bowed or cupped permukaan melekuk seperti pada gambar di
surface. bawah.
In the area of the shallow, cupped surface Pada daerah lekukan di atas, garis-garis gaya
above, the lines of force stay within the magnet. tetap berada di dalam magnet. Garis-garis gaya
The lines of force tend to follow the path of cenderung mengikuti lintasan dengan tahanan
least resistance, which is to stay within the paling kecil, yang berada di dalam magnet.
magnet. As a result, no magnetic poles with Sebagai akibatnya, tidak terbentuk kutub dan
flux leakage are created. kebocoran medan magnet.


VECTOR FIELD MEDAN VEKTOR
When two magnetizing forces are imposed Jika dua buah gaya magnet bekerja secara
simultaneously in the same part, the object is serempak di suatu lokasi yang sama, benda TIDAK
NOT magnetized in TWO directions at the termagnetisasi dalam DUA arah pada waktu yang
same time. bersamaan.
A vector field is formed which is the resultant Pada kejadian di atas, terbentuk medan vektor
direction and strength of the two imposed yang merupakan resultan/paduan arah dan
fields. kekuatan dari dua medan magnet yang bekerja
tersebut.
This is illustrated below, where FA is the first Hal tersebut digambarkan di bawah ini, dimana
magnetizing force, FB is the second force, FA adalah gaya magnet pertama, FB gaya
and FA+B equals the resultant magnetizing magnet kedua, dan FA+B adalah gaya magnet
force. resultan.
MAGNETIC MATERIALS MATERIAL MAGNETIS

If an object is placed in a magnetic field, a Jika sebuah benda diletakkan dalam suatu medan
force is exerted on it and it is said to become magnet, gaya magnet akan mempengaruhinya dan
magnetized. benda tersebut dikatakan menjadi termagnetisasi.
The intensity of magnetization depends upon Intensitas magnetisasi tergantung pada kerentanan
the susceptibility of the material to become material tersebut untuk dapat berubah menjadi
magnetized. magnet.
The magnetic characteristics of materials are Karakteristik magnet material diperlihatkan dalam
shown in Table 1.1. Tabel 1.1.
Table 1.1. Magnetic characteristics of materials.

Diamagnetic Metals – have a small and nega- Logam-logam Diamagnetik – memiliki kerentanan
tive susceptibility to magnetization (slightly yang kecil dan negatip terhadap magnetisasi
repelled). (sedikit menolak).
Mercury, bismuth, zinc, copper, silver, and Air raksa, bismuth, seng, tembaga, perak, dan
gold are examples of diamagnetic materials. emas adalah contoh material diamagnetik.
Paramagnetic Metals – have a small and Logam-logam Paramagnetik – memiliki kerentanan
positive susceptibility to magnetization (slightly yang kecil dan positip terhadap magnetisasi
attracted). (sedikit tertarik).
Aluminum, platinum, copper sulfate, magne- Aluminium, platina, tembaga sulfat, magnesium,
sium, molybdenum, lithium, and tantalum molybdenum, lithium, dan tantalum adalah
are examples. contohnya.
Ferromagnetic Metals – have a large and Logam-logam Ferromagnetik – memiliki keren-
positive susceptibility to magnetization, they tanan yang besar dan positip terhadap magne-
have a strong attraction and are able to retain tisasi, memiliki daya tarik yang kuat, dan mampu
their magnetization after the magnetizing field menahan magnetisasi setelah medan magnet
has been removed. dihilangkan.
Iron, cobalt, nickel, and gadolinium are Besi, cobalt, nikel, dan gadolinium adalah
examples of ferromagnetic metals. contoh logam ferromagnetik.
Ferromagnetic materials are the only metals Hanya logam-logam ferromagnetik yang umum-
commonly inspected with magnetic particle nya diperiksa menggunakan metoda pengujian
testing method. partikel magnet.
MAGNETIC FLUX FLUX MAGNET
The total number of magnetic lines of force Jumlah garis-garis gaya magnet total yang
existing in a magnetic circuit is called magnetic terdapat dalam rangkaian magnet dinamakan flux
flux. magnet.
The lines of force in a magnetic circuit are Garis-garis gaya dalam sebuah rangkaian
always closed loops. Therefore a magnetic magnet selalu tertutup. Oleh karenanya sebuah
circuit is always closed as shown below. rangkaian magnet selalu tertutup seperti
gambar di bawah.
FLUX DENSITY KERAPATAN FLUX

Flux density – or induction is usually desig- Kerapatan flux – atau induksi biasanya dinyatakan
nated in “GAUSS” units and refers to the FLUX- dalam unit “GAUSS” yang artinya adalah FLUX
PER-UNIT AREA at right angles to the direction PER UNIT LUASAN, tegak lurus terhadap arah flux.
of the flux.

RIGHT-HAND RULE VS LEFT-HAND RULE KAIDAH TANGAN KANAN VS TANGAN KIRI
To find the direction of an electrically induced Untuk menentukan arah medan magnet yang diin-
magnetic field, place your THUMB on the duksi memakai arus listrik, tempatkan IBU JARI
conductor in the direction of “CURRENT pada penghantar sebagai arah “ALIRAN ARUS
FLOW” and your FINGERS will then point in the LISTRIK” dan JARI LAINNYA akan menunjuk ke
direction of the LINES OF FLOW. The circular arah GARIS-GARIS GAYA MANET. Medan magnet
magnetic field is produced in the sketch below. melingkar terbentuk dalam gambar di bawah.
Figure above shows the right-hand rule which Gambar di atas memperlihatkan kaidah tangan
uses current flow theory. In this current flow kanan yang memakai teori aliran arus listrik. Pada
theory, electricity is considered to flow from + teori aliran arus, listrik dianggap mengalir dari
to – . kutub + ke –.
If the more commonly accepted electron flow Jika dipakai teori aliran elektron, maka perlu
theory were used, it would be necessary to use menggunakan kaidah tangan kiri. Teori aliran
the left-hand rule. The electron flow theory elektron menganggap bahwa elektron mengalir
considers electricity to flow from – to +. dari kutub – ke +.
IMPORTANT PENTING
The two theories of determining the flow of Kita tidak perlu bingung pada kedua teori untuk
electricity should not become confusing. They menentukan aliran listrik tersebut, karena mereka
both result in a magnetic field flowing in the akan menghasilkan medan magnet dengan arah
same direction. yang sama.


The sketch below shows how a magnetic field Gambar di bawah memperlihatkan bagaimana
is produced utilizing a coil. The field is circular sebuah medan magnet dihasilkan menggunakan
around the cable but produces a longitudinal kumparan. Di sekitar kabel terjadi medan magnet
field in the specimen. melingkar, namun pada benda dihasilkan medan
magnet memanjang.
Using Figure “A” below, try the right hand rule Memakai gambar “A” di bawah, cobalah kaidah
(current flow + to -) to demonstrate the tangan kanan (aliran arus + ke –) untuk
direction of the magnetic field with the “current menunjukkan arah medan magnet memakai teori
flow” theory. aliran listrik.
CURRENT FLOW THEORY

RIGHT-HAND RULE
+ to -
‐
Figure A +
Also try the left-hand rule on Figure “B” below Juga cobalah kaidah tangan kiri dalam gambar “B”
to demonstrate that the electron flow theory di bawah untuk menunjukkan bahwa teori aliran
(- to +) will produce a magnetic field in the elektron akan menghasilkan medan magnet
same direction. dengan arah yang sama.
ELECTRON FLOW THEORY

LEFT-HAND RULE
- to +
‐
Figure B +

The following properties of a metal can Sifat-sifat logam berikut ini dapat menentukan
determine how effective the magnetic particle seberapa efektip penggunaan metoda partikel
method will be in evaluating a part. magnet untuk mengevaluasi sebuah komponen.
These properties will be discussed in greater Sifat-sifat berikut akan didiskusikan lebih rinci
detail in the next chapter. dalam bab berikutnya.
1. Permeability – this refers to the ease with 1. Permeabilitas – mengacu pada mudah
which a magnetic flux is established in tidaknya medan magnet terbentuk di dalam
the article being inspected. benda yang diperiksa.
High permeability – easy to magnetize Permeabilitas tinggi– mudah menjadi magnet.
Low permeability – difficult to magnetize Permeabilitas rendah – sulit menjadi magnet.
2. Reluctance – this is the opposition of a 2. Reluktansi – lawan dari permeabilitas
magnetic material to the establishment of magnet. Material dengan permealitias tinggi
a magnetic flux. A material with high akan memiliki reluktansi yang rendah.
permeability will have a low reluctance.
3. Residual Magnetism – this refers to the 3. Magnetisme Sisa – mengacu pada jumlah
amount of magnetism retained after the magnetisme yang tertahan setelah gaya
magnetizing force is removed. magnet dihilangkan.
4. Retentivity – refers to the ability of the 4. Retentivity – yaitu kemampuan suatu material
material to retain a certain amount of untuk menahan sejumlah tertentu
residual magnetism. magnetisme sisa.
5. Coercive force – refers to the reverse 5. Gaya Coercive – yaitu gaya magnet
magnetizing force necessary to remove pembalik yang diperlukan untuk menghi-
the residual magnetism from the part. langkan magnetisme sisa dari benda.
For example: if a piece of HIGH CARBON Sebagai contoh: jika sebuah BAJA KADAR
STEEL were placed in a magnetizing field, it KARBON TINGGI ditempatkan dalam medan
would exhibit the following: magnet akan menunjukkan hal-hal berikut:
a. It would have low permeability because it a. Baja tersebut memiliki permeabilitas rendah
would be hard to magnetize. karena sulit termagnetisasi.
b. It would be highly reluctant to accept a b. Baja memiliki reluktansi yang tinggi untuk
magnetic flux because of the high carbon menerima medan magnet karena tingginya
content. kadar karbon.
c. It would have a high residual magnetic c. Baja memiliki medan magnetisme sisa yang
field. The high carbon steel is reluctant to tinggi. Baja karbon tinggi enggan untuk
accept a magnetic flux but is also menerima medan magnet, namun enggan
reluctant to give it up once has been juga untuk mengeluarkannya setelah
accepted. menerima.
d. It would be highly retentive of the d. Baja memiliki penahanan yang tinggi terha-
magnetic field that it has accepted. dap medan magnet yang telah ia peroleh.
e. It would take a high coercive force to e. Diperlukan gaya magnet pembalik yang
remove the residual magnetism from the tinggi untuk menghilangkan magnetisme sisa
high carbon steel part. dari komponen baja berkadar karbon tinggi.

CHAPTER ONE
REVIEW
_______ 1. The “Electron Flow” theory considers electricity to flow from + to -.
_______ 2. The magnetic lines of force that develop around a magnetic bar are
referred to as the magnetic field
_______ 3. A surface crack in a circular magnet will disrupt the flow of lines of force and
will create a flux leakage.
_______ 4. A surface crack in a bar magnet will disrupt the flow of lines of force and will
create a flux leakage.
_______ 5. A subsurface discontinuity could be detected if the leakage field that is

forced out of the part is strong enough to attract iron particles.
_______ 6. When two magnetizing forces are imposed in the same part at the same
time, a flux density is produced equal to one-half the strength of the
strongest.
_______ 7. Diamagnetic and paramagnetic metals are both commonly inspected using
the magnetic particle method.
_______ 8. Because ferromagnetic metals have a large susceptibility to magnetization,

they have a high reluctance to the establishment of a magnetic flux.
_______ 9. A material that has a high reluctance to a magnetic flux will probably also
have a high retentivity.
___________________________ 10. The property of a material that refers to the ease with
which a magnetic flux is established is called_________
___________________________ 11. Magnetic lines of force that leave the part and pass
through the air are called__________
___________________________ 12. If you were to use the "right-hand rule" to show the
direction of the magnetic field in the part below, would
the current flow be from + to – or – to +?
+
‐
___________________________ 13. What type of magnetic field is shown in the above part-
longitudinal or circular?
___________________________ 14. The amount of force necessary to remove residual

magnetism in a part is called__________
___________________________ 15. A magnet will attract other magnetizable material only

where the__________ leave or enter the magnet.

CHAPTER TWO
CIRCULAR MAGNETIZATION MAGNETISASI MELINGKAR

A circular magnetic field is induced into a Medan magnet melingkar diinduksikan ke dalam
specimen by: spesimen dengan memakai:
DIRECT INDUCTION of a circular field into an INDUKSI LANGSUNG medan melingkar ke dalam
article. benda.
This is accomplished by passing a current Dilakukan dengan mengalirkan arus ke dalam
through the article as shown the HEAD benda memakai HEAD SHOT.
SHOT below.
Direct induction using PRODS. Induksi langsung memakai PRODS.

Prod magnetization is used where the size Magnetisasi prods dipakai apabila ukuran atau
or location of an article does not permit the lokasi suatu artikel tidak memungkinkan peng-
use of a head shot or central conductor. gunaan head shot atau central conductor. Aliran
Current flow and circular field distributions arus dan distribusi medan melingkar diperli-
are shown below. hatkan di bawah.
INDIRECT INDUCTION of a circular fields. INDUKSI TAK LANGSUNG medan melingkar.

This is accomplished by placing a current- Dilakukan dengan menempatkan konduktor
carrying conductor into the specimen. This pembawa arus ke dalam spesimen. Metoda ini
method is known as the CENTRAL CON- dikenal sebagai teknik CENTRAL CONDUCTOR
DUCTOR technique and is illustrated below dan digambarkan di bawah ini.

Circular magnetic field in a nonmagnetic Medan magnet melingkar di dalam material
material. nonmagnetis.
In a nonmagnetic material, the lines of force will Pada material nonmagnetis, garis-garis gaya
NOT stay in the material. For example, when a TIDAK berada di dalam material. Contohnya,
copper bar is used, the magnetic field is apabila dipakai sebuah batang tembaga, medan
established AROUND the bar as shown below. magnet berada di SEKELILING batang tersebut.
Circular magnetic field in a ferromagnetic Medan magnet melingkar di dalam material

material ferromagnetik.
In a ferromagnetic material, the lines of force Pada material ferromagnetik, garis-garis gaya
are established WITHIN the material. Iron is berada DI DALAM material. Besi mudah menjadi
permeable and readily conducts the magnetic magnet dan menghantarkan medan magnet
field as shown below. seperti dalam gambar di bawah.
In both ferromagnetic and nonmagnetic Pada material-material ferromagnetik dan nonmag-

materials, the lines of force are at RIGHT netik, posisi garis-garis gaya magnet adalah
ANGLE (90o) to the direction of electric current TEGAK LURUS (90o) terhadap arah aliran arus
flow. listrik.
Iron particles will not be attracted to a Partikel besi tidak akan tertarik ke bagian yang
magnetized part except where a flux leakage dimagnetisasi kecuali jika terjadi kebocoran
exists. A crack in the part as shown below medan. Retakan pada benda di bawah ini akan
would cause a typical indication. menyebabkan indikasi tertentu.

Circular magnetization will detect Magnetisasi melingkar akan mendeteksi diskonti-
discontinuities that are between 45 and 90 nuitas yang arahnya antara 45 dan 90 derajat
degrees to the lines of force. terhadap garis-garis gaya magnet.
A crack that runs parallel to the lines of force Retak yang arahnya sejajar dengan garis-garis
will not attract particles because no poles or gaya magnet tidak akan menarik partikel karena
flux leakage exists at the crack (see below). tidak terjadi kutub magnet atau kebocoran
medan.
The circular magnetization created with prods Magnetisasi melingkar yang dihasilkan oleh prods
will also only detect discontinuities that are juga hanya akan mendeteksi diskontinuitas yang
essentially PERPENDICULAR to the lines of arahnya TEGAK LURUS terhadap garis-garis gaya
force. magnet.

LONGITUDINAL MAGNETIZATION MAGNETISASI MEMANJANG
A longitudinal magnetic field is induced into a Medan magnet memanjang diinduksikan ke dalam
specimen by: spesimen dengan cara:
Yoke Yoke
A yoke may be used to magnetize a Yoke dapat dipakai untuk memagnetisasi
specimen longitudinally as shown below. spesimen secara memanjang seperti gambar.
The yokes is essentially a temporary Yoke pada dasarnya merupakan sebuah
horseshoe magnet. It is made of soft, low magnet tapal kuda temporer. Yoke dibuat dari
retentivity iron, which is magnetized by a inti besi lunak, ber-retentivity rendah, yang
small coil wound around its horizontal bar. dimagnetisasi memakai kumparan kecil di
sekeliling batang horizontalnya.
Coil (solenoid) Kumparan (solenoid)

When the length of the specimen is several Jika panjang spesimen beberapa kali lebih
times its diameter or cross section, the besar dari diameter atau penampangnya,
specimen can be successfully magnetized spesimen dapat dimagnetisasi dengan
by placing it lengthwise in the field of the coil menempatkannya di dalam kumparan.
(see below).
Note: both illustration above use the older Catatan: kedua gambar di atas menggunakan
convention (+ to – using the right-hand kesepakatan pertama (+ ke – menggu-
rule) to demonstrate current flow. nakan kaidah tangan kanan) untuk
menunjukkan aliran arus.

When copper wire is wound into a coil, the lines Jika kawat tembaga dibentuk menjadi sebuah
of flux around each turn of the coil COMBINE kumparan, medan magnet di sekeliling tiap lilitan
with those of each of the other turns in the coil. BERGABUNG dengan medan magnet dari lilitan
yang lain.
This increases the flux density in the Hal tersebut akan meningkatkan kerapatan flux
longitudinal direction. dalam arah memanjang.
The flux density is the greatest at the surface of Kerapatan flux paling besar terjadi pada
the copper wire; therefore, FLUX DENSITY will permukaan kawat tembaga, karenanya,
be GREATEST at the INSIDE SURFACE OF KERAPATAN FLUX PALING BESAR terjadi pada
THE COIL. PERMUKAAN BAGIAN DALAM KUMPARAN.
Parts being magnetized should be placed Bagian yang dimagnetisasi sebaiknya diletakkan
NEAR the INSIDE SURFACE OF THE COIL as DEKAT PERMUKAAN BAGIAN DALAM
shown below. KUMPARAN seperti diperlihatkan di bawah ini.
Field strength developed within a coil depends Kekuatan medan yang dihasilkan di dalam
on three factors: kumparan tergantung pada tiga faktor:
1. The number of turns in the coil. 1. Jumlah lilitan dalam kumparan.
2. The current flowing through the coil. 2. Kuat arus yang melalui kumparan.
3. The diameter of the coil. 3. Diameter kumparan.
Which of the discontinuities on the surface of Diskontinuitas manakah pada permukaan batang di
the bar below would be detected if it were bawah ini yang akan terdeteksi jika diperiksa
inspected in the coil on the left? memakai kumparan?
Answer: Discontinuities A and B. Jawab: Diskontinuitas A dan B.

Magnetization by Cable Magnetisasi memakai Kabel
Sometimes test articles are too big to fit into the Kadangkala benda uji terlalu besar ukurannya
ordinary coil. When this happens, an insulated untuk dimasukkan ke dalam kumparan. Jika ini
copper cable can be used to form a coil for terjadi, kabel tembaga berisolasi dapat dipakai
longitudinal magnetization of the article. Here is membuat kumparan untuk menghasilkan magneti-
an example. sasi memanjang pada benda.
When the cable is wrapped around the object Pada saat kabel dibelitkan ke sekeliling obyek
to be magnetized, electric current passing yang dimagnetisasi, arus listrik yang dialirkan
through the cable creates a longitudinal melalui kabel akan menghasilkan medan magnet
magnetic field. memanjang.
The effective distance of the longitudinal Jarak efektip medan magnet memanjang yang
magnetic field created by the cable is the same dihasilkan oleh lilitan kabel sama seperti jarak
as the effective distance of a stationary coil (6 efektip pada kumparan (6 sampai 9 inchi di kanan-
to 9 inches on both sides of the cables). kiri ujung kabel).
Above is another example using an insulated Gambar di atas adalah contoh pemakaian kabel
copper cable to create a longitudinal magnetic tembaga berisolasi untuk menghasilkan medan
field in an article. In this case, the cable is magnet memanjang pada benda. Dalam hal ini,
connected to the heads for a source of electric kabel dihubungkan ke sumber arus listrik.
current.

CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW
_______ 1. Prod magnetization is considered direct induction which results in a
longitudinal magnetic field
_______ 2. A circular magnetic field induced into a ferromagnetic material establishes

lines of force that are essentially within the material.
_______ 3. Lines of force that do not stay within the material are the result of using a
nonmagnetic material as a conductor.
_______ 4. A flux leakage will often result where a discontinuity such as a crack runs
parallel to the lines of force.
_______ 5. In ferromagnetic materials the lines of force are at right angles (90°) to the
direction of electric current flow.
_______ 6. In nonmagnetic materials the lines of force are at right angles (90o) to the
direction of electric current flow.
_______ 7. Prods and yokes both produce a longitudinal magnetic field.
_______ 8. Where the highest flux density possible is needed to longitudinally

magnetize a part, it should be placed as close as possible to the center of
the coil.
_______ 9. A central conductor and prods can both be used to induce a circular
magnetic field.
_______ 10. Indirect induction with a central conductor is used to, produce a circular
magnetic field.
_______ 11. Either a yoke or prods could be used to effectively detect a longitudinal
crack in a weld.
_______ 12. A head shot is a method of direct induction that produces a longitudinal
magnetic field in the part.
_______ 13. The flux density will be the greatest at the surface of a nonmagnetic central
conductor.
_______ 14. A yoke is often used where the part is too large to permit the use of a head
shot to induce a longitudinal field.
_______ 15. In the sketch below, which of the three defects could be detected if the part
contained circular magnetization?
_______ 16. In the sketch above, which of the three defects could be detected if the part
contained longitudinal magnetization?

CHAPTER THREE
Direct current, alternating current, half-wave Arus searah, arus bolak-balik, arus yang disea-
rectified current (HWDC), and full-wave rectified rahkan sebagian (HWDC), dan arus yang disearah-
current (FWDC) are used as magnetizing kan seluruhnya (FWDC) dipakai sebagai arus mag-
currents in magnetic particle testing. Only one netisasi dalam pengujian partikel magnet. Hanya
type is required for a test. satu jenis saja yang disyaratkan untuk pengujian.
It is generally accepted that the best types of Umum diterima bahwa jenis arus magnetisasi
magnetizing current for magnetic particle terbaik untuk pengujian partikel magnet adalah
testing are alternating and half-wave rectified arus bolak-balik dan arus yang disearahkan
currents. sebagian (HWDC).
Alternating current is best suited for locating Arus bolak-balik paling cocok untuk menemukan
surface discontinuities (because of skin effect). diskontinuitas permukaan (akibat adanya efek
HWDC is best suited for locating near-surface kulit). HWDC paling sesuai untuk menemukan
discontinuities. diskontinuitas dekat permukaan.
ALTERNATING CURRENT (AC) ARUS BOLAK-BALIK (AC)
Alternating Current (AC) is the most widely Arus AC paling banyak digunakan sebagai sumber
used power source for conducting magnetic tenaga untuk melakukan pengujian partikel
particle testing. magnet.
AC can be readily converted to the low AC dapat diubah dengan cepat menjadi
voltages used in magnetic particle tegangan rendah untuk dipakai dalam
inspection by the use of transformers. pemeriksaan partikel magnet menggunakan
trafo.
AC has little penetrating power and provides AC memiliki kemampuan penetrasi yang kecil
the best detection of surface discontinuities. namun sangat sensitip untuk mendeteksi
It is NOT effective for subsurface. diskontinuitas permukaan. Arus AC TIDAK
efektip untuk bawah permukaan.
Since AC is continuously reversing direction, Karena AC memiliki arah bolak-balik, medan
the magnetic field has a tendency to agitate magnetnya cenderung menggetarkan atau
or make the iron particles more mobile. This membuat partikel besi lebih gesit. Hal ini
causes the iron particles to be more menyebabkan partikel besi lebih responsip
responsive to the flux leakage current terhadap kebocoran medan magnet arus bolak-
reversal. balik.

DIRECT CURRENT (DC) ARUS SEARAH (DC)
Single phased AC can be rectified to produce Arus AC fasa tunggal dapat disearahkan untuk
halfwave alternating current (HWAC), menghasilkan arus AC separo gelombang
commonly called halfwave direct current (HWAC), yang umum disebut arus DC separo
(HWDC). gelombang (HWDC).
HWDC means that the reverse polarity or HWDC berarti bagian kutub negatip dari kurva
negative portion of the sine curve is sinus dihilangkan seperti dalam gambar di
eliminated as below. bawah:
With HWDC there are intervals of individual Dengan HWDC terdapat rentang antara pulsa
pulses of direct current and also intervals DC tunggal dan juga rentang dimana tidak ada
when no current is flowing. arus mengalir.
Full wave direct current rectification inverts the Arus DC gelombang penuh membalik arus negatip
negative curent to positive current so that the menjadi arus positip sehingga jumlah pulsa positip
number of positive pulses is doubled. menjadi ganda.
AC is also available in three-phase circuits. This AC juga terdapat dalam rangkaian tiga fase. Pada
provides three cycles that follow each other at rangkaian ini terdapat tiga siklus yang mengikuti
intervals of 60o. When these peaks are then full- satu sama lain dengan selisih 60o. Apabila puncak-
wave rectified, a very smooth DC is obtained as puncak ini disearahkan akan diperoleh arus DC
figures below. yang halus seperti gambar di bawah ini.
Three-phase full wave direct curent.

The use of rectified current has the following Penggunaan arus yang disearahkan memiliki
advantages: keuntungan sebagai berikut:
1. Alternating current at any commercial 1. Arus AC pada sembarang frekuensi dapat
frequency may be used (if three-phase, digunakan (jika tiga fase, beban bisa
the load may be distributed over the didistribusikan pada ketiga fasenya).
three phases).
2. Penetration is comparable to that of 2. Kemampuan penetrasi sebanding dengan
straight direct current. arus DC.
3. The pulsating effect of the rectified wave 3. Efek getaran dari gelombang yang dise-
is helpful in adding mobility to the arahkan membantu menambah mobilitas
magnetic particles. partikel magnet.
4. There is a definite advantage in locating 4. Ada keuntungan nyata dalam menemukan
deep-lying discontinuities. diskontinuitas yang letaknya dalam.
5. It can be combined in the same 5. Dapat digabung dengan peralatan yang
equipment with alternating current. memakai arus AC.
PENETRATION CHARACTERISTICS KARAKTERISTIK PENETRASI
It is well established that the AC method is best AC telah ditetapkan sebagai metoda terbaik untuk
suited for finding surface defects. menemukan cacat permukaan.
However, the chart below illustrates the ability Grafik di bawah ini menggambarkan kemampuan
of various currents using both wet and dry berbagai macam arus dengan menggunakan
magnetic particles in locating subsurface partikel magnet basah dan kering dalam mencari
discontinuities. diskontinuitas bawah permukaan.
The experiments were carried out using Betz Percobaan tersebut dilakukan dengan memakai uji
Ring Test. Betz Ring.
The points to remember are: Beberapa poin untuk diingat adalah:

1. Dry magnetic particles are more sensi- 1. Partikel magnet kering lebih sensitip
tive than particles used in the wet bath ketimbang partikel basah, baik memakai
medium whether AC or DC is used. arus AC maupun DC.
2. AC is most effective for locating surface 2. AC paling efektip untuk menemukan cacat
defects. AC is not effective in locating permukaan. AC tidak efektip dalam
subsurface defects. nenemukan cacat bawah permukaan.
3. DC using dry powder particles is much 3. Arus DC dengan menggunakan partikel
more sensitive than DC with the wet serbuk kering lebih sensitip ketimbang DC
bath medium. memakai pertikel basah.


MAGNETIC HYSTERESIS CURVE KURVA HISTERISIS MAGNETIS
At the heart of understanding magnetism in Sebagai inti dari pemahanan masalah magnetisme
materials is the MAGNETIC HYSTERISIS dalam material adalah KURVA HISTERISIS
CURVE. From this simple curve a Level II MAGNETIS. Dari kurva sederhana ini, seorang
technician can come to a more complete teknisi Level II dapat memperoleh pemahaman
understanding of why certain magnetic particle menyeluruh mengenai bagaimana tahapan
testing process steps are used. pengujian partikel magnet digunakan.
The magnetic hysteresis curve is also called Kurva histerisis magnet juga disebut sebagai
THE HYSTERESIS LOOP. LINGKARAN HISTERISIS.
If a piece of steel is placed in a coil, through Jika sepotong baja ditempatkan di dalam sebuah
which alternating current is flowing, the relation kumparan yang di dalamnya mengalir arus AC,
between magnetizing force “H” and the flux dapat diplot hubungan antara gaya magnetisasi
density “B” can be plotted. H is shown in Henry “H” dan kerapatan flux “B”. H dalam satuan Henry
or Oersteds, and B is normally shown in atau Oersteds, dan B dalam Gauss.
Gausses.
Permeability, μ, is defined as B/H, which is the Permeabilitas, μ, didefinisikan sebagai B/H,

slope of the curve and varies continuously at merupakan kemiringan kurva dan bervariasi secara
any point on the curve. menerus pada sembarang titik pada kurva.
Permeability of a material can be determined Permeabilitas dari sebuah material dapat
by increasing the magnetizing force (electric ditentukan dengan peningkatan gaya magnetisasi
current strength) until the material reaches its (kekuatan arus listrik) hingga material mencapai
saturation point (point a). Each type of material titik jenuhnya (titik a). Masing-masing material
has a point of maximum flux density memiliki titik kerapatan flux maksimum (titik jenuh)
(saturation). tertentu.
At each increase of the magnetizing force “H” Tiap penambahan gaya megnetisasi “H” mengaki-
there is an increase in flux density “B” which is batkan peningkatan kerapatan flux “B” yang pada
quite rapidly at first, then more slowly until it mulanya cukup cepat, kemudian berlangsung
reaches a point beyond which any increase in lambat hingga mencapai sebuah titik dimana
the magnetizing force does not increase the penambahan gaya magnetisasi tidak akan
flux density (point a). menambah kerapatan flux (titik a).
The dashed line (point o-a) shows the maxi- Garis putus-putus (titik o-a) memperlihatkan
mum flux density and is often referred to as the kerapatan flux maksimum dan seringkali disebut
virgin curve since the material was unmagne- sebagai kurva virgin karena pada mulanya material
tized at the beginning. tidak termagnetisasi.

As the magnetizing force H is reduced to zero Selama gaya magnetisasi H dikurangi hingga nol
(from point a to b), the flux density B slowly (dari titik a ke b), kerapatan flux B berkurang
drops but does not return to zero, but lags dengan lambat tapi tidak kembali ke nol, namun
behind H along the segment a to b. tertinggal di belakang H sepanjang ruas a ke b.
The hysteresis loop gets its name from the lag Kurva histerisis memperoleh namanya dari
between the applied magnetizing force and the ketertinggalan (lag) antara gaya magnetisasi yang
actual flux density in the part. This lag is shown diaplikasikan dan kerapatan flux aktual dalam
between points o-b and o-f. benda. Lag diperlihatkan antara titik o-b dan o-f.
The ability of the steel to retain a certain Kemampuan suatu baja untuk menahan sejumlah
amount of RESIDUAL MAGNETISM is called tertentu MAGNETISME SISA dinamakan
RETENTIVITY or REMANENCE, as shown RETENTIVITAS atau REMANENCE, seperti
between points o and b. diperlihatkan antara titik o dan b.
When the magnetizing force is reversed, as Pada saat gaya magnetisasi dibalik arahnya,
always happens with AC, the flux density is seperti selalu terjadi dengan arus AC, kerapatan
reduced to zero at point c as shown below. flux berkurang hingga nol pada titik c di bawah.
COERCIVE FORCE is the reverse magnetizing Gaya coersive adalah gaya magnetisasi pembalik
force required to remove residual magnetism yang diperlukan untuk menghilangkan magnetisme
from the material as shown above. sisa dari dalam material seperti ditunjukkan di atas.
Hardened steel would require a stronger Baja yang dikeraskan memerlukan gaya
reverse magnetizing force to remove the magnetisasi pembalik yang lebih besar untuk
residual magnetism. menghilangkan magnetisme sisa.

As the reverse magnetizing force is increased Pada saat gaya magnetisasi pembalik ditingkatkan
beyond point c, the flux density increases to the hingga melalui titik c, kerapatan flux bertambah
saturation point in the reverse direction shown hingga mencapai titik jenuh dalam arah yang
in the point d below. berlawanan seperti pada titik d di bawah.
Point e below shows the residual magnetic field Titik e menunjukkan besarnya medan magnet sisa
in the reverse direction. dalam arah yang berlawanan.
REVERSE
RESIDUAL
MAGNETISM
The force required to remove this residual field Gaya yang diperlukan untuk menghilangkan
is shown between points o and f, and is again medan magnet sisa ditunjukkan antara titik o dan f,
called coercive force (see below). yang disebut gaya coercive.
The hysteresis loop is completed as the Kurva histerisis menjadi lengkap saat gaya
magnetizing force is again increased to a magnetisasi ditambah besarnya hingga mencapai
maximum flux density at point a. kerapatan flux maksimum pada titik a.
As shown before, a hysteresis loop is formed Seperti telah diperlihatkan sebelumnya, lingkaran
with every complete cycle of 60 cps current. A histerisis terbentuk secara penuh tiap 1/60 detik.
hysteresis loop also be used to describe the Lingkaran histerisis dapat dipakai juga untuk
MAGNETIZATION or DEMAGNETIZATION with menjelaskan proses MAGNETISASI atau
DC where the current is either manually or DEMAGNETISASI memakai arus DC dimana
automatically reversed between straight (+) pembalikan arah aliran arus antara kutub + dan
polarity and reverse (-) polarity. kutub – dilakukan secara manual atau otomatis.

A hysteresis loop for a metal is dependent on Lingkaran histerisis dari sebuah logam tergantung
the material’s alloy or chemical composition, pada paduan material atau komposisi kimia,
microstructure, and grain size. struktur mikro, dan ukuran butiran.
A WIDE HYSTERESIS LOOP indicates a LINGKARAN HISTERISIS yang GEMUK
material that is difficult to magnetize (one with a menunjukkan sebuah material yang sulit dijadikan
high reluctance). magnet (material yang memiliki reluktansi tinggi).
o f
The distance between points o and f above will Jarak antara titik o dan f di atas akan tergantung
depend on the coercive force needed to pada gaya coercive yang diperlukan untuk
overcome the reluctance of the steel. mengatasi reluktansi baja tersebut.
A HARD STEEL such as HIGH CARBON STEEL BAJA KERAS seperti BAJA KADAR KARBON
would have the following qualities and would TINGGI akan memiliki sifat seperti berikut dan akan
produce a wide hysteresis loop. menghasilkan lingkaran histerisis yang lebar.
1. LOW PERMEABILITY – hard to magnetize 1. PERMEABILITAS RENDAH – sulit dijadikan
magnet.
2. HIGH RETENTIVITY – retains a strong 2. RETENTIVITAS TINGGI – menahan medan
residual magnetic field magnet sisa secara kuat.
3. HIGH COERCIVE FORCE – requires a 3. GAYA COERCIVE TINGGI – memerlukan
high reverse magnetizing force to remove gaya magnetisasi pembalik yang besar untuk
the residual magnetism. menghilangkan magnetisme sisa.
4. HIGH RELUCTANCE – high resistance to 4. RELUKTANSI TINGGI – memiliki ketahanan
magnetizing force yang tinggi terhadap gaya megnetisasi.
5. HIGH RESIDUAL MAGNETISM – retain a 5. MAGNETISME SISA yang TINGGI – mampu
strong residual magnetic field. menahan medan magnet sisa secara kuat.


A THIN/SLENDER HYSTERESIS LOOP LINGKARAN HISTERISIS yang RAMPING menun-
indicates a material of low retentivity. jukkan suatu material yang memiliki retentivitas
rendah.
The loop below shows the qualities of A SOFT Kurva di bawah ini memperlihatkan sifat sebuah
MATERIAL such as LOW CARBON STEEL. MATERIAL LUNAK seperti BAJA KADAR KARBON
RENDAH.
The coercive force is low because the material Gaya coercive yang rendah disebabkan material
retains only a weak residual magnetic field. hanya menahan medan magnet sisa yang kecil.
o f
A soft or low carbon steel would have the Baja lunak atau baja karbon rendah akan memiliki
following qualities: sifat-sifat sebagai berikut:
1. HIGH PERMEABILITY – easy to 1. PERMEABILITAS TINGGI – mudah dijadikan
magnetize magnet.
2. LOW RETENTIVITY – retains a weak 2. RETENTIVITAS RENDAH – lemah dalam
residual magnetic field menahan medan magnet sisa.
3. LOW COERCIVE FORCE – requires a low 3. GAYA COERCIVE RENDAH – memerlukan
reverse magnetizing force to remove the gaya magnetisasi pembalik yang kecil untuk
residual magnetism. menghilangkan magnetisme sisa.
4. LOW RELUCTANCE – low resistance to 4. RELUKTANSI RENDAH – memiliki ketahanan
magnetizing force. yang rendah terdapat gaya magnetisasi.
5. LOW RESIDUAL MAGNETISM – retains a 5. MAGNETISME SISA yang RENDAH – hanya
weak residual magnetic field. mampu menahan medan magnet sisa dalam
jumlah kecil.

CHAPTER THREE
REVIEW
1. What type of steel (HARD or SOFT) would apply to the following?
_______ low permeability
_______ high coercive force
_______ high residual magnetism
_______ high permeability
_______ low reluctance
_______ low residual magnetism
_______ high retentivity
_______ low retentivity
_______ high reluctance
_______ low coercive force
_______ 2. A thin hysteresis loop could indicate a hard metal which has a high carbon
content.
_______ 3. A high carbon steel will make a good permanent magnet.
_______ 4. A hysteresis loop can be formed only with AC due to the coercive force
needed to remove the residual magnetism.
_______ 5. Coercive force is the amperage needed to remove residual magnetism.
_______ 6. Maximum flux density is shown on the hysteresis loop.
_______ 7. Most ferromagnetic materials are easily magnetized.
_______ 8. When a part reaches maximum flux density, it is said to be fully retentive.
_______ 9. The magnetic field that remains in the part after the current is shut off is
called the coercive force.
_______ 10. Finish sketching the hysteresis loop and identify the parts indicated by
numbers 1 through 3.
2
1. _________________________
2. _________________________
1
3. _________________________
3


CHAPTER FOUR
DIRECT CURRENT FIELD DISTRIBUTION DISTRIBUSI MEDAN ARUS SEARAH (DC)
SOLID NONMAGNETIC CONDUCTOR PENGHANTAR NONMAGNETIS PEJAL
When direct current is passed directly through Saat arus DC dilewatkan secara langsung melalui
a solid nonmagnetic conductor, such as a penghantar nonmagnetis pejal, seperti pada
copper bar, the following can be observed. batang tembaga, dapat diamati hal-hal sebagai
berikut:
A. Magnetic field strength varies from zero at A. Kekuatan medan magnet bervariasi dari nol
the center to a maximum at the surface. di pusat hingga terbesar pada permukaan.
B. The field strength at the surface of the B. Kekuatan medan pada permukaan peng-
conductor decreases as the radius of the hantar berkurang seiring penambahan jari-
conductor increase. For example, if the jarinya. Sebagai contoh, jika arus diper-
current is held constant, the radius of the tahankan konstan, dan jari-jari penghantar
conductor is doubled and the field strength diperbesar dua kalinya, maka kekuatan me-
at the surface is halved. dan di permukaan akan berkurang separo.
C. When the current is increased, the field C. Ketika arus diperbesar, kekuatan medan
strength increases in proportion, i.e. bertambah secara proporsional, yaitu
doubling the current doubles the field melipatgandakan arus akan melipatganda-
strength. kan kekuatan medan.
D. The field strength outside the conductor D. Kekuatan medan di luar penghantar berku-
diminishes with the distance from the central rang dengan penambahan jarak dari pusat
conductor’s center (e.g. the field at two central conductor (misalnya, kuat medan
times the radius from the center is half the pada jarak dua kali jari-jari dari pusat besar-
field at the surface as shown above). nya separo dari kuat medan pada permu-
kaan).

SOLID MAGNETIC CONDUCTOR PENGHANTAR MAGNETIS PEJAL
Distribution of a direct current magnetic field Distribusi medan magnet arus searah di dalam
within a magnetic article can be illustrated sebuah benda magnetik dapat digambarkan
graphically as shown below. secara grafis seperti di bawah ini.
The flux density increases evenly from zero until Kerapatan flux bertambah secara merata dari nol
it reaches peak strength at the surface. hingga mencapai kekuatan puncak di permukaan.
Because of the permeability of steel, the field Karena permeabilitas baja, kuat medan jauh lebih
strength is much greater WITHIN a magnetic besar di DALAM penghantar magnetik jika
conductor as compared to a nonmagnetic dibandingkan dengan penghantar nonmagnetik.
conductor.
The flux density drops rapidly just outsides the Kerapatan flux turun drastis tepat di luar
surface of the steel bar shown above. permukaan batang baja.
The field strength outside a solid magnetic Kuat medan di luar penghantar magnetis pejal
conductor is exactly the same as with a persis sama seperti pada penghantar nonmagnetis
nonmagnetic conductor if the current and jika besar arus dan diameter kedua penghantar
radius are unchanged. tersebut sama.

HOLLOW MAGNETIC CONDUCTOR PENGHANTAR MAGNETIS BERONGGA
Permeability is again a factor in determining Sekali lagi, permeabilitas merupakan sebuah faktor
field strength dalam menentukan kekuatan medan magnet.
If the outer diameter and current flow are Jika diameter luar dan aliran arus sama besarnya
identical when comparing a solid and hollow antara penghantar pejal dan berongga, maka kuat
conductor, the field strength at the outer medan pada permukaan bagian luar juga akan
surface will be the same. sama.
The field strength at the inner surface is slight Kuat medan pada permukaan bagian dalam
and the field outside the conductor is the same adalah kecil dan kuat medan di luar penghantar
as for other conductors. besarnya sama seperti pada penghantar yang lain.

HOLLOW NONMAGNETIC CONDUCTOR PENGHANTAR NONMAGNETIS BERONGGA
Both magnetic and nonmagnetic hollow Pada kedua penghantar berongga, baik magnetis
conductors; there is no current flow within the maupun nonmagnetis, tidak ada arus yang
void. mengalir di dalam rongganya.
The field strength is zero at the center of the Kuat medan adalah nol pada pusat rongga, dan
void, and increases to a maximum at the outer bertambah hingga terbesar pada permukaan
surface. bagian terluar.
As with both solid and hollow, and both Seperti halnya pada penghantar pejal dan berong-
magnetic and nonmagnetic conductors, the ga, serta penghantar magnetis dan nonmagnetis,
field strength outside the conductor diminishes kuat medan di luar penghantar akan berkurang
with the distance from the central conductor’s dengan bertambahnya jarak dari pusat peng-
center. hantar.
However, the difference between the Namun demikian, perbedaan antara permea-
permeability of magnetic and nonmagnetic bilitas material magnetis dan nonmagnetis
materials affects the field strength within the mempengaruhi kuat medan di dalam peng-
conductor. hantar.
Because of the low permeability of a Akibat rendahnya permeabilitas sebuah
nonmagnetic conductor, the field strength is penghantar nonmagnetis, kuat medannya juga
relatively low. relatip rendah.
If a hollow nonmagnetic conductor and a Jika sebuah penghantar nonmagnetis berongga
solid nonmagnetic conductor have the same dan penghantar nonmagnetis pejal memiliki
outer diameter and the same current flow, diameter luar yang sama dan aliran arus listrik
their outside field strengths are equal. yang sama pula, kuat medan di luar penghantar
juga akan sama.

Figure below shows the distribution of the Gambar di bawah ini menunjukkan distribusi me-
magnetic field that occurs when a hollow dan magnet yang terjadi apabila silinder magnetis
magnetic cylinder is placed around a solid, berongga (tube) ditempatkan mengelilingi sebuah
nonmagnetic central conductor. central conductor nonmagnetis pejal.
As shown above, direct current flowing through Seperti terlihat dari gambar di atas, arus searah
a central conductor will produce a maximum yang mengalir melalui central conductor akan
field on the inside surface of the tube being menghasilkan medan magnet terbesar pada
inspected. permukaan bagian dalam tube.
Since the tube has HIGH PERMEABILITY, the Karena tube memiliki PERMEABILITAS TINGGI,
field tends TO CONCENTRATE IN THE medan magnet cenderung TERPUSAT DI DALAM
CYLINDER rather than in the surrounding air. SILINDER ketimbang di udara sekitarnya.
Since the magnetizing force is from the field Karena gaya magnetisasi berasal dari medan
external to the central conductor, it is obvious magnet di luar central conductor, jelas bahwa baik
that EITHER A MAGNETIC OR NONMAGNETIC BATANG MAGNETIS ATAU NONMAGNETIS dapat
BAR could be used for A CENTRAL dipakai sebagai sebuah CENTRAL CONDUCTOR.
CONDUCTOR.
However, material such as copper is often Namun demikian, material seperti tembaga
recommended as a central conductor seringkali direkomendasikan sebagai central
because there is less heat build-up due to conductor karena pengumpulan panas yang
better conductivity. rendah akibat daya hantar listrik yang lebih baik.

ALTERNATING CURRENT FIELD DISTRIBUSI MEDAN ARUS BOLAK-BALIK (AC)
DISTRIBUTION
Up to this point, all field distributions have Hingga saat ini, semua distribusi medan magnet
assumed the use of direct current (DC). diasumsikan menggunakan arus searah (DC).
Alternating current (AC) tends to flow near the Arus bolak-balik (AC) cenderung mengalir di dekat
surface of a conductor. This phenomenon is permukaan penghantar. Fenomena ini dikenal
known as SKIN EFFECT. sebagai EFEK KULIT.
It must be remembered, however, that while Harus diingat bahwa pada saat arus AC mengalir,
alternating current is flowing, the field is besarnya medan magnet yang ditimbulkannya
constantly varying both in strength and bervariasi secara konstan, baik dari segi kekuatan
direction. maupun arah.
SOLID MAGNETIC CONDUCTOR PENGHANTAR MAGNETIS PEJAL
HOLLOW MAGNETIC CONDUCTOR PENGHANTAR MAGNETIS BERONGGA

It is shown above that AC provides a Diperlihatkan di atas bahwa AC menghasilkan
concentrated flux density NEAR THE SURFACE kerapatan flux magnet yang terpusat DEKAT
which provides for good detection of surface PERMUKAAN yang cocok untuk mendeteksi
discontinuities. diskontinuitas permukaan.
It is also shown above that DC provides THE Diperlihatkan juga di atas bahwa DC merupakan
BEST conditions for locating SUBSURFACE arus TERBAIK untuk mencari diskontinuitas DI
discontinuities because of the distribution of BAWAH PERMUKAAN karena distribusi medan
the flux density. magnetnya.
The field strength outside the conductor is Kuat medan di luar penghantar adalah sama, baik
comparable for both AC and DC. untuk AC maupun DC.
As with DC, both conductivity and permeability Seperti halnya dengan DC, daya hantar dan
affect the field strength and distribution. permeabilitas mempengaruhi distribusi dan kuat
medan magnet.

CHAPTER FOUR
REVIEW
_______ 1. The field strength at the center of a magnetic conductor is essentially zero
when direct current is used.
_______ 2. The field strength outside of a conductor using DC is considered to be one-

third the field at the surface.
_______ 3. Because of the low permeability of steel, the field strength is greater within a
nonmagnetic conductor as compared to a magnetic conductor,
_______ 4. The field strength outside a solid conductor is the same with either a
magnetic or nonmagnetic conductor.
_______ 5. When a central conductor is used to induce a field into a hollow specimen,
the field strength in the hollow specimen is greatest at the outside surface.
_______ 6. When a current is passed directly through a hollow conductor, the field
strength just past the outside surface drops to zero.
_______ 7. Point A in the sketch best describes the maximum peak strength within the
magnetic field.
_______ 8. In the sketch shown, the D level best

describes the field strength of two
times the radius.
_______ 9. The field strength (F) would be at the

same comparative level for both
magnetic and nonmagnetic bars.
_______ 10. The field strength illustrated best

describes a hollow magnetic conductor
with high permeability.
_______ 11. The sketch illustrates that AC was

probably used as the magnetizing
current.
_______ 12. Point A would drop to the B level if

the bar were solid instead of hollow.

CHAPTER FIVE
The required amount of magnetizing current is Besar arus magnetisasi yang diperlukan dipeng-
affected by: aruhi oleh:
• Permeability of the material, • Permeabilitas material,
• Shape and thickness of the article, • Bentuk dan ketebalan benda uji,
• Type of discontinuity sought. • Jenis diskontinuitas yang dicari.
When an article is not uniform in section, it is Jika penampang melintang benda tidak seragam,
necessary to use one value of current for the arus magnetisasi pertama didasarkan pada pe-
thinner sections and a second, third, or more nampang terkecil dulu, baru kemudian ke
values of current for heavier sections. penampang yang lebih besar dan seterusnya.
In circular magnetization, length of test speci- Pada magnetisasi melingkar, panjang spesimen uji
men does not affect the current requirement. tidak mempengaruhi besarnya arus. Jika spesimen
The electrical resistance will increase with lebih panjang, maka hambatan listrik akan bertam-
length and will therefore require more electrical bah besar, sehingga akan memerlukan potensial
energy to develop the required amperage. yang lebih besar untuk menghasilkan arus yang
disyaratkan.
In longitudinal magnetization, specimen length Pada magnetisasi memanjang, panjang spesimen
is a factor to be considered. It is always proper adalah faktor yang harus diperhitungkan. Selalu
to use THE SMALLER CURRENT VALUE FIRST gunakan ARUS TERKECIL TERLEBIH DAHULU
to test the thinner section and then proceed untuk menguji penampang terkecil, baru kemudian
with successively-higher currents to test the arus yang lebih besar untuk diameter penampang
increasingly-larger sections. berikutnya
CURRENT REQUIREMENTS (CIRCULAR PERSYARATAN ARUS (MAGNETISASI
MAGNETIZATION) MELINGKAR)
The amount of current will vary with the shape Besarnya arus akan bervariasi, mengikuti bentuk
and permeability of the material being tested. A dan permabilitas material yang diuji. Sebuah spesi-
test specimen with a typical indication is a men uji dengan indikasi khusus merupakan meto-
good method to assure that only enough da yang bagus untuk menjamin bahwa arus yang
current is used to show the indication. digunakan cukup untuk menampakkan indikasi.
To much current will burn the part or may Arus yang terlalu tinggi akan memanaskan
cause heavy accumulation of iron particles. komponen atau bisa menimbulkan pengum-
pulan partikel besi secara berlebihan.
Too little current may not provide sufficient Arus yang terlalu kecil tidak cukup untuk
flux leakage to attract the iron particles. menghasilkan kebocoran flux guna menarik
partikel besi.
The authority on the amount of current to use in Yang menentukan besarnya arus untuk magneti-
circularly magnetizing a test specimen is the sasi melingkar suatu spesimen adalah prosedur
procedure for the test being performed. untuk pengujian yang dilakukan tersebut.

The following rule is used to determine the Kaidah berikut ini dipakai untuk menentukan
current needed: besarnya arus yang diperlukan:
USE 700 TO 1000 AMPERE PER INCH (280 TO GUNAKAN 700 – 1000 AMPERE PER INCHI (280 –
400 AMPERE PER CENTIMETER) OF ARTICLE 400 AMPERE PER CENTIMETER) KETEBALAN/
THICKNESS/DIAMETER OR DIAGONAL DIAMETER ATAU DIAGONAL KOMPONEN
MEASUREMENT.
To use this rule on articles of greater thickness, Untuk menggunakan kaidah ini pada benda de-
just multiply the 700 and 1000 by the number of ngan ketebalan lebih besar, langsung kalikan 700
inches of article thickness. dan 1000 dengan inchi ketebalan benda.
What amperage would be used on the following Berapa arus yang diperlukan untuk benda berikut
part? Steel bar 10 x 3 x 2 inches thick ini? Batang baja ukuran 10 x 3 x 2 inchi tebal.
Answer : 1400 to 2000 amps Jawab: 1400 sampai 2000 amperes.
What amperage range is requires to circularly Berapa arus yang disyaratkan untuk memagnetisasi
magnetize the bar shown in the head below? melingkar sebuah poros pada head shot berikut?

Answer : 700 – 1000 for first shot Jawab: 700 – 1000 untuk shot pertama
1750 – 2500 for second shot 1750 – 2500 untuk shot kedua
The following formula will give the current Rumus berikut ini menghitung arus yang diper-
required for direct contact magnetization of lukan untuk magnetisasi kontak langsung dari
oddly-shaped uniform cross-sections. penampang melintang benda yang bentuknya
aneh.
x (700 to 1000 A)
Where: I = magnetizing current Dimana: I = arus magnetisasi

P = perimeter of cross-section in P = keliling dari penampang melintang
inches dalam inchi

The rule of using 700 to 1000 ampere per inch Kaidah penggunaan 700 sampai 1000 ampere per
of thickness also applies to circular inchi ketebalan juga diaplikasikan untuk
magnetization with a CENTRAL CONDUCTOR. magnetisasi melingkar memakai CENTRAL
CONDUCTOR.
Article thickness is taken from the OUTSIDE Tebal benda diukur dari DIAMETER TERLUAR-
DIAMETER of the article. nya.
What would the ampere ranges be for the three Berapakah rentang arus untuk memagnetisasi tiga
parts shown on the central conductor below? komponen pada central conductor di bawah ini?
Answer: 700 – 1000 for 1-inch nut Jawab: 700 – 1000 untuk mur 1 inchi
1400 – 2000 for 2-inch ring 1400 – 2000 untuk ring 2 inchi
2100 – 3000 for 3-inch spacer 2100 – 3000 untuk spacer 3 inchi

When using a central conductor to magnetize Pada saat menggunakan central conductor untuk
an article, always use the LARGEST memagnetisasi sebuah benda, selalu gunakan
CONDUCTOR that is practical for the situation, PENGHANTAR TERBESAR yang cocok untuk
since the diameter of the conductor does have situasi tersebut, karena diameter penghantar
an affect on the magnetizing field produced. mempengaruhi medan magnet yang dihasilkan.
The effective field of the central conductor is Lebar medan magnet efektip dari sebuah
approximately four times the diameter of the central conductor kira-kira empat kali
conductor, as illustrated below. diameternya seperti dalam gambar berikut.
For cylindrical articles having a large diameter Untuk benda-benda silinder berdiameter besar bila
with respect to the central conductor, it is dibandingkan central conductornya, perlu dilaku-
necessary to reposition the article on the kan beberapa kali magnetisasi dan pemeriksaan
conductor and reinspect allowing for dimana posisi medan megnetnya harus OVERLAP
APPROXIMATELY 10 PERCENT OVERLAP of KIRA-KIRA 10%.
the magnetic field.
Table 5.1 shows magnetizing current for Tabel 5.1 memperlihatkan besarnya arus
circular magnetization of a solid and tubular magnetisasi untuk medan magnet melingkar dari
articles. sebuah silinder padat dan berongga.
Table 5.1. Magnetizing current for circular magnetization

of solid and tubular articles.

CURRENT REQUIREMENTS WITH PRODS PERSYARATAN ARUS MEMAKAI PRODS
Prods are current–carrying conductors (usually Prods adalah penghantar arus listrik (biasanya
copper) which are used to magnetize localized tembaga) yang dipakai untuk memagnetisasi
areas as shown below. daerah tertentu seperti gambar di bawah ini.
Caution: the use of prods may be restricted Perhatian: penggunaan prods dilarang pada
for some applications due to the possibility beberapa aplikasi karena kemungkinan
of burns at the point of contact. terjadinya kebakaran pada ujung sentuh.
A B
Prods magnetization creates a circular Magnetisasi prods menghasilkan medan magnet

magnetic field in the part. melingkar pada benda.
In the sketch above can you use the left– Pada gambar di atas, dapatkah anda memakai
hand rule to determine if the current is kaidah tangan kiri untuk menentukan apakah
flowing from A to B or from B to A. arus listrik mengalir dari A ke B atau dari B ke A.
When using prods, the electric current used will Saat menggunakan prods, besar arus listrik yang
vary with the following: dipakai akan bervariasi dengan hal-hal berikut:
• The thickness of the material. • Ketebalan benda
• The distance between prods. • Jarak antar prods.
A guideline for determining how much direct Pedoman untuk menentukan seberapa besar arus
current and what prod spacing are best for any DC dan jarak terbaik antar prod untuk sembarang
given testing problem is shown below. pengujian ditunjukkan pada tabel di bawah ini.
Table 5.2. Prod current characteristics.

When halfwave direct current HWDC is used, Jika dipakai arus HWDC, kuat medan per ampere
the field strength per ampere as about the kurang lebih sama seperti arus DC pada jarak
same as with direct current (DC) at typical antar prods tertentu (6 sampai 8 inchi).
prods spacing (6 to 8 inches).
However, since HWDC consumes less Namun demikian, mengingat HWDC membu-
power and produces lower heating effects at tuhkan daya yang lebih kecil dan menghasilkan
the prods contact points, it is often efek pemanasan lebih rendah pada titik sentuh
recommended. HWDC also produces better prods, arus ini lebih direkomendasikan. HWDC
powder mobility than DC. juga menghasilkan mobilitas partikel yang lebih
baik ketimbang DC.
The prods should be placed on the part so that Prods sebaiknya diposisikan pada benda sehingga
the resultant circular field is at 90 degrees to medan magnet melingkar yang dihasilkannya pada
the suspected discontinuities. arah 90o terhadap diskontinuitas yang dicari.
CURRENT REQUIREMENTS (LONGITUDINAL PERSYARATAN ARUS (MAGNETISASI

MAGNETIZATION) MEMANJANG)
When a coil is used to produce longitudinal Jika memakai kumparan untuk menghasilkan
magnetization, the strength of the field is medan magnet memanjang, kuat medan
determined by the product of the number of ditentukan oleh hasil kali antara besar arus dan
amperes and the number of turns in the coil. jumlah lilitan dalam kumparan. Kebanyakan
Most coils typically have THREE to FIVE turns. kumparan memiliki TIGA hingga LIMA lilitan.
For example, a current of 800 amperes Sebagai contoh, arus 800 ampere yang melalui
through a five-turn coil creates a kumparan lima lilitan akan menghasilkan gaya
magnetizing force of 4000 ampere-turns. magnet sebesar 4000 ampere-lilitan.
There are several formulas for determining the Ada beberapa rumus untuk menentukan besarnya
amperage requirements for inducing arus yang disyaratkan untuk menginduksikan
longitudinal magnetism in a material. medan magnet memanjang pada benda.
The thing an NDT technician must determine is Hal yang harus ditentukan oleh teknisi NDT adalah
the degree of FILL FACTOR between the coil FAKTOR PENGISIAN antara kumparan dan benda,
and part, and the LENGTH-DIAMETER RATIO serta perbandingan PANJANG-DIAMETER dari
of the item. benda yang diperiksa.

FILL FACTORS FAKTOR PENGISIAN
The three fill factors are: Ada tiga macam faktor pengisian:
1. Low fill factor — The cross
sectional area 1. Faktor pengisian rendah – luas penampang
of the coil is TEN TIMES OR GREATER melintang kumparan SEPULUH KALI ATAU
than the cross sectional area of the LEBIH BESAR daripada luas penampang
material being magnetized. melintang material yang dimagnetisasi.
CSAcoil ≥ 10 x CSAobject CSAkump ≥ 10 x CSAbenda
2. Intermediate fill factor — All situations 2. Faktor pengisian sedang – kondisi di antara
between low fill factor and high fill factor. faktor pengisian rendah dan tinggi.
2 x CSAobject ≤ CSAcoil < 10 x CSAobject 2 x CSAbenda ≤ CSAkump < 10 x CSAbenda
3. High fill factor — The cross sectional 3. Faktor pengisian tinggi – luas penampang
area of the coil is LESS THAN TWO melintang kumparan KURANG DARI DUA
TIMES the cross sectional area of the KALI luas penampang melintang material
material being magnetized. yang dimagnetisasi.
CSAcoil < 2 x CSAobject CSAkump < 2 x CSAbenda
Low Fill Factor Faktor Pengisian Rendah

The basic formula for calculating the ampere Rumus dasar perhitungan besar arus untuk induksi
requirements for inducing longitudinal medan magnet memanjang pada benda padat
magnetism where there is a low fill factor, the dengan faktor pengisian rendah dan menempel
part is solid, and against the coil wall is: sisi kumparan adalah:
where N = number of turn in coil

I = coil current in amperes
NI = L = length of article
D = diameter of thickness of article

Formula below should be used for test object Rumus di bawah ini dipakai untuk benda dengan
with low fill factor positioned in the center of the faktor pengisian rendah yang diletakkan di pusat
coil. kumparan.
43000 x R where R = coil radius in inches

NI =

High Fill Factor Faktor Pengisian Tinggi
Formula below should be used for high fill Rumus di bawah ini dipakai untuk kumparan
factor coil. In this case when fixed coils or cable berfaktor pengisian tinggi. Dalam kasus ini jika
wrap are used and the cross sectional area of digunakan kumparan tetap atau lilitan kabel
the coil is less than twice the cross sectional dimana luas penampang kumparan kurang dari
area of the test object, the coil has a high fill dua kali luas penampang benda, kumparan
factor. dikatakan memiliki faktor pengisian yang tinggi.
35000
NI =
Intermediate Fill Factor Faktor Pengisian Sedang

Formula below should be used for intermediate Rumus di bawah ini dipakai untuk kumparan
fill factor coils when the cross section of the coil dengan faktor pengisian sedang apabila penam-
is equal to or greater than twice and less than pang melintang kumparan lebih besar atau sama
ten times the cross section of the test object. dengan dua kali dan kurang dari sepuluh kali
penampang melintang benda.
NI =
where NIhf = value of NI calculated for high fill factor coils

NIif = value of NI calculated for low fill factor coils
Y = ratio of the cross sectional area of the coil to the
cross section of the test object

L/D RATIO HARGA L/D
The L/D ratio and the number of turns in a coil Harga L/D dan jumlah lilitan dalam sebuah
determines the required amperage for coil kumparan menentukan besarnya arus yang disya-
shots, providing the following conditions are ratkan untuk pemeriksaan, asalkan kondisi berikut
met: ini terpenuhi:
1. The article has an L/D ratio of between 2 1. Benda memiliki harga L/D antara 2 dan 15.
and 15.
2. The article or section to be magnetized is 2. Benda atau bagian yang dimagnetisasi tidak
not greater than 18 inches (46 cm ) long. melebihi panjang 18 inchi (46 cm).
3. An article greater than 18 inches (46 cm) 3. Benda dengan panjang lebih dari 18 inchi
long requires more than one coil shot. (46 cm) mensyaratkan lebih dari satu shot.
4. The cross sectional area of the article is 4. Luas penampang melintang benda tidak
not greater than 1/10 the area of the coil lebih dari 1/10 luas bukaan kumparan.
opening.
5. The article is placed against the inside 5. Lokasi benda menempel ke dinding kum-
wall of the coil and NOT in the center of paran dan TIDAK berada di pusat kumparan
the coil where the flux density is zero. dimana kerapatan medan magnetnya nol.
6. The L/D ratio assumes the part is solid. If 6. Harga L/D mengasumsikan bahwa benda
the part is hollow then D effective (Deff) adalah pejal. Jika bendanya berongga, harus
must be used for the diameter of the part. dipakai harga Deff sebagai diameter benda.
Deff is calculated using the following Deff dihitung memakai rumus:
formula:
REMEMBER INGAT
As mentioned earlier, the effective length of a Seperti telah disebutkan sebelumnya, panjang
longitudinal magnetic field is 6 to 9 inches (15 efektip dari medan magnet memanjang adalah 6
to 23 cm) on either side of coil. An article with a sampai 9 inchi (15 sampai 23 cm) pada kedua sisi
length greater than 18 inches will require two or kumparan. Sebuah benda dengan panjang lebih
more coil shots. dari 18 inchi mensyaratkan dua shot atau lebih.

DEMAGNETIZATION DEMAGNETISASI
Ferrous materials usually retain some residual Material-material ferrous umumnya menahan
magnetism after the magnetizing current is shut magnet sisa setelah arus magnetisasi dimatikan.
off. The strength of the residual field depends Kuat medan magnet sisa tergantung pada
upon the permeability of the material and the permeabilitas material dan kekuatan dan arah gaya
strength and direction of the magnetizing force. magnet.
Complete demagnetization is difficult, if not Demagnetisasi menyeluruh sulit diperoleh. Proses
impossible, to obtain; thus, the demagneti- demagnetisasi dibatasi untuk MENGURANGI
zation process is limited to REDUCING the medan magnet sisa hingga ke tingkat yang
residual field to an acceptable level. diijinkan.
Review of residual magnetism: Tinjauan mengenai magnetisme sisa:
1. The residual field is in the same direction 1. Medan sisa memiliki arah yang sama
as the magnetic field. dengan medan magnet pembentuknya.
2. The residual field is weaker than the 2. Medan sisa lebih lemah ketimbang medan
magnetizing field. untuk memagnetisasi.
3. The original magnetizing force causes 3. Gaya magnetisasi awal menyebabkan
the residual field. medan magnet sisa.
4. When an article has been magnetized in 4. Jika sebuah benda dimagnetisasi lebih dari
more than one direction, the second field satu arah, medan magnet kedua akan
applied completely overcomes the first mengatasi medan magnet pertama jika
field. However, this is only true if the besar medan kedua lebih dari medan
second field is stronger than the first. magnet pertama.
When the second field applied is weaker Jika medan magnet kedua lebih lemah
than the first field, then a combination ketimbang medan pertama, akan terjadi
circular-longitudinal residual field will kombinasi medan magnet sisa secara
result. melingkar-memanjang.

It is difficult to tell whether a circularly Sulit mengatakan apakah medan magnet sisa pa-
magnetized bar is demagnetized because the da sebuah batang yang dimagnetisasi melingkar
flux lines do not normally leave the bar. telah didemagnetisasi karena garis-garis gaya
tidak meninggalkan benda.
On the other hand, it is easy to tell if a longitu- Sebaliknya, mudah mengatakan apakah medan
dinally magnetized bar is still magnetized or magnet memanjang dalam sebuah batang telah
demagnetized. didemagnetisasi.
Therefore, it is often recommended that a Oleh karena itu, seringkali direkomendasikan
circularly magnetized part be longitudinally agar benda yang dimagnetisasi melingkar
magnetized and then go through the ditumpuki dengan magnetisasi memanjang
demagnetization procedure. baru kemudian didemagnetisasi.
DEMAGNETIZING A PART THAT HAS BEEN DEMAGNETISASI BENDA YANG TELAH

LONGITUDINALLY MAGNETIZED DIMAGNETISASI MEMANJANG
Each time the magnetizing field is reduced and Tiap kali medan magnet dikurangi dan dibalik arah-
reversed, the residual field is reduced. nya, besar medan magnet sisa akan berkurang.
Reversing the magnetic field Membalik medan magnet
1. Reversing the part in the magnetic field. 1. Membalik benda dalam medan magnet.
2. Reversing the current through the coil. 2. Membalik arus dalam kumparan.
3. Reversing the coil (turn the coil 180o). 3. Membalik arah kumparan sebesar 180o.
Reducing the magnetic field Mengurangi besarnya medan magnet
1. Reduce the magnetizing current. 1. Mengurangi arus magnetisasi.
2. Move the part away from the coil. 2. Menjauhkan benda dari kumparan.
3. Move the coil away from the part. 3. Menjauhkan kumparan dari benda.
Any method of demagnetization will combine Sembarang metoda demagnetisasi merupakan
one of the methods to reduce the magnetizing penggabungan salah satu dari metoda untuk
field with one of the methods to reverse the mengurangi besarnya medan magnet dengan
magnetizing field. metoda untuk membalik arah medan magnet.
Demagnetization is defined as: Demagnetisasi didefinisikan sebagai:

The removal of residual magnetism by simulta- Penghilangan medan magnet sisa secara serentak
neously or alternately reducing the strength and atau bergantian, antara mengurangi kuat medan
reversing the direction of a magnetic field. dan membalik arah medan magnet.

DEMAGNETIZATION PROCEDURES PROSEDUR DEMAGNETISASI
1. Alternating Current Coil Method: 2. Metoda Kumparan Arus Bolak-Balik
Alternating current is electrical current Arus bolak-balik adalah arus listrik yang
flowing through a wire, first in one direction, mengalir melalui sebuah kabel dalam arah
then in the opposite direction. bolak-balik.
Each time the current reverses direction, the Tiap kali arus berbalik arah, medan magnet
magnetic field of the coil reverses. (this dalam kumparan juga berbalik arahnya. (hal ini
meets one of the two requirements for memenuhi salah satu dari dua persyaratan
demagnetization). demagnetisasi).
To complete the demagnetization process, Untuk melengkapi proses demagnetisasi,
the part is placed in the reversing magnetic benda diletakkan dalam sebuah medan magnet
field as shown below, and the current is bolak-balik, dan arus dikurangi pelan-pelan
slowly reduced which reduces the strength yang akan mengurangi kuat medan magnet
of the magnetic field. seperti pada gambar di bawah ini.
A rheostat is often used to reduce the Sebuah rheostat dipakai untuk mengurangi
current through the coil. besarnya arus di dalam kumparan.
Reducing the magnetizing field in an AC coil Pengurangan medan magnet di dalam kumparan
demagnetizer can also be done by SLOWLY demagnetisasi AC juga dapat dilakukan dengan
MOVING the article AWAY from the coil. cara menjauhkan benda secara perlahan dari
kumparan.

3. Demagnetization Using Direct Current 4. Demagnetisasi Memakai Arus Searah
With DC, the current is not automatically Dengan DC, arus tidak dengan sendirinya
reversed, it is therefore necessary to have berbalik arah, oleh karena itu perlu adanya
some mechanical means to reverse the mekanisme untuk membalik arah aliran arus.
current.
Because DC is more penetrating than AC, it Karena daya tembus yang lebih besar dari AC,
is used on large parts and is usually more arus DC dipakai pada benda berukuran besar,
complete and effective than AC dan biasanya menghasilkan efek demagnetisasi
demagnetization. yang lebih baik dibandingkan demagnetisasi
memakai AC.
The maximum degree of demagnetization Tingkat demagnetisasi tertinggi yang bisa
can be obtained with DC when the field is diperoleh dengan DC jika medan magnet
reversed at a frequency of one reversal per dibalik dengan frekuensi satu pembalikan per
second. detik.
In DC demagnetization, the magnetizing Pada demagnetisasi DC, medan demagnetisasi
field should be reduced first, then reversed. sebaiknya dikurangi dulu baru kemudian dibalik.
A rule of thumb for demagnetizing soft iron: Sebagai pedoman untuk demagnetisasi besi
at least 10 reversals, but not over 30. lunak: antara 10 sampai 30 pembalikan
DEMAGNETIZING EQUIPMENT PERALATAN DEMAGNETISASI

The most common type of demagnetizing Jenis peralatan demagnetisasi yang umum dipakai
equipment consists of an open coil through terdiri dari sebuah kumparan terbuka yang dialiri
which AC is flowing. arus AC.
A typical unit is shown below and includes a Salah satu unit yang diperlihatkan di bawah ini
track that will carry the part through the coil. As memiliki rel yang akan membawa benda melalui
the part is carried away from the coil, the kumparan. Saat benda dijauhkan dari kumparan,
magnetic field is reduced; the continuously medan magnet dikurangi; arus AC yang mengalir
alternating current in the coil completes the di dalam kumparan melengkapi proses demag-
demagnetization. netisasi.
1. Track
2. Demagnetization coil
3. Carriage
4. Timer and switch
5. Indicator light

OTHER DEMAGNETIZATION TECHNIQUES TEKNIK DEMAGNETISASI LAINNYA
There are a couple of other little tricks that you Ada beberapa cara lain yang dapat anda lakukan
may run into. untuk demagnetisasi.
The first is TAPPING the article. Tapping the Pertama adalah dengan mengetuk-ngetuk benda.
article with a hammer while the article is in a Mengetuk-ngetuk benda dengan palu pada saat
magnetic field can cause a more favorable benda masih dalam medan magnet dapat menye-
distribution of the field. This is rarely done, and babkan penyebaran medan. Hal ini jarang
then only with pieces that are extremely difficult dilakukan, dan hanya cocok untuk benda yang
to demagnetize. The article is never tapped sangat sulit didemagnetisasi. Jangan memukul-
with enough force to damage it. benda terlalu kuat karena akan merusaknya.
The second trick is: when an article is Kedua: saat benda sedang didemagnetisasi,
demagnetized, the earth’s field will leave a medan magnet bumi akan meninggalkan sejumlah
smaller amount of residual magnetism in the kecil magnet sisa di dalam benda jika medan de-
article if the demagnetizing field is also in a magnetisasi juga berada dalam arah utara-selatan.
north-south direction.
Where complete demagnetization is Jika disyaratkan demagnetisasi yang menye-
required, the demagnetization field must be luruh, medan demagnetisasi harus diarahkan ke
placed in an east-west direction (the coil arah timur-barat (kumparan membuka ke arah
opening facing east and west). timur dan barat).


EFFICIENCY OF DEMAGNETIZATION EFISIENSI DEMAGNETISASI
Demagnetization is usually required if: Demagnetisasi biasanya disyaratkan jika:
• Residual field can cause “arc blow” • Medan magnet sisa menyebabkan “tiupan
which deflects the molten metal during busur” yang mengubah arah deposisi logam
DC welding operation; or magnetic chips cair saat pengelasan memakai arus DC; atau
may cling to the cutting tool and interfere serpihan magnetis bisa menempel pada
with machining. perkakas potong dan mengganggu perme-
sinan.
• Residual fields in rotating parts will attract • Medan magnet sisa pada bagian berputar
metal particles, causing excessive wear akan menarik partikel logam, mengakibatkan
or binding. keausan dan kemacetan.
• Residual fields will affect magnetic • Medan magnet sisa dapat mengganggu
compasses or create problems with kompas dan menimbulkan masalah pada
delicate instruments. peralatan yang peka magnet.
• Residual fields might interfere with proper • Medan magnet sisa dapat mengganggu
cleaning of the article. pembersihan benda.
• The article is to be magnetized at a lower • Benda dimagnetisasi dengan gaya magnet
magnetizing force in a different direction yang lebih rendah dalam arah yang berbeda
than the original or previous test. dari pengujian sebelumnya.
• Specified by procedural standards. • Disyaratkan oleh standard prosedur.
Demagnetization is usually NOT required or Demagnetisasi biasanya TIDAK disyaratkan atau
necessary in the following instances: diperlukan pada kondisi berikut:
• On articles of soft steel or iron where • Pada benda yang terbuat dari baja lunak
retentivity is low. atau besi dimana retentivitasnya rendah.
• If the article is to be heat-treated after the • Jika benda akan dilakupanaskan setelah
magnetic particle test. pengujian partikel magnet.
• On large castings, weldments, or vessels • Pada benda cor yang besar, sambungan las,
where residual fields will have no material atau bejana dimana medan magnet sisa
effect. tidak mempengaruhi material.
• If the article is to be magnetized again in • Jika benda akan dimagnetisasi lagi pada
another direction at the same or higher arah lain dengan arus yang sama atau lebih
amperage. besar daripada sebelumnya.
• If the article is likely to become • Jika benda kemungkinan akan kena magne-
remagnetized during handling by being tisasi selama proses pemindahan menggu-
placed on a magnetic chuck or lifted with nakan alat pemindah atau pengangkat
an electromagnetic lifting fixture. magnetis.

LEAKAGE FIELD INDICATORS INDIKATOR KEBOCORAN MEDAN MAGNET
At present time, there is no known technique by Hingga saat ini, tidak ada cara yang bisa dipakai
which the magnetic field can be measured untuk mengukur medan magnet di dalam sebuah
inside the article without destroying it. benda tanpa merusaknya.
Take, for example, a ring that is circularly Contohnya, sebuah cincin yang dimagnetisasi
magnetized. There is no flux leakage to indicate melingkar. Tidak ada kebocoran medan magnet
that the piece is magnetized. yang menunjukkan bahwa benda termagnetisasi.
If the ring is cut in half as Jika cincin dipotong separo,

shown, the strength of the kuat medan pada permukaan
magnetic field at the cut potong dimana medan
surfaces where the magnetic magnet meninggalkan benda
field leaves the article can be dapat diukur. Namun
measured. This, however, demikian hal ini akan
destroys its usefulness merusak fungsinya.
In practice, an indication of Secara praktis, indikasi kebo-
flux leakage can be obtained coran flux dapat diketahui
with an instrument called a dengan sebuah alat yang
FIELD INDICATOR. disebut INDIKATOR MEDAN.
For practical purposes, it is always correct to Untuk tujuan praktis, dibenarkan memakai indikator
utilize a field indicator after performing medan setelah melakukan demagnetisasi guna
demagnetization to determine that residual field menentukan bahwa kuat medan magnet sisa telah
strength has been reduced to a desired level. dikurangi hingga tingkat yang diinginkan.
The field indicator: Indikator medan:
• Compares the strength of the external • Membandingkan kuat medan di luar benda
field of the article with a fixed field inside dengan medan magnet tetap di dalam
the indicator indicator.
• Is used more to locate flux leakage than • Lebih dipakai untuk menunjukkan letak kebo-
to measure field strength coran flux daripada mengukur kuat medan.
• Is used to show when the part is • Dipakai untuk menunjukkan apakah benda
demagnetized. sudah didemagnetisasi.

CHAPTER FIVE
REVIEW
_______ 1. If the operator has a question as to the proper amperage to use, it is always
safe to use the maximum output of the machine.
_______ 2. A one-inch diameter part that is being circularly magnetized would require
between 700 and 1000 amperes for proper magnetization.
_______ 3. The rule used to determine the proper magnetization for circular
magnetization with a head shot is also used when using a central
conductor.
_______ 4. The formula NI = is used to determine the proper amperage for

circular magnetization.
_______ 5. The effective field produced by longitudinal magnetization is determined by

multiplying the number of amperes in the circuit by the number of turns in
the coil.
_______ 6. As a general rule, when the part is longer than 18 inches, more than one
head shot should be used.
_______ 7. Prod magnetization creates a longitudinal field in the part which is excellent
for inspecting large and heavy specimens.
_______ 8. The prods should be placed on the part so that the field produced is in the
same direction as the suspected defects.
_______ 9. As the prod spacing is increased (e.g., from 4 to 8 inches), the amperage
should be decreased because the two fields produced are then in less
conflict with each other.
_______ 10. A part that has been inspected with the magnetic particle method may
cause problems during welding if it is not properly demagnetized.
_______ 11. A combination circular-longitudinal residual field can result if the

demagnetizing force does not exceed the original circular field.
_______ 12. Field indicators can be effective in determining if the specimen contains a
circular magnetic field.
_______ 13. Demagnetization is essentially a matter of reducing the magnetic field and
then reversing it.
_______ 14. Because of the automatic current reversal, alternating current is usually
preferred for demagnetization units.
_______ 15. When an article is demagnetized, the best results will be obtained if the
demagnatizing unit faces north and south.
_______ 16. The cables of a portable magnetic particle unit could be wrapped into a coil
which could be used for demagnetization.

CHAPTER SIX
MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING EQUIPMENT PERALATAN PENGUJIAN PARTIKEL MAGNET
The following should be considered when se- Hal-hal berikut ini sebaiknya dipertimbangkan saat
lecting equipment for magnetic particle testing: memilih peralatan untuk pengujian partikel magnet:
1. Is equipment for wet or dry method? 1. Metoda yang dipakai basah atau kering?
2. Magnetization requirements (AC or DC) 2. Jenis arus magnetisasi (AC atau DC)
3. Demagnetization – incorporated or 3. Demagnetisasi – memakai unit terpisah atau
separated unit? terpadu?
4. Amperage required. 4. Besarnya arus yang disyaratkan.
5. Line voltage requirements 5. Ketersediaan sumber arus listrik.
6. Accessories needed or required 6. Peralatan tambahan yang diperlukan.
WET HORIZONTAL EQUIPMENT PERALATAN HORIZONTAL PARTIKEL BASAH

To obtain circular magnetization, the specimen Untuk memperoleh magnetisasi melingkar,
is clamped between the head and tail stocks. spesimen diklem antara head dan tail stocks.
For longitudinal magnetization the coil is Untuk magnetisasi longitudinal, kumparan digerak-
moved so that the area to be tested is encircled gerakkan sehingga daerah yang diperiksa
by the coil. dikelilingi oleh kumparan.
A typical wet horizontal unit usually accommo- Unit horizontal basah biasanya mengakomodasi
dated both AC and HWDC magnetization. magnetisasi memakai arus AC dan HWDC.
THE WET CONTINUOUS-FIELD METHOD has METODA MEDAN MAGNET MENERUS DENGAN
three basic steps: PARTIKEL BASAH memiliki tiga langkah:
1. Flow wet bath through nozzle and over 1. Alirkan cairan melalui nosel dan basahi
entire surface of part. seluruh permukaan benda.
2. Stop bath flow. 2. Hentikan aliran cairan.
3. Apply current at the instant bath flow is 3. Aplikasikan arus segera setelah aliran cairan
stopped. dihentikan.

DRY CONTINUOUS-FIELD METHOD METODA MEDAN MAGNET MENERUS PARTIKEL
KERING
With this method the powder is usually applied Dengan metoda ini, serbuk magnet biasanya
from a shaker, bulb, or blower and follows diaplikasikan dari alat pengocok, atau peniup, dan
these steps: mengikuti langkah-langkah berikut:
1. Apply magnetizing current. 1. Aplikasikan arus magnetisasi.
2. Blow powder particles over magnetized 2. Tiup serbuk partikel ke daerah yang dimag-
area. netisasi.
3. Blow excess powder off part. 3. Tiup partikel berlebih dari permukaan benda.
4. Shut off magnetizing current. 4. Matikan arus magnetisasi.
The powder should float to the magnetized Serbuk magnet harus tersebar ke daerah yang
area so the particles will be attracted to any flux dimagnetisasi sehingga partikel akan tertarik ke
leakage. tempat terjadinya kebocoran medan magnet.
The dry powder method is typically used with Metoda partikel kering cocok dipakai bersama
both mobile and portable equipment which will dengan peralatan mobile dan portabel yang akan
be discussed on the following pages. didiskusikan pada halaman berikut.

MOBILE EQUIPMENT PERALATAN MOBILE
In many cases it is necessary to bring the Seringkali perlu untuk membawa peralatan ke
equipment to the specimen. tempat spesimen yang diuji.
Typical mobile equipment such as the one Peralatan mobile seperti gambar di atas biasanya
above usually operates on 220/440 volts AC dioperasikan pada tegangan 220/440 volts AC dan
and will produce about 4000 amperes. akan menghasilkan arus sebesar 4000 amperes.
Mobile equipment will usually produce both Peralatan mobile biasanya akan menghasilkan
AC and HWDC magnetizing current. arus magnetisasi AC dan HWDC.
The cables used on the unit above vary from Panjang kabel yang digunakan pada unit di atas
15 feet to 100 feet (4.5 to 30 m). Shorter bervariasi antara 15 feet sampai 100 feet (4.5 m
cables will permit the maximum current sampai 30 m). Kabel yang pendek mampu
output. menghasilkan arus tertinggi.
Prods and cables are usually used with the Prods dan kabel biasanya dipakai bersama
mobile equipment. It often takes two dengan peralatan mobile. Seringkali diperlukan
technicians to manipulate the prods and dua orang teknisi untuk mengoperasikan prods
apply the magnetic powder. dan mengaplikasikan serbuk magnet.
However, longitudinal magnetization can be Di samping itu, magnetisasi longitudinal dapat
produced by wrapping the cable into a coil. dihasilkan dengan cara melilitkan kabel mem-
It also possible to use a central conductor bentuk sebuah kumparan. Dimungkinkan juga
clamped between the two cables to produce untuk menggunakan central conductor yang
circular magnetization. diklemkan di antara kedua kabel untuk
menghasilkan megnetisasi melingkar.
Typical mobile equipment uses the dry Peralatan mobile biasanya menggunakan
powder method but can be used with serbuk kering, namun dapat juga menggunakan
aerosol cans or external tanks. kaleng bertekanan atau tangki terbuka.

PORTABLE EQUIPMENT PERALATAN PORTABEL
Portable equipment is a lighter and less Peralatan portabel lebih ringan dan murah
expensive than other types of magnetic particle ketimbang jenis peralatan pengujian partikel
testing equipment. magnet lainnya.
Typical portable equipment as shown above Peralatan portable seperti diperlihatkan di atas
operates on 110/200 volts AC with an output of beroperasi pada tegangan 110/220 volts AC
between 500 and 1200 amperes. dengan luaran arus antara 500 dan 1200 amperes.
These units usually have a choice of either AC Unit-unit ini biasanya memiliki pilihan jenis arus, AC
or HWDC. atau HWDC.
As with mobile equipment, the cable can be Seperti halnya pada peralatan mobile, kabel dapat
used for prods, wrapping into a coil, or dipakai sebagai prods, dililitkan menjadi
connecting to a central conductor. kumparan, atau dihubungkan ke sebuah central
conductor.
Portable equipment also uses the dry powder Peralatan portabel juga menggunakan metoda
method for most applications. serbuk kering untuk kebanyakan aplikasinya.
LIMITATIONS OF MAGNETIC PARTICLE KETERBATASAN METODA PENGUJIAN PARTIKEL

TESTING MAGNET
1. Only applicable to ferromagnetic materials. 1. Hanya berlaku untuk material ferromagnetik.
2. Magnetic particle testing will not detect 2. Pengujian partikel magnet tidak mampu mende-
discontinuities that are deeper than teksi diskontinuitas yang letaknya lebih dalam
approximately ¼ inch (6 mm) below the dari ¼ inchi (6 mm) di bawah permukaan.
surface.
However, the penetration depends on the Namun demikian, kedalaman penetrasi akan
permeability of the material, type of tergantung pada permeabilitas material, jenis
discontinuity, and amount and type of diskontinuitas, dan besar serta jenis arus yang
current used. dipakai.

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS KESELAMATAN KERJA
1. Electrical arcing is a hazard. 1. Bunga api listrik beresiko kebakaran.
It is usually caused by poor contact or by Biasanya hal ini disebabkan karena kontak yang
using excessive current. jelek atau penggunaan arus yang terlalu tinggi.
It can also be caused by Juga bisa terjadi karena

allowing the prods to slip prods yang tergelincir, yang
which may result in arcing bisa menimbulkan bunga api
or damaging the surface atau merusak permukaan
of the part. benda yang diperiksa.
The arcing causes sparks Bunga api mengakibatkan
which may result in a fire. percikan yang bisa menim-
bulkan kebakaran.
2. The dust from the magnetic particles is 2. Debu dari partikel magnet tidak beracun,
nontoxic, but excessive amounts should not namun jangan menghirup debu tersebut
be inhaled, use a dust respirator. berlebihan, gunakan alat pernapasan.
3. Smoking or open flame should not be 3. Jangan merokok atau bermain api di dekat unit
permitted near the wet bath process. pemroses dengan partikel basah.
4. Burns can be caused due to the resistance 4. Panas dapat diakibatkan karena tahanan listrik
heating in the part or in the prods. Caution pada benda atau prods. Hati-hati saat
should be used in handling the parts or menangani benda atau saat menyentuh prods
touching the prods immediately after the ketika selesai melakukan pengujian partikel
magnetic particle test. magnet.
5. Fluorescent particles are particularly 5. Partikel fluorescent lebih sesuai untuk pengujian
appropriate for magnetic particle testing, partikel magnet karena keandalan dan
since their greater reliability and sensitivity sensitivitasnya yang lebih tinggi ketimbang
than visible particle. partikel visible.
Fluorescent dyes emit a yellowish-green Pewarna fluorescent memancarkan cahaya
light when energized by a source of black hijau-kekuning-kuningan saat disinari lampu
light. Only mercury vapor lamps have a ultraviolet. Hanya lampu uap mercury yang
large enough output of black light to be memiliki cukup energi ultraviolet yang sesuai
satisfactory for use in magnetic particle untuk dipakai dalam pemeriksaan partikel
inspection. magnet.
The black light which is used with Lampu ultraviolet yang digunakan bersama
fluorescent particles will not damage the dengan partikel fluorescent tidak akan merusak
skin or eyes if a dark red-purple filter is used kulit atau mata jika memakai filter berwarna
on the light. merah tua-ungu.
It is possible to experience a clouding of Saat pemeriksaan, mungkin terjadi gangguan
vision if the black light is directed into the penglihatan sejenak jika cahaya ultraviolet
eyes. This happens because the fluid in the terkena mata. Ini terjadi karena cairan di dalam
eyes will momentarily fluoresce. mata kita berpendar sesaat.

MAGNETIC PARTICLE MEDIUMS AND THEIR MEDIA PARTIKEL MAGNET DAN PENYIAPANNYA
PREPARATION
When the medium, whether dry or liquid, is Jika suatu media, baik itu kering maupun basah
applied to the specimen while the magnetizing diaplikasikan pada suatu spesimen pada SAAT
current is flowing, the procedure is known as arus magnetisasi mengalir, prosedur tersebut
the CONTINUOUS METHOD. dikenal dengan METODA MENERUS.
If the medium is applied after the magnetizing Jika media diaplikasikan SETELAH arus
current is shut off, the procedure is known as magnetisasi dihentikan, prosedur tersebut
the RESIDUAL METHOD. dinamakan METODA SISA.
In the dry method, the powder is applied by Pada metoda kering, serbuk diaplikasikan
sprinkling or dusting the specimen. dengan cara menaburkan atau menyapukannya
di atas permukaan spesimen.
In the wet method, the medium is mixed with Pada metoda basah, media serbuk dicampur
a liquid to make a bath which is then applied dengan suatu cairan yang kemudian diapli-
to the surface of the specimen. kasikan ke permukaan spesimen.
Particles of the testing medium must possess Partikel-partikel magnet yang dipakai untuk
four important properties: pengujian harus memiliki empat sifat penting:
1. High permeability. 1. Permeabilitas tinggi.
2. Low retentivity. 2. Retentivitas rendah.
3. Ferromagnetic. 3. Ferromagnetik.
4. Nontoxic. 4. Tidak beracun.
Magnetic particles containing these Partikel magnet yang memiliki sifat-sifat tersebut
characteristic will give maximum response in akan memberikan respon terbaik jika ada
a leakage field, but will not remain kebocoran medan, namun tidak menahan
magnetized when the field is removed magnet saat medan dihilangkan.
The size of the particles used in the dry Ukuran partikel yang dipakai pada metoda
method varies but they will usually all pass kering barvariasi, namun biasanya akan lolos
through a 100-mesh screen. saringan berukuran 100-mesh.

The SHAPE of the magnetic particle should be BENTUK partikel magnet sebaiknya BULAT dan
SPHERICAL and must have a high degree of harus memiliki tingkat mobilitas tinggi serta
mobility and still have substantial attractive memiliki daya tarik yang besar.
power.
ROUND SMOOTH particles offer GOOD Partikel yang BULAT dan HALUS memberikan
MOBILITY but have low attractive power. MOBILITAS yang BAIK namun daya tariknya
kecil.
LONG, SLENDER, JAGGED particles have Partikel yang PANJANG, RAMPING, BERGERIGI
EXCELLENT ATTRACTIVE POWER, but do memiliki DAYA TARIK TERBAIK, namun tidak
not have the mobility to move on a leakage memiliki mobilitas yang baik untuk bergerak ke
field. arah kebocoran medan magnet.
In the wet method, magnetic oxides of iron are Pada metoda basah, dipakai oksida besi yang
used because they are extremely fine and have bersifat magnetis karena ukurannya sangat halus
a lower permeability than the metallic dry dan memiliki permeabilitas lebih rendah ketimbang
particles. partikel logam kering.
The particle size must be small in the wet Ukuran partikel harus sangat kecil pada metoda
method to permit the particles to remain in basah agar partikel tetap berada dalam
suspension in the liquid. suspensi cairan.
MOBILITY is important because when the MOBILITAS adalah sifat yang penting karena jika
particles are brought into a leakage field they ada kebocoran medan, partikel harus sanggup
must be able to move to form a pattern or bergerak untuk membentuk sebuah pola atau
indication. indikasi.
In the dry method, mobility is assisted by Pada metoda kering, mobilitas dibantu dengan
dusting or blowing the particles over the penyapuan atau peniupan partikel ke
surface of the specimen. permukaan yang diperiksa.
Mobility can also be assisted by vibrating Mobilitas dapat juga dibantu dengan cara
the specimen after the particles have been menggetar-getarkan spesimen setelah partikel
dusted on the surface. disapukan ke permukaan benda.
Alternating current also assists mobility, Arus bolak-balik juga membantu mobilitas,
since the alternating field causes the karena medan arus bolak-balik menyebabkan
particles to “dance”. partikel “bergerak-gerak”.
In the wet method mobility is greatly Pada metoda basah, mobilitas sangat terbantu
assisted because the particles are karena partikel tersuspensi di dalam cairan
suspended in a liquid bath.
VISIBILITY is important in magnetic particle VISIBILITAS merupakan sifat yang penting dalam
testing and a good light source is essential. pengujian partikel magnet dan diperlukan sumber
cahaya yang memadai.
Magnetic particles are usually available in Partikel magnet biasanya tersedia dalam warna
grey, red, and black, and the choice of color abu-abu, merah, dan hitam, dimana pemilihan
is determined by the best contrast with the warna ditentukan oleh kontras terbaik dengan
specimen surface permukaan benda.
Fluorescent particles are commonly used in Partikel fluorescent umumnya digunakan dalam
the wet method to aid visibility, but this metoda basah untuk membantu visibilitas,
requires the use of a black light. namun mensyaratkan pemakaian lampu
ultraviolet.

CONTROL AND VERIFICATION OF PENGENDALIAN DAN VERIFIKASI FUNGSI
EQUIPMENT FUNCTIONS PERALATAN
The magnetic particle inspection process Proses pemeriksaan partikel magnet tidak akan
cannot be reliable if the equipment or other handal jika peralatan atau bagian-bagian lain dari
parts of the process are not adequately proses tersebut tidak dikendalikan secara
controlled. memadai.
The process can be broken down into the Proses tersebut dapat dipecah menjadi beberapa
variables of the system and each evaluated sistem variabel dan masing-masing dievaluasi
separately. secara terpisah.
These variables are: Variabel-variabel tersebut yaitu:
1. Electrical system and controls 1. Sistem kelistrikan dan pengendalian.
2. Mechanical components 2. Komponen-komponen mekanis.
3. Instrumentation 3. Instrumentasi.
4. Suspension vehicle 4. Kondisi cairan pensuspensi.
5. Magnetic particles and bath 5. Partikel magnet dan suspensinya
a. Concentration a. Konsentrasi
b. Magnetic properties b. Sifat magnet
c. Fluorescent brightness c. Kecemerlangan fluorescent
6. Black light intensity and wavelength 6. Intensitas dan panjang gelombang cahaya
ultraviolet.
BATH CONTROL PENGENDALIAN CAIRAN

The wet suspensions bath used in the wet Suspensi yang dipakai dalam metoda basah terdiri
method consist of a liquid in which the particles dari cairan dimana partikel magnet tersuspensi di
are suspended. dalamnya.
The particles used are obtainable in a highly Partikel yang digunakan dapat diperoleh dalam
concentrated form and may be either bentuk konsentrat dan dapat berupa fluorescent
fluorescent or nonfluorescent. atau nonfluorescent.
To achieve the required test sensitivity, Untuk memperoleh tingkat sensitivitas uji
the degree of particle concentration in the yang disyaratkan, konsentrasi partikel di
bath must be correct. dalam cairan harus benar,
Agiation must be constant while the bath is Pengadukan harus konstan saat cairan
in use to maintain the particles in digunakan untuk menjaga meratanya campuran
suspension. partikel di dalam suspensi.
Agiation is usually accomplished by Pengadukan biasanya dilakukan dengan
electrically driven pumps. The bath pompa listrik. Sistem cairan harus diperiksa
should be checked DAILY due to TIAP HARI karena penguapan dan hilangnya
evaporation and loss of particles that are partikel akibat pengujian.
removed from the bath by the specimen.


The SETTLING TEST is essential to check the UJI ENDAPAN adalah penting untuk memeriksa
STRENGTH of the bath and is accomplished by KEKUATAN cairan dan dilakukan secara gravitasi
gravity settling in a graduated PEAR SHAPED dalam sebuah tabung khusus seperti dalam
centrifuge tube as shown below. gambar di bawah ini.
1. Agitate the suspension thoroughly to assure 1. Aduk suspensi secara merata untuk menjamin
particle distribution. penyebaran partikel.
2. Fill 100 cc sample from the delivery hose 2. Masukkan 100 cc sampel dari selang pengalir
into the centrifuge tube. ke dalam tabung.
3. Demagnetize, if necessary (when clumping 3. Demagnetisasi, jika perlu (jika terjadi penggum-
occurs in the tube). palan partikel di dalam tabung).
4. Allow settling for 30 minutes. 4. Biarkan mengendap selama 30 menit.
5. Take reading and record in log. 5. Baca dan catat hasilnya.
6. Adjust bath, either by adding particles or 6. Atur konsentrasi cairan dengan menambahkan
vehicles, if necessary. partikel atau pencairnya.
The reading should be between 1.2 and 2.4 cc Pembacaan sebaiknya antara 1.2 dan 2.4 cc untuk
for a nonfluorescent bath, and between 0.1 and suspensi nonfluorescent, dan antara 0.1 dan 0.4 cc
0.4 cc for a fluorescent bath as shown below. untuk suspensi fluorescent seperti ditunjukkan
These data are guidelines and will vary from dalam tabel. Data ini hanya pedoman saja dan
one specification to another. akan bervariasi tergantung spesifikasi.
Table 6.1. Concentration for wet suspension.
1.2 – 2.4
0.1 – 0.4

LIGHTING PENCAHAYAAN
Control of lighting is a key part of the process Pencahayaan merupakan bagian penting dari
control. pengendalian proses.
The ultraviolet light must be checked for lens Filter cahaya ultraviolet harus diperiksa kebersihan
cleanliness and possible cracks. The ultraviolet lensanya dan kemungkinan adanya retak pada
light intensity must be checked against the lensa. Intensitas cahaya juga harus diperiksa
applicable specification. dengan mengacu pada spesifikasi yang berlaku.
Ultraviolet lights from mercury vapor lamp Cahaya ultraviolet dari lampu uap mercury
normally produce higher intensities than the biasanya menghasilkan intensitas lebih besar dari
1000 μW/cm2 at a distance of 38 cm (15 in.). 1000 μW/cm2 pada jarak 38 cm (15 in).
Daily checks of ultraviolet light intensity is a Pemeriksaan harian intensitas cahaya ultraviolet
necessity for adequate process control. For diperlukan untuk pengendalian proses yang
systems used during multiple 8 h shifts, memadai. Untuk sistem yang digunakan tiap
ultraviolet lights should be checked at the start pergantian 8 jam, lampu harus diperiksa pada awal
of each shift. tiap pergantian.
The darkness of the fluorescent magnetic Tingkat kegelapan daerah pemeriksaan partikel
particle inspection area is important. Most magnetik fluorescent juga penting. Kebanyakan
specifications require no more that 20 lux. (2 fc) spesifikasi mensyaratkan intensitas cahaya tampak
of white light in the area. tidak lebih dari 20 lux (2 fc) di daerah pemeriksaan.
In addition, inspectors must allow their eyes to Inspektor harus membiasakan matanya untuk
adjust when first entering the darkened test beradaptasi saat pertama kali memasuki ruang
area. Normally, 5 min is enough time for the gelap. Umumnya perlu waktu selama 5 menit bagi
eye to adapt to a dark environment. Tests mata untuk beradaptasi terhadap lingkungan
should not start until the inspector's eyes have gelap. Pengujian jangan dilakukan hingga mata
adapted to the darkened conditions. inspektor terbiasa pada lingkungan gelap.

CHAPTER SIX
REVIEW
_______ 1. When using wet horizontal magnetic particle equipmenf, it is usually
advisable to flow the bath over the part for the entire period the current is
on.
_______ 2. The only equipment designed for the wet horizontal method produces only
longitudinal magnetization.
_______ 3. When dry powders are used, they should first be applied gently to the part,
and then the proper amount of current should be turned on.
_______ 4. One method of applying dry powder utilizes a container that looks and
performs much like a salt shaker.
_______ 5. Because portable and mobile equipment use cables, they are not capable
of creating a longitudinal magnetic field.
_______ 6. If the cables of a portable unit were attached to a copper bar, typical
inspertion requiring a central conductor could be performed.
_______ 7. The cables of a portable magnetic particle unit could be wrapped into a
coil which could be used for demagnetization.
_______ 8. Nonmagnetic materials can be inspected with the magnetic particle

method, but they cannot be demagnetized properly.
_______ 9. The magnetic particle method will detect only discontinuities that are
completely open to the surface.
_______ 10. To achieve maximum mobility, the magnetic particle should be long and
jagged and have a low permeability.
_______ 11. The black light used in the magnetic particle method will not damage the
eyes as long as the filter is properly in place.
_______ 12. Parts that have a polished surface should probably not be inspected with
prods because of the danger of arc burns.
_______ 13. Precautions must be taken never to touch the prods during a magnetic
particle inspection because the high amperage will instantly electrocute the
operator.
_______ 14. The settling test is used in the wet magnetic particle method to determine
the strength of both fluorescent and nonfluorescent particles.
_______ 15. When a black light is used, it must be allowed to warm up for about five
minutes before being used.

CHAPTER SEVEN
MAGNETIC PARTICLE APPLICATIONS APLIKASI PARTIKEL MAGNET
Prior to discussing the applications, some Sebelum mendiskusikan aplikasinya, beberapa
previously mentioned principles are recapped prinsip yang telah disebutkan sebelumnya dapat
below. diringkas sebagai berikut.
Several different bases are used for classifying Beberapa perbedaan dasar dipakai untuk meng-
magnetizing methods: klasifikasikan metoda magnetisasi:
1. Whether or not the magnetizing force is 1. Apakah gaya magnetisasi tetap dipertahan-
maintained during the application of the kan selama aplikasi media. Hal ini
medium. This includes the residual and menyangkut metoda sisa dan menerus.
continuous methods.
2. The character of the field utilized for 2. Sifat dari medan magnet yang dipakai untuk
magnetization which includes the circular magnetisasi, dalam hal ini menyangkut
and longitudinal methods. metoda melingkar dan memanjang.
3. The type of magnetizing current used 3. Jenis arus magnetisasi yang dipakai, apakah
which may be either AC, DC, or HWDC. itu AC, DC, atau HWDC.
RESIDUAL METHOD METODA SISA

The medium is applied AFTER the specimen Media diaplikasikan SETELAH spesimen selesai
has been magnetized and the magnetizing dimagnetisasi dan gaya magnet dihilangkan.
force removed.
This method is NOT used on specimens that Metoda ini TIDAK dipakai pada benda-benda
have low retentivity. yang memiliki retentivitas rendah.
CONTINUOUS METHOD METODA MENERUS

Magnetizing operation is conducted Magnetisasi dilakukan BERSAMAAN dengan
SIMULTANEOUSLY with the application of the aplikasi serbuk kering atau suspensi basah.
dry powder or wet suspension.

CIRCULAR MAGNETIZATION PROCEDURES PROSEDUR MAGNETISASI MELINGKAR
Where it is necessary to pass a current through Apabila diperlukan untuk mengalirkan arus melalui
the specimen, care must be exercised to sebuah benda, harus diperhatikan untuk mence-
prevent arcing or overheating at the contact gah timbulnya bunga api atau panas berlebih pada
areas. daerah kontak.
All contact areas must be clean, and Semua daerah kontak harus bersih, dan
suitable head pressure must be exerted to gunakan tekanan yang sesuai untuk
insure uniform magnetization. memastikan magnetisasi yang merata.
LONGITUDINAL MAGNETIZATION PROSEDUR MAGNETISASI SECARA

PROCEDURES MEMANJANG
When a solenoid or coil is used to magnetize Jika sebuah solenoid atau kumparan dipakai untuk
the specimen, it should be no larger than memagnetisasi spesimen, arus yang dipakai
necessary to accommodate the specimen. sebaiknya tidak lebih besar dari yang diperlukan
untuk mengakomodasi spesimen tersebut
DIRECT CURRENT ARUS SEARAH

To obtain indications of discontinuities that may Untuk memperoleh indikasi diskontinuitas yang
be subsurface, direct current (DC) or halfwave letaknya di bawah permukaan, sebaiknya dipakai
rectified direct current (HWDC) should be used. arus DC atau HWDC.
ALTERNATING CURRENT ARUS BOLAK-BALIK

AC is used when the discontinuities are AC digunakan apabila diskontinuitas yang dicari
suspected to be on the surface of the letaknya pada permukaan benda.
specimen.
TESTING MEDIUM (POWDERS AND MEDIA PENGUJIAN (SERBUK DAN SUSPENSI)

SUSPENSIONS)
Dry powder is commonly used for testing Serbuk kering umumnya digunakan untuk penguji-
weldments where the prod method is employed an sambungan las yang memakai prods.
The powder is sprinkled on the surface while Serbuk ditaburkan pada permukaan benda
the magnetizing current is flowing. sementara arus magnetisasi dialirkan.
Liquid medium (NONFLUORESCENT) can be PARTIKEL BASAH (NONFLUORESCENT) dapat
used for both WET RESIDUAL and WET dipakai untuk metoda magnetisasi SISA dan
CONTINUOUS methods. MENERUS.
Liquid medium (FLUORESCENT) can also be PARTIKEL BASAH (FLUORESCENT) juga dapat
used with both WET RESIDUAL and WET digunakan untuk metoda magnetisasi SISA dan
CONTINUOUS methods. MENERUS.
The particles are coated with a fluorescent Partikel dilapisi dengan zat pewarna fluorescent
dye which, when inspected under a black yang jika diperiksa memakai sinar ultraviolet
light, fluoresce brilliantly. akan berpendar dengan cemerlang.
The bath strength can be checked by the Kekuatan cairan suspensi dapat diperiksa dengan
settling test described in Chapter Six. The uji endapan seperti dijelaskan dalam Bab Enam.
frequency of the test is determined by the Frekuensi pengujian ditentukan oleh tingkat
degree of bath usage with the strength usually penggunaan cairan, dengan konsentrasi yang
dependents upon the manufacturers biasanya bergantung pada spesifikasi pabrik
specifications. pembuat.

SURFACE PREPARATION PERSIAPAN PERMUKAAN
Prior to magnetic particle, the specimen should Sebelum pengujian partikel magnet, spesimen
be thoroughly cleaned. harus dibersihkan secara cermat.
Cleaning may involve removal of flake, slag, Pembersihan meliputi penghilangan serpihan-
heavy build-up of paint, rust, grease, or other serpihan, slag, lapisan cat tebal, karat, gemuk,
organic material that may interfere with the test atau material organik lainnya yang bisa
results. mengganggu hasil pengujian.
The smoother the surface and the more Makin halus kondisi pemukaan dan makin
uniform the color, the more favorable are the seragam warnanya, lebih menguntungkan kondisi
conditions for formation of a magnetic particle tersebut untuk pembentukan indikasi partikel
indication. magnet.
LOCATION OF DISCONTINUITIES LOKASI DISKONTINUITAS
Discontinuities can be located either on or Diskontinuitas dapat terletak pada atau di bawah
directly below the surface of the specimen. pemukaan spesimen.
Discontinuities located on the surface appear Diskontinuitas yang letaknya pada permukaan
as sharp, distinct lines, whereas, discontinuities tampak sebagai garis yang tajam dan nyata,
located below the surface appear as irregular, sebaliknya, diskontinuitas yang letaknya di bawah
rough, hazy indications. permukaan tampak sebagai indikasi yang tak
teratur, kasar, dan kabur.
DEMAGNETIZATION REQUIREMENTS PERSYARATAN DEMAGNETISASI
If a specimen is to be magnetized in two Jika sebuah spesimen dimagnetisasi dalam dua
directions, i.e. circular magnetization followed arah, yaitu magnetisasi melingkar yang diikuti
by longitudinal magnetization, the last applied magnetisasi memanjang, medan magnet yang
field will drive out the residual field from the diaplikasikan terakhir akan menumpuki medan
preceeding magnetization. magnet sisa dari magnetisasi sebelumnya.
However, this will happen only if the Hal ini hanya akan terjadi jika gaya magnetisasi
magnetizing force last applied is equal to or terakhir besarnya sama atau lebih dari medan
higher than the previous residual field. magnet sisa sebelum itu.
A field indicator is used after performing Indikator medan digunakan setelah melakukan
demagnetization on an article that has been demagnetisasi pada sebuah benda yang
longitudinally magnetized to determine if the dimagnetisasi secara memanjang untuk
field strength is reduces to the desired level. menentukan apakah kuat medan telah berkurang
ke tingkat yang diinginkan.
Large specimens can be found difficult to Spesimen berukuran besar sulit didemagnetisasi
demagnetize completely. Shifting the specimen secara sempurna. Memindahkan posisi spesimen
to align it in an east-west position from an ke arah timur-barat dari posisi awal utara-selatan
original north-south position facilitates demag- akan memudahkan demagnetisasi. Alasan
netization. The reason for this is the influence of melakukan hal ini adalah untuk mengurangi
the earth’s magnetic field. pengaruh dari medan magnet bumi.

APPLICATION OF MAGNETIC PARTICLE APLIKASI PROSEDUR PENGUJIAN PARTIKEL
TESTING PROCEDURES MAGNET
The remainder of this chapter contains typical Sisa dari bab ini membahas aplikasi dari pengujian
applications of magnetic particle testing. partikel magnet.
The magnetic particle technician must have a Teknisi pengujian partikel magnet harus memiliki
good understanding of the reasons for pengertian yang baik mengenai alasan penggu-
applying the different techniques to the same naan teknik-teknik yang berbeda untuk barang
part. yang sama.
It is even more important to be able to select Yang lebih penting lagi adalah agar mampu
the proper technique and procedure to obtain memilih teknik dan prosedur yang sesuai untuk
the best result. memperoleh hasil terbaik.


MAGNETIZATION OF A SOLID CYLINDRICAL MAGNETISASI SEBUAH SPESIMEN SILINDER
SPECIMEN PEJAL
What methods must be used to find all of the Metoda apakah yang harus digunakan untuk
discontinuities shown in the bar below? menemukan diskontinuitas pada batang berikut?
Head Shot (circular magnetization) – inspect for Head Shot (magnetisasi melingkar) – untuk
discontinuities showing a longitudinal indica- memeriksa diskontinuitas yang menghasilkan
tion. indikasi memanjang.
Coil Shot (longitudinal magnetization) – inspect Coil shot (magnetisasi memanjang) – untuk
for transverse indications. memeriksa indikasi melintang.

MAGNETIZATION OF A LARGE GEAR MAGNETISASI RODA GIGI BERUKURAN BESAR
What methods must be used to find all of the Metoda apakah yang harus dipakai untuk mene-
discontinuities in the gear below? mukan semua diskontinuitas pada roda gigi
berikut?
Head Shot (circular magnetization) with central Head Shot (magnetisasi melingkar) dengan central
conductor – inspect for discontinuities perpen- conductor – untuk memeriksa diskontinuitas yang
dicular to the circular field. tegak lurus arah medan magnet melingkar.
Head Shot (circular magnetization) using at Head Shot (magnetisasi melingkar) menggunakan
least two shots and turning the gear 90o. paling sedikit dua shot dan memutar roda gigi 90o.


MAGNETIZATION OF SHORT HOLLOW MAGNETISASI SILINDER PENDEK BERONGGA
CYLINDERS
What methods must be used to find the Metoda apakah yang harus dipakai untuk
discontinuities on the inside and outside of this menemukan diskontinuitas di bagian dalam dan
ring? luar ring ini?
Heat shot (circular magnetization) with central Head Shot (magnetisasi melingkar) memakai
conductor. central conductor.
If necessary the ring can also be magnetized Jika perlu, ring dapat juga dimagnetisasi dengan
by two head shots across the diameter or by dua kali shot melintang diameter, atau dengan
placing in a coil. meletakkannya di dalam sebuah kumparan.
This will produce a longitudinal field which will Hal ini akan menghasilkan medan magnet
detect discontinuities in the direction shown memanjang yang akan mendeteksi diskontinuitas
below. dalam arah seperti gambar di bawah.

MAGNETIZATION OF MULTIPLE-DIAMETER MAGNETISASI ARTIKEL DENGAN DIAMETER
ARTICLES BERVARIASI
What methods must be used to find the Metoda apakah yang harus digunakan untuk
discontinuities on the multiple-diameter shaft menemukan diskontinuitas pada poros dengan
below? diameter bervariasi seperti dalam gambar?
Head Shot (circular magnetization) using three Head shot (magnetisasi melingkar) menggunakan
steps. tiga langkah.
Coil Shot (longitudinal magnetization) using Coil Shot (magnetisasi memanjang) menggunakan
three steps. tiga langkah.

MAGNETIZATION OF HOLLOW CYLINDRICAL MAGNETISASI SPESIMEN SILINDER BERONGGA
SPECIMENS
What methods must be used to find the Metoda apakah yang harus dipakai untuk
discontinuities on the inside and outside of this menemukan diskontinuitas pada bagian dalam dan
cylinder? luar silinder?
Coil Shot (Longitudinal Magnetization) – Coil Shot (magnetisasi memanjang) – memeriksa

inspect for discontinuities showing transverse diskontinuitas yang memperlihatkan indikasi
indications on the inside and outside of the melintang pada permukaan bagian dalam dan luar
cylinder as shown below. silinder.
Head Shot (Circular Magnetization) with central Head Shot (magnetisasi melingkar) dengan central
conductor – inspect for longitudinal disconti- conductor - memeriksa diskontinuitas longitudinal
nuities on the inside and outside of the cylinder pada permukaan bagian dalam dan luar silinder
as shown below. seperti dalam gambar di bawah ini.

MAGNETIZATION OF IRREGULARLY SHAPED MAGNETISASI SPESIMEN DENGAN BENTUK TAK
SPECIMENS BERATURAN
Each specimen must be thoroughly analyzed to Tiap-tiap spesimen harus dianalisa secara menye-
determine which methods will be necessary to luruh guna menentukan metoda yang sesuai untuk
find discontinuities in all directions. menemukan diskontinuitas di semua arah.
The part shown below requires the use of a Benda dalam gambar mensyaratkan penggunaan
central conductor, head shots, and coil. central conductor, head shot, dan kumparan.

MAGNETIZATION OF SPRINGS MAGNETISASI PEGAS

MAGNETIZATION OF LARGE WELDMENTS MAGNETISASI SAMBUNGAN LAS ATAU BENDA
OR CASTING COR BERUKURAN BESAR
Circular magnetization of large specimens is Magnetisasi melingkar untuk sebuah spesimen
usually accomplished with the use of prods. berukuran besar biasanya dilakukan dengan
memakai prods.
Longitudinal magnetization of large specimens Magnetisasi longitudinal untuk sebuah spesimen
is usually done with either a yoke or by wrap- berukuran besar biasanya dilakukan dengan yoke
ping the part with the cables. atau meliliti benda dengan kabel.
The weldment shown below requires a criss- Sambungan las yang ditunjukkan di bawah ini
crossed pattern in applying the magnetizing mensyaratkan aplikasi arus magnetisasi memakai
current with prods to insure 100 percent prods secara selang-seling untuk menjamin
coverage of discontinuities. cakupan diskontinuitas sebesar 100%.

The large shaft shown below requires the Poros pada gambar di bawah ini mensyaratkan
cables to be wrapped at two different locations kabel yang dililitkan pada dua lokasi berbeda untuk
to insure 100 percent coverage. However, memperoleh cakupan pemeriksaan 100%. Namun
longitudinal discontinuities will not be detected demikian, diskontinuitas memanjang tidak akan
with this method. terdeteksi dengan cara ini.

CHAPTER SEVEN
REVIEW
_______ 1. Because it is changing directions, alternating current is the best choice
when attempting to locate discontinuities that are below the surface.
_______ 2. Parts damaged due to arcing may be the result of insufficient pressure on
the part during a head shot.
_______ 3. When a longitudinal magnetization procedure is called for, a solenoid or coil

will usually be used.
_______ 4. Because the magnetic field is external on a part that has been longitudinally
magnetized, a field indicator is commonly used to determine the extent of
demagnetization.
_______ 5. Demagnetization can be accomplished by placing a part in a DC coil and

slowly reducing the amperage.
_______ 6. It is difficult to detect if a longitudinally magnetized part is still magnetized.
_______ 7. In the residual method, the medium (magnetic powder) is applied after the
part has been magnetized and the magnetizing force removed.
_______ 8. When using a dry powder with the prod method, the medium is sprinkled
on with the magnetizing current flowing.
Which of the following methods would you select to provide the best technique on this high
tolerance machined part, with the discontinuities as shown below. (Methods may be used
more than once )
A. Longitudinal field between heads.

B. Longitudinal field in a coil.
C. Circular field between heads.
D. Circular field with a central conductor.
E. Prods using alternating current.
_______ 9.
_______ 10.
_______ 11.
_______ 12.
_______ 13.

CHAPTER EIGHT
This chapter discusses types of discontinuities Bab ini mendiskusikan jenis-jenis diskontinuitas
that can be evaluated with the magnetic yang dapat dievaluasi menggunakan metoda
particle method. partikel magnet.
CATEGORIES OF DISCONTINUITIES KATAGORI DISKONTINUITAS
Discontinuities can be divided into THREE Diskontinuitas dapat dibagi menjadi TIGA katagori
general categories: inherent, processing, and umum: bawaan, proses, dan servis.
service.
1. Inherent. 1. Bawaan.
They are usually related to discontinuities Biasanya berhubungan dengan diskonti-
found in the molten metal. nuitas yang ditemukan dalam logam cair.
Inherent wrought discontinuities relate to Diskontinuitas wrought bawaan berhubungan
the melting and solidification of the dengan peleburan dan pembekuan ingot
original ingot before it is formed into sebelum dibentuk menjadi slabs, bloom, dan
slabs, blooms, and billets. billet.
Inherent cast discontinuities relate to the Diskontinuitas tuangan bawaan berhubu-
melting, casting, and solidification of a ngan dengan peleburan, pengecoran, dan
cast article. Usually caused by inherent pembekuan benda cor. Biasanya disebab-
variables such as inadequate feeding, kan karena variabel bawaan seperti kurang
gating, excessive pouring temperature, pengisian, gating, suhu tuang berlebihan,
and entrapped gases. dan gas yang terperangkap.
2. Processing discontinuities. 2. Diskontinuitas Proses.
They are usually related to the various Biasanya berhubungan dengan aneka
manufacturing processes such as machi- proses manufaktur seperti permesinan,
ning, forming, extruding, rolling, welding, pembentukan, extruding, pengerolan,
heat treating, and plating. pengelasan, laku panas, dan pelapisan.
3. Service discontinuities. 3. Diskontinuitas Servis.
They are related to the various service Berhubungan dengan aneka kondisi
conditions such as stress corrosion, pengoperasian seperti korosi tegangan,
fatigue, and erosion. kelelahan, dan erosi.
During the manufacturing process, many Selama proses manufaktur, banyak diskontinuitas
discontinuities that were subsurface (and not yang tadinya berada di bawah permukaan (dan
detectable by magnetic particle inspection) will tidak terdeteksi memakai pemeriksaan partikel
be made open to the surface by machining, magnet) menjadi membuka ke permukaan karena
grinding, and the like. permesinan, penggerindaan, dan sejenisnya.
Remember that discontinuities are not Ingat bahwa diskontinuitas belum tentu cacat.
necessarily defects. Any indication that is found Sembarang indikasi yang ditemukan oleh inspektor
by the inspector is called a discontinuity until it dinamakan sebagai diskontinuitas hingga dikenali
can be identified and evaluated as to the effect dan dievaluasi pengaruhnya terhadap pengopera-
it will have on the service of the part. sian komponen.


CLASSIFICATION OF MAGNETIC PARTICLE PENGELOMPOKAN DISKONTINUITAS PARTIKEL
DISCONTINUITIES MAGNET
The greatest aid in interpretation is a Alat bantu terbaik dalam menginterpretasi indikasi
knowledge of what is likely to be present in any adalah pengetahuan mengenai apa yang mungkin
given instance. terjadi dalam suatu kejadian.
Knowing the history of a part, what it is made of Mengetahui sejarah sebuah benda, terbuat dari
and what processes it has been through; all bahan apa dan proses apa dilakukan padanya;
form important considerations. semuanya merupakan masukan penting.
Every magnetic particle pattern produced is Setiap pola partikel magnet yang dihasilkan adalah
due to some magnetic disturbance set up in a akibat gangguan magnetis di daerah kebocoran
leakage field. The inspector must be able to medan. Inspektor harus mampu menentukan
determine whether there is a serious crack, or apakah terdapat retak yang serius, atau hanya
some insignificant or unimportant nonrelevant indikasi nonrelevant yang tidak begitu penting.
indication.
Surface indications produce sharp, distinct, Indikasi permukaan menghasilkan pola yang
clean-cut, and tightly held indication patterns. tajam, nyata, jelas, dan melekat.
Subsurface indications tend to produce Indikasi bawah permukaan cenderung
indications which are less distinct, forming menghasilkan pola yang kurang nyata, tersebar,
diffused, or fuzzy patterns. dan kabur.
NONRELEVANT INDICATIONS INDIKASI NONRELEVANT

This is a group of nonrelevant magnetic Merupakan kelompok gangguan magnetis
disturbance NOT due to discontinuities or nonrelevant yang BUKAN akibat adanya
actual breaks in the metal. diskontinuitas atau kepecahan pada logam.
A common nonrelevant indication could be Indikasi nonrelevant umumnya dapat diaki-
caused by a constriction in a metal through batkan oleh penahanan di dalam logam dimana
which lines of force must pass, such as the garis-garis gaya harus melewatinya, seperti
shaft with keyway shown below. poros yang ada alurnya ( lihat gambar).
Nonrelevant indications can be caused by Indikasi nonrelevant dapat disebabkan karena
the following: hal-hal berikut:
1. Excessive magnetizing current. 1. Arus magnetisasi yang berlebihan.
2. Structural design of the article.
2. Disain struktur benda tersebut.
3. Variance of permeability within the
article. 3. Perbedaan permeabilitas di dalam benda.

Overmagnetization could cause a nonrelevant Overmagnetisasi dapat mengakibatkan indikasi
indication due to the leakage field attracting nonrelevant karena kebocoran medan menarik
particles as shown below. partikel magnet seperti dalam gambar di bawah.
Excessive magnetization can also cause Magnetisasi berlebih dapat juga mengakibatkan
nonrelevant indications on a simple square indikasi nonrelevant pada benda kotak sederhana
object as shown on the circularly magnetized yang dimagnetisasi secara memanjang seperti
part below. dalam gambar di bawah.
Abrupt change of section thickness of a Perubahan ketebalan penampang yang drastis dari
longitudinally magnetized part will cause flux sebuah benda yang dimagnetisasi secara meman-
leakage where the lines of force leave or enter jang akan menyebabkan kebocoran medan di tem-
the part, causing nonrelevant indications. pat garis-garis gaya meninggalkan atau memasuki
benda, menimbulkan indikasi nonrelevant.

Permeability differences in the part can also Perbedaan permeabilitas pada benda juga dapat
cause nonrelevant indications. Cold working a mengakibatkan indikasi nonrelevant. Pengerjaan
metal can change the permeability. dingin logam dapat mengubah permeabilitasnya.
Example: bending and straightening a nail Contoh: pembengkokan dan pelurusan sebuah
will cause the metal to become hard at the paku akan mengakibatkan logam menjadi keras
point of bending. When the nail is pada lokasi pembengkokan. Jika paku ini
mgnetized, there will be a flux leakage dimagnetisasi, akan terjadi kebocoran medan di
where the permeability is changed. (see daerah dimana permeabilitas berubah. (lihat
below) gambar di bawah ini)
A nonrelevant indication would also appear Indikasi nonrelevant juga akan muncul di sekeli-
across the shank of a cold chisel where the ling pahat pada ujung daerah yang dilaku
heat-treated portion ends and the soft shank panaskan (batas antara bagian lunak dan
begins. (see below) keras).
Nonrelevant indications would appear where Indikasi nonrelevant akan muncul pada tempat
lines of force leave or enter the article. In this garis-garis gaya magnet meninggalkan atau
case, lines of force are also leaving and memasuki benda. Dalam kasus ini, garis-garis
entering the article at the abrupt change of gaya meninggalkan dan memasuki benda pada
section thickness in the article. ketebalan penampang yang berubah drastis.
As a result, leakage fields would be formed, Sebagai hasilnya, kebocoran medan akan
and nonrelevant indications would appear at terbentuk, dan indikasi nonrelevant akan muncul
the following points. pada lokasi-lokasi berikut ini.

Problems in identifying nonrelevant indications Masalah dalam mengidentifikasi indikasi
can be reduced if the operator remembers that: nonrelevant dapat dikurangi jika operator
mengingat bahwa:
1. They can be identified by a fuzzy, rather 1. Mereka dapat diidentifikasi sebagai indikasi
than a sharp indication. yang samar, daripada indikasi yang tajam.
2. They are usually associated with some 2. Mereka biasanya berhubungan dengan
features of construction like a keyway or beberapa fitur konstruksi seperti alur atau
sharp corner. pojok tajam.
3. They are usually uniform in direction and 3. Mereka biasanya seragam dalam arah dan
size. ukuran.
FALSE INDICATIONS INDIKASI PALSU

False indications are caused when particles are Indikasi palsu disebabkan jika partikel terkumpul
accumulated and held mechanically or by dan tertahan secara mekanis atau gravitasi. Jika
gravity. If the part has a rough surface, this may benda memiliki permukaan kasar, ini akan
cause false indications. mengakibatkan indikasi palsu.


CLASSIFICATION OF DISCONTINUITIES BY KLASIFIKASI DISKONTINUITAS MENURUT
ORIGIN ASALNYA
Inherent discontinuities related to the original Diskontinuitas bawaan berhubungan dengan
melting and solidification of the metal in ingot pencairan dan pembekuan logam di dalam ingot
or in casting. atau saat pengecoran.
Typical discontinuities found in the ingot are Jenis diskontinuitas yang terdapat dalam ingot
inclusions, blowholes, pipe, and segregations. adalah inklusi, lubang tiup, pipe, dan segregasi.
1. Porosity – caused by entrapped gas in 1. Porositas – disebabkan oleh gas-gas yang
the molten metal. terperangkap di dalam logam cair.
2. Nonmetallic inclusions – caused by 2. Inklusi Nonlogam – disebabkan karena
impurities accidentally included in the ketidakmurnian yang tanpa sengaja terjadi
molten metal. dalam logam cair.
3. Pipe – caused by shrinkage at the center 3. Pipa – disebabkan karena penyusutan pada
of the ingot as the molten metal solidifies. bagian tengah ingot selama pembekuan.
4. Segregations – occurs when the 4. Segregasi – terjadi karena ketidakseragaman
distribution of the various elements is not distribusi aneka elemen di dalam ingot.
uniform throughout the ingot. This Kondisi ini dimanakan “banding” dan
condition is called “banding” and is not dianggap tidak begitu berarti.
usually significant.
The “hot top” is usually cropped off to remove Bagian “hot top” biasanya dipotong untuk menghi-
most of the above discontinuities. langkan sebagian besar diskontinuitas di atas.

CASTING DISCONTINUITIES DISKONTINUITAS TUANGAN
Typical inherent discontinuities found in Jenis diskontinuitas bawaan yang terdapat dalam
castings are cold shuts, hot tears, shrinkage bahan cor-coran adalah cold shut, sobek panas,
cavities, microshrinkage, blowholes, and rongga susut, susut mikro, lubang tiup, dan
porosity. porositas.
A COLD SHUT is caused when molten metal is COLD SHUT terjadi jika ada logam cair
poured over solidified metal as shown below. menumpuki logam yang sudah membeku.
When the metal is poured, it hits the mold Saat logam cair dituangkan dan membentur
too hard and spatters small drops of metal. dinding cetakan terlalu keras akan terjadi
When these drops of metal hit higher up on percikan logam cair. Jika percikan ini mengenai
the mold, they stick and solidify. When the dinding cetakan, dia akan lengket dan
rising molten metal reaches and covers the membeku. Apabila logam cair menutupi
solidified drops of metal, a crack-like percikan beku tersebut, terbentuk diskontinuitas
discontinuity is formed. yang menyerupai retakan.
HOT TEARS (SHRINKAGE CRACKS) occurs SOBEK PANAS (RETAK SUSUT) terjadi apabila
when there is unequal shrinkage between light terjadi penyusutan yang tidak merata antara
and heavy sections as shown below. bagian ringan dan berat seperti dalam gambar.
In a casting having light and heavy sections, Pada benda cor, makin ringan suatu bagian
the light sections, being smaller, solidify maka makin cepat pembekuan dan penyusu-
faster; they shrink faster pulling the heavier tannya, yang akan menarik bagian berat yang
sections, which are hotter and not shrinking lebih panas dan lebih lambat penyusutannya
as fast, toward the light sections. dibandingkan bagian tipis.

SHRINKAGE CAVITIES occur when there is RONGGA SUSUT terjadi jika volume logam cair
insufficient molten metal to fill the space tidak cukup mengisi rongga akibat penyusutan,
created by shrinkage, just as pipe is formed in sama seperti halnya pipe yang terbentuk di dalam
an ingot. ingot.
GATE
(ENTRANCE FOR
MOLTEN METAL)
Shrinkage cavities can be eliminated, or the Rongga susut dapat dicegah atau dikurangi
possibility of shrinkage cavities can be kemungkinan terjadinya dengan menambahkan
greatly reduced, by adding a feeder head or corong pengisian seperti dalam gambar kanan
reservoir as shown above on the right. atas.
MICROSHRINKAGE is usually many small SUSUT MIKRO biasanya berupa lubang-lubang
subsurface holes that appear at the gate of the kecil di bawah permukaan yang muncul pada gate
casting caused by premature blocking of the akibat penyumbatan gate sebelum pengisian
gate. selesai seluruhnya.
Microshrinkage can also occur when the Susut mikro dapat juga disebabkan ketika
molten metal must flow from a thin section logam cair harus mengalir dari bagian tipis ke
into a thicker section of a casting. bagian yang lebih tebal di dalam cetakan.
BLOW HOLES are small holes at the surface of LUBANG TIUP adalah lubang-lubang kecil pada
the casting caused by gas which comes from permukaan benda cor akibat gas-gas yang berasal
the mold itself. Many molds are made of sand, dari dinding cetakan. Banyak cetakan yang dibuat
and when molten metal comes into contact dari pasir, dan saat logam cair bersentuhan
with the mold, the water in the sand is released dengannya kelembaban yang terkandung dalam
as steam. pasir berubah menjadi uap air.
POROSITY is caused by entrapped gas. POROSITAS disebabkan karena gas-gas yang
Porosity is usually subsurface but can occur on terperangkap. Porositas biasanya di bawah
the surface depending on the design of the permukaan namun dapat pula terjadi di
mold. permukaan, tergantung pada disain cetakan.

PROCESSING DISCONTINUITIES DISKONTINUITAS PROSES
Processing discontinuities are those found or Diskontinuitas proses ditemukan atau dihasilkan
produced by forming or fabrication operations saat pembentukan atau operasi fabrikasi, termasuk
including rolling, forging, welding, machining, pengerolan, penempaan, pengelasan, permesinan,
grinding, and heat treating. penggerindaan, dan perlakuan panas.
When an ingot is further processed into slabs, Ketika ingot diproses lebih lanjut menjadi slabs,
blooms, and billets, it is possible for the blooms, dan billets, diskontinuitas bisa berubah
discontinuities to change size and shape. ukuran dan bentuk.
As a billet is flattened and spread out, Saat billet diratakan dan digepengkan, inklusi
nonmetallic inclusions may cause a lamination. nonlogam dapat menyebabkan laminasi. Pipa dan
Pipe, and porosity could also cause porositas juga dapat menyebabkan laminasi
laminations in the same manner as shown dengan cara yang sama seperti dalam gambar di
below. bawah ini.
As a billet is rolled into bar stock, nonmetallic Saat billet dirol menjadi batang tongkat, inklusi
inclusions are squeezed out into longer and nonlogam tertekan menjadi diskontinuitas yang
thinner discontinuities called stringers. panjang dan tipis dinamakan stringers.
A nonmetallic inclusion in bar stock extends in Inklusi nonlogam dalam batang tongkat menyebar
the direction of grain formation. As the billet is ke arah pembentukan butiran. Saat billet dirol
rolled smaller around and longer, the stringer semakin kecil dan panjang, stringer juga menjadi
also becomes smaller around and longer. lebih kecil dan panjang.

As a billet is rolled into round bar stock, surface Saat billet dirol menjadi batang tongkat, ketidak-
irregularities may cause SEAMS. Seams are teraturan permukaan bisa mengakibatkan seams.
caused by folding of metal due to improper Seams terjadi akibat lipatan logam karena
rolling or by a crack in the billet as shown pengerolan yang salah atau karena retakan pada
below. billet seperti dalam gambar berikut.
A seam could also occur when the billet is Seam juga bisa terjadi saat billet dibentuk menjadi
formed into a rectangular bar as shown below. batang kotak seperti berikut.

GRINDING CRACK are a processing-type RETAK GERINDA adalah diskontinuitas proses,
discontinuity caused by stresses which are built disebabkan karena tegangan yang terjadi akibat
up from excess heat created between grinding panas berlebih yang ditimbulkan antara mata
wheel and metal. gerinda dan logam.
Grinding cracks will usually occur at right angle Retak gerinda biasanya akan terjadi pada arah
to the rotation of the grinding wheel. tegak lurus terhadap arah putar mata gerinda.
HEAT TREAT CRACKS are often caused by the RETAK LAKU PANAS seringkali disebabkan tega-
stresses built up during heating and cooling. ngan yang terjadi selama pemanasan dan pendi-
Unequal cooling between light and heavy nginan. Laju pendinginan yang tidak sama antara
sections may cause heat treat cracks. bagian ringan dan berat bisa menyebabkan retak.
Heat treat cracks have no specific direction Retak laku panas tidak mempunyai arah
and usually start at sharp corners which act tertentu, dan biasanya bermula dari pojok-pojok
as stress concentration points. tajam yang bertindak sebagai titik konsentrasi
tegangan.
During inspection of heat treated parts, the first Selama pemeriksaan komponen yang dilaku
areas of concern will be: panas, daerah pertama yang menjadi perhatian:
• Any sharp area, such as corner, ridges, • Daerah tajam seperti pojok-pojok,
etc. permukaan kasar, takik, dll.
• Junction of light and heavy sections. • Pertemuan antara bagian ringan dan berat.
The photo below shows a part that has cracked Foto di bawah ini memperlihatkan komponen yang
from heat treatment. Notice that the crack cuts retak akibat perlakuan panas. Perhatikan bahwa
across the grain. Since heat treatment cracks retak tersebut melintang terhadap butiran logam.
have no specific direction, the crack might just Karena retak laku panas tidak memiliki arah ter-
as well have followed the grain. tentu, arahnya bisa juga mengikuti butiran logam.

FORGING DISCONTINUITIES DISKONTINUITAS TEMPAAN
Forging discontinuities occur when metal is Diskontinuitas tempaan terjadi saat logam dipukul
hammered or pressed into shape, usually while atau ditekan menjadi bentuk tertentu, biasanya
the metal is very hot. ketika logam dalam kondisi sangat panas.
A forged part gains strength due to the grain Benda tempa memperoleh kekuatan akibat
flow taking the shape of the die, and the aliran butiran yang berlangsung ke semua arah
process is shown below. mengikuti bentuk cetakan seperti gambar.
A FORGING BURST is a rupture caused by PECAH TEMPA adalah kepecahan yang disebab-
forging at improper temperatures. Forging kan karena suhu penempaan yang salah. Penem-
metal at too low temperature may cause burst. paan logam pada suhu terlalu rendah mengaki-
Burst may be either internal or open to the batkan kepecahan. Pecah tempa bisa berada di
surface a shown below. dalam, maupun membuka ke permukaan.
Improper temperatures caused these parts Suhu tempa yang terlalu rendah mengakibatkan
to break as the material was being shaped komponen tersebut pecah saat ditempa. Logam
by forging. The metal was not hot enough tidak cukup panas sehingga tidak terjadi aliran
and did not want to flow with the forging. saat ditempa. Saat ditekan pada waktu
When squeezed by the heavy forging press, penempaan, logam akan pecah di bagian
the metal in the center simply ruptured. tengahnya.

A FORGING LAP is caused by folding of metal LIPATAN TEMPA disebabkan lipatan logam pada
on the surface of the forging, usually when permukaan benda tempa, terjadi karena logam
some of the forging metal is squezeed out terjepit antara cetakan bagian atas dan bawah
between the two dies that do not match. yang tidak lurus.
Forging laps can also be caused by poor Lipatan tempa dapat juga disebabkan disain
die design. As the metal is pressed into the cetakan yang keliru. Saat logam ditekan di
cavity in this die, the metal is forced up at dalam rongga cetakan, logam dipaksa meme-
the bottom of the die and tends to fold over nuhi cetakan dan cenderung terlipat ke arahnya
on itself, forming the forging lap shown on sendiri membentuk lipatan tempa seperti dalam
the right. gambar kanan bawah.

WELDING DISCONTINUITIES below are types DISKONTINUITAS PENGELASAN dibawah ini
of processing discontinuities. termasuk ke dalam diskontinuitas proses.
Crater cracks Retak kawah
Stress cracks Retak tegang
Porosity Porositas
Slag Inclusion Inklusi Slag

Tungsten Inclusion Inklusi Tungsten
Lack of Penetration Kurang Penembusan
Lack of Fusion Kurang Peleburan
Undercut Undercut

SERVICE DISCONTINUITIES DISKONTINUITAS SERVIS
FATIGUE CRACKS are service-type disconti- RETAK FATIK merupakan diskontinuitas servis
nuities that are usually open to the surface yang biasanya membuka ke permukaan dimana
where they start from concentration points. mulainya dari titik-titik konsentrasi tegangan.
Fatigue cracks occur crosswise to the Arah perambatan retak fatik melintang terhadap
direction of strees movement. The stress on arah tegangan. Arah tegangan yang bekerja
the driven shaft below would have been pada poros penggerak di bawah ini searah
clockwise – the direction of its rotation. The jarum jam – yaitu arah putaran poros. Retak
fatigue crack occured across the direction of fatik yang timbul arahnya melintang terhadap
stress movement. arah tegangan.
Fatigue cracks are possible only after the Retak fatik hanya mungkin timbul setelah
part is placed into service, but may be the komponen menjalankan fungsinya, dan bisa
result of porosity, inclusions, or other disebabkan karena porositas, inklusi, atau
discontinuities in a highly stressed metal diskontinuitas lain pada bagian logam yang
part. konsentrasi tegangannya tinggi.

PRESERVATION OF INDICATIONS PENGAWETAN INDIKASI
It is often desirable to preserve magnetic Seringkali diinginkan untuk mengawetkan indikasi
particle indications for future reference. There partikel magnet untuk referensi di masa yang akan
are several methods used to accomplish this datang. Ada beberapa metoda yang digunakan
purpose. untuk melakukan tujuan ini.
1. Lacquer technique 1. Teknik Pernis
This technique requires the indication to Teknik ini mensyaratkan penyemprotan
be sprayed with a clear lacquer and later pernis transparan ke permukaan indikasi dan
photographed. selanjutnya difoto.
2. Transparent tape transfer 2. Pemindahan dengan selotip transparan
This is commonly used technique to lift Teknik ini umum digunakan untuk mengang-
the indication from the part. The tape can kat indikasi dari permukaan benda. Selotip
be photographed or placed directly into a selanjutnya dapat difoto atau disertakan di
permanent record book. This method dalam laporan permanen. Metoda ini cocok
works satisfactorily with dry particle type. digunakan dengan partikel kering
3. Direct photography 3. Fotografi
This technique is used to record the Teknik ini digunakan untuk merekam indikasi
indication immediately after performing segera setelah pengujian dilakukan.
the test.
4. Magnetic rubber 4. Karet magnetis
Magnetic rubber inspection is the name Pemeriksaan karet magnetis adalah nama
given to a test technique developed to yang diberikan pada sebuah teknik pengu-
look for discontinuities in holes, recesses, jian yang dikembangkan untuk menemukan
and other hard-to-get-to places. It utilizes diskontinuitas dalam lubang, cekungan, dan
a room-temperature-curing liquid rubber tempat yang sulit dijangkau. Teknik ini
containing magnetic particles in memakai karet cair yang mengandung sus-
suspension. pensi partikel magnet yang membeku pada
suhu ruang.
The rubber is allowed to harden on the Karet tersebut dibiarkan mengeras pada
part after the magnetic field has arrange benda setelah medan magnet mengatur
the magnetic particles. partikel magnet.


CHAPTER EIGHT
REVIEW
_______ 1. Inherent discontinuities are considered to be those formed when the metal
is in a molten condition.
_______ 2. Discontinuities involving fatigue are often considered critical and are referred
to as a processing type discontinuity,
_______ 3. Discontinuities and defects are terms that are considered to have the same
meaning in magnetic particle testing.
_______ 4. Knowing the history of a part is usually considered important in selecting the
test method and knowing the type of discontinuity to look for.
_______ 5. A false indication and a nonrelevant indication are considered to have the
same meaning in magnetic particle testing.
_______ 6. Excessive magnetization is a typical cause for the formation of a false

indication.
_______ 7. A nonrelevant indication could be caused where a specific area on the part
has a permeability change due to heat treatment.
_______ 8. Stringers and laminations could be found in a finished product because of

nonmetallic inclusions in the original ingot.
_______ 9. Hot tears and shrinkage cracks are often the result of metal cooling too
rapidly in the ingot stage.
_______ 10. Porosity is caused by gas which is trapped in the molten metal as it
solidifies.
_______ 11. Laps and bursts are examples of processing type discontinuities.
_______ 12. The magnetic particle method is excellent for finding slag inclusion in
weldments.
_______ 13. Grinding cracks are often caused by the stresses created by the excessive
heating of the metal surface.
_______ 14. It is possible to preserve magnetic particle indications by several methods

including ones that utilize lacquer and rubber.
_______ 15. Transparent tape is often used to preserve magnetic particle indications by
lifting the particles out of the crack before the part is magnetized.
_______ 16. Lack of fusion between passes in a weldment is easily detected with the
magnetic particle method.

CHAPTER NINE
It should be obvious that magnetic particle Perlu ditekankan bahwa pemeriksaan partikel mag-
inspection is NOT the best method in all cases. net BUKAN metoda terbaik untuk semua kasus.
The selection of one testing method over Pemilihan satu metoda pengujian atas metoda
another is based upon variables such as: lainnya didasarkan pada variabel-variabel seperti:
1. Type and origin of discontinuity. 1. Jenis dan asal diskontinuitas.
2. Material manufacturing process. 2. Proses pembuatan material.
3. Accessibility of article. 3. Akses ke artikel.
4. Level of acceptability desired. 4. Tingkat keberterimaan yang diinginkan.
5. Equipment available. 5. Ketersediaan peralatan.
6. Cost. 6. Biaya.
IDENTIFICATION AND COMPARISON OF PENGENALAN DAN PEMBANDINGAN

DISCONTINUITIES DISKONTINUITAS
Each of the specific discontinuities below are Tiap jenis diskontinuitas di bawah ini dibagi
divided into three general categories: menjadi tiga katagori umum: BAWAAN, PROSES,
INHERENT, PROCESSING, and SERVICE. dan SERVIS.
Burst Pecah
Cold shut Cold shut
Fillet crack Retak fillet
Grinding crack Retak gerinda
Heat-affected zone cracking Retak daerah pengaruh panas
Heat-treat crack Retak laku panas
Shrinkage crack Retak susut
Hydrogen flake Hydrogen flake
Inclusions Inklusi
Lack of penetration Kurang penembusan
Lamination Laminasi
Laps and seams Lipatan dan lapisan
Laps and seams Lipatan dan lapisan
Hot tears Sobek panas

TRAINING AND CERTIFICATION PELATIHAN DAN SERTIFIKASI
It is important that the technician and super- Adalah penting bahwa teknisi dan pengawas
visor be qualified in the magnetic particle dikualifikasi untuk metoda partikel magnet sebe-
method before the technique is used and test lum menggunakan teknik ini dan mengevaluasi
results evaluated. hasil uji.
The American Society for Nondestructive ASNT merekomendasikan penggunaan dokumen
Testing recommends the use of its document Recommended Practice No. SNT-TC-1A.
Recommended Practice No. SNT-TC-1A.
This document provides the employer with Dokumen tersebut memberikan pedoman bagi
necessary guidelines to properly qualify and perusahaan dalam mengkualifikasi dan menser-
certify the NDT technician in all methods. tifikasi teknisi NDT untuk semua metoda.
To comply with this document, the employer Dalam rangka mengikuti dokumen tersebut,
must establish a WRITTEN PRACTICE which perusahaan harus menyusun sebuah WRITTEN
describes in detail how the technician will be PRACTICE yang menjelaskan secara detil, cara
trained, examined, and certified. melatih, menguji dan mensertifiksi teknisi NDT.
The student is advised to study the 2006 Peserta disarankan untuk mempelajari dokumen
Edition of SNT-TC-1A to determine the SNT-TC-1A edisi 2006 untuk mengetahui jumlah
recommended number of hours of class- jam pelajaran yang direkomendasikan dan
room instruction and months of experience pengalaman (dalam bulan) yang diperlukan
necessary to be certified as a magnetic dalam proses sertifikasi sebagai teknisi
particle testing technician. pengujian partikel magnet.
Certification of NDT personnel is the responsi- Sertifikasi personil NDT merupakan tanggung
bility of the employer and is usually at THREE jawab perusahaan dan biasanya dibagi menjadi
levels. TIGA level.
Level I – is qualified to properly perform Level I – memiliki kualifikasi untuk melakukan
specific calibrations, specific NDT, kalibrasi, NDT, dan evaluasi tertentu
and specific evaluations for untuk menentukan penerimaan atau
acceptance or rejection penolakan dengan mengacu pada
determinations according to written pedoman tertulis, dan untuk merekam
instructions and to record results. hasil. Menerima perintah dan
Should receive the necessary pengawasan seperlunya dari NDT level II
instruction and supervision from a atau III.
certified NDT Level II or III individual.
Level II – is qualified to set up and calibrate Level II – memiliki kualifikasi untuk mengatur dan
equipment and to interpret and mengkalibrasi peralatan dan mengiter-
evaluate results with respect to pretasi serta mengevaluasi hasil dengan
applicable codes, standards, and mengacu pada code, standard, dan
specifications. Should be thoroughly spesifikasi yang berlaku. Mengenal
familiar with the scope and limi- dengan baik lingkup dan batasan
tations of the methods for which metoda dimana ia terkualifikasi.
qualified. Should exercise assigned Melakukan tanggung jawab yang
responsibility for on-the-job training dibebankan untuk memberi-kan
and guidance of trainees and NDT petunjuk kepada siswa dan NDT Level I.
Level I personnel. Should be able to Mampu mengorganisir dan membuat
organize and report the results of laporan hasil pengujian NDT.
NDT tests.

Level III – Should be capable of developing, Level III – mampu mengembangkan, mengkualifi-
qualifying, and approving proce- kasi, dan menyetujui prosedur, menyu-
dures, establishing and approving sun dan menyetujui teknik, menginter-
techniques, interpreting codes, stan- pretasi code, standard, dan prosedur;
dards, specifications, and proce- dan menunjuk metoda NDT tertentu,
dures; and designating the particular teknik, dan prosedur yang akan diguna-
NDT methods, techniques, and kan. Mampu menginterpretasi dan
procedures to be used. Should be mengevaluasi hasil sesuai code,
capable of interpreting and eva- standard, dan spesifikasi yang ada.
luating results in terms of existing Memiliki latar belakang kemampuan
codes, standards, and specifica- praktis yang mencukupi dalam aplikasi
tions. Should have sufficient practical material, fabrikasi, dan teknologi
background in applicable materials, produksi yang berlaku untuk menyusun
fabrication, and product technology teknik dan untuk membantu dalam
to establish techniques and to assist menetapkan kriteria penerimaan dimana
in establishing acceptance criteria tidak tercakup dalam code, standard,
when none are otherwise available. atau spesifikasi yang ada. Memiliki
Should have general familiarity with pengetahuan tentang semua metoda
other appropriate NDT methods. NDT. Mampu mengadakan pelatihan
Should be capable of training and dan pengujian terhadap personil NDT
examining NDT Level I and II Level I dan II untuk disertifikasi pada
personnel for certification in those metode NDT tertentu.
methods.
The SNT-TC-1A document recommends that Dokumen nomer SNT-TC-1A merekomendasikan

the level I and II NDT technician be examined in bahwa teknisi NDT Level I dan II diuji dalam bidang
the following areas: berikut:
A. General examination. A. Ujian General.
B. Specific examination. B. Ujian Specific.
C. Practical examination. C. Ujian Practical.
ASNT provides a service to the industry by ASNT menyediakan layanan kepada industri
providing Level III examination in the basic and dengan mengadakan ujian Level III dalam bidang
method areas. Because of the individual basic dan method. Mengingat banyaknya persya-
requirements of the many industries using NDT, ratan industri pengguna NDT yang berbeda-beda,
the specific examination is still the responsibility ujian specific masih merupakan tanggung jawab
of the employer. perusahaan.

CHAPTER NINE
REVIEW
_______ 1. The selection of one test method over another is usually the decision of the
Level I technician performing the test.
_______ 2. ASNT provides a service for examining Level I, II, and III personnel in the
General and Specific areas.
_______ 3. The responsibility of issuing a certificate to the NDT technician is always

given to the employer if the SNT-TC-1A document is to be complied with.
_______ 4. If the SNT-TC-1A document is to be used as a recommended guideline,

the Written Practice must be submitted to ASNT for approval.
_______ 5. If the SNT-TC-1A guidelines are to be followed, the Level III technician
should have a knowledge of other commonly used methods of NDT
eventhough certification is needed only in the magnetic particle area.
_______ 6. A Level I technician performing a magnetic particle test is permitted to

accept or reject the part provided that written instructions or procedures are
given to him by a level II or level III technician.
_______ 7. It is essential that every employer using the SNT-TC-1A document establish
a Written Practice.
_______ 8. If an employer does not have a Level III technician in his company, he can
retain the services of an outside agency to perform these functions.

CHAPTER TEN
PROCEDURES, STANDARDS, AND PROSEDUR, STANDARD, DAN SPESIFIKASI
SPECIFICATIONS
PROCEDURES PROSEDUR
Scope Lingkup
The scope of the procedure is intended to Lingkup dari prosedur dimaksudkan untuk
cover only one complex or critical component mencakup hanya satu komponen kritis atau
or a group of like items. komplek, atau satu kelompok barang yang sejenis.
The procedure should specifically present Prosedur sebaiknya menampilkan secara terperinci
everything that the inspector needs to know in segala sesuatu yang perlu diketahui inspektor un-
order to inspect the parts as intended. tuk memeriksa benda seperti yang dimaksudkan.
Procedures are frequently developed in Prosedur seringkali dibuat di dalam kondisi
laboratory conditions on special test objects. laboratorium menggunakan benda uji khusus.
Under such circumstances, procedures should Dalam kondisi seperti itu, prosedur sebaiknya juga
also be tried under production conditions by dicoba pada kondisi produksi oleh personil
production personnel before their actual produksi sebelum diaplikasikan untuk pelaksanaan
implementation. sebenarnya.
Details Detil
The procedure should detail at least the Prosedur seharusnya mendetilkan paling tidak, hal-
following items: hal sebagai berikut:
1. Materials, shapes, or sizes to which the 1. Material, bentuk, atau ukuran dimana prose-
procedure is specifically applicable; dur tersebut berlaku secara khusus;
2. Type of magnetization to be used; 2. Jenis magnetisasi yang digunakan;
3. Equipment to be used for magnetization; 3. Peralatan yang dipakai untuk magnetisasi.
4. Surface preparation (finishing and 4. Persiapan permukaan (penyelesaian dan
cleaning); pembersihan).
5. Ferromagnetic particles to be used; 5. Partikel ferromagnetik yang digunakan;
manufacturer; color; wet or dry particles; pabrik; pewarna; partikel basah atau kering.
6. Magnetization current; time involved; 6. Arus magnetisasi; lamanya.
7. Sketches or chart indicating the location, 7. Sketsa atau gambar yang menunjukkan
type, and amperage of each inspection lokasi, jenis, dan arus dari tiap daerah
area and, if necessary, the sequence of pemeriksaan dan, jika perlu, urutan
inspections. pemeriksaan.
Occasionally, THE PROCEDURE WILL Adakalanya, PROSEDUR AKAN MEMUAT
CONTAIN THE ACCEPTANCE CRITERIA from KRITERIA PENERIMAAN dari spesifikasi yang
the specification that relates to the specific behubungan dengan bagian khusus dari sebuah
part. komponen.
This would present the exact procedure and Hal ini memberikan prosedur yang terperinci dan
acceptance criteria for each specific part. kriteria penerimaan untuk tiap bagian khusus.

STANDARDS STANDARDS
General Scope Lingkup Umum
Standards are applied for controlling factors in Standard diaplikasikan untuk mengendalikan
the inspection process that are measurable faktor-faktor dalam proses pemeriksaan sehingga
and reproducible. terukur dan dapat diulangi lagi.
For example, standards are available to Sebagai contoh, terdapat standard untuk
measure and control acceptable ranges of mengukur dan mengendalikan rentang yang dapat
particle concentrations, black light wavelength diterima dari konsentrasi partikel, panjang
and intensity, meter variations, and other gelombang dan intensitas cahaya ultraviolet, dan
equipment factors. faktor peralatan lainnya.
Detail of Standards Detil dari suatu Standard
Standards set forth the details for controlling Standard yang ditujukan untuk memperinci
specific processes; in this case, they are pengendalian proses-proses khusus; dalam hal ini,
details of the magnetic particle testing process. mendetilkan proses pengujian partikel magnet.
1. The scope should establish the limits of 1. Lingkup sebaiknya menetapkan batasan-
applicability of the document or special batasan yang berlaku dari dokumen, atau
conditions which make the preparation of kondisi khusus yang membuat perlunya
the standard necessary. penyiapan standard tersebut.
2. The applicable documents are company 2. Dokumen yang berlaku adalah dokumen
documents that are referenced. perusahaan yang dirujuk.
3. Materials and other expendable supplies 3. Material dan bahan habis lainnya kadangkala
are occasionally listed with their trade dimasukkan dengan menyebut merek
name and source. dagang dan asalnya.
4. Equipment to be used is listed. 4. Daftar peralatan yang dipakai.
5. Requirements are presented; these state 5. Persyaratan-persyaratan; menyatakan
the acceptable ranges of the factors rentang yang dapat diterima dari faktor-faktor
being measured and controlled as well yang sedang diukur dan dikendalikan seperti
as the frequency with which they should frekuensi yang seharusnya diukur.
be measured.
6. Procedures detail the manner and means 6. Prosedur mendetilkan tujuan dan cara
of obtaining the desired measurements. memperoleh pengukuran yang diinginkan.
7. Safety requirements are presented where 7. Persyaratan keselamatan yang berlaku.
applicable.
8. Notes may be included regarding items 8. Catatan-catatan mengenai item, atau saran-
of advice or of caution. saran, atau peringatan-peringatan.
9. Reference documents are sometimes 9. Dokumen referensi kadangkala dimasukkan
listed to provide background information untuk memberikan dasar informasi bagi
for the user. pemakai.


SPECIFICATIONS SPESIFIKASI
Specifications are documents for communi- Spesifikasi adalah dokumen-dokumen untuk
cation at the engineering, management, and berkomunikasi pada tingkat engineering,
purchasing levels. Specifications are contrac- manajemen, dan pembelian. Spesifikasi adalah
tual documents. dokumen yang berhubungan dengan kontrak.
The revision of a specification that is current at Revisi dari sebuah spesifikasi yang berlaku pada
the time that a contract is signed and dated is kurun waktu dimana kontrak ditandatangani dan
the applicable revision. diberi tanggal adalah revisi yang dipakai.
The main purpose of a specification is to Tujuan utama dari sebuah spesifikasi adalah untuk
convey the limitations of perfection or imperfec- menyampaikan batasan kesempurnaan atau keti-
tion of the object being described. daksempurnaan dari barang yang dijelaskan.
Between buyers and sellers, the specification Antara pembeli dan penjual, spesifikasi menggam-
quantitatively describes the object that the barkan secara kuantitatip mengenai barang yang
buyer is willing to accept from the seller. hendak diterima oleh pembeli dari penjual.
Component specifications may or may not con- Spesifikasi komponen bisa memuat kriteria
tain specific acceptance criteria for each and penerimaan tertentu dari tiap-tiap pengujian
every test and/or inspection of the component. dan/atau pemeriksaan dari komponen tersebut.
Acceptance Criteria Kriteria Penerimaan
Acceptance criterias are included in some Kriteria penerimaan dimasukkan ke dalam bebe-
specifications to provide ranges, classes, and rapa spesifikasi untuk memberikan rentang, kelas,
grades of quality that are acceptable. dan golongan kualitas yang dapat diterima.
The acceptance criteria state the size and type Kriteria penerimaan menyatakan ukuran dan jenis
of discontinuities acceptable in a specified diskontinuitas yang dapat diterima dalam bidang
area. tertentu.
In some cases, acceptance criteria only have Pada beberapa kasus, kriteria penerimaan hanya
one flaw size above which either the defect menyebutkan satu ukuran cacat dimana cacat
must be removed or removed and repaired, or tersebut harus dihilangkan atau dihilangkan dan
the part must be scrapped. direparasi, atau barang tersebut harus dibuang.

A MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING PROCEDURE
On the next few pages is a sample procedure for performing a magnetic particle test. This procedure
is typical of many found in industry.
P-3650 (Rev. C), Nov. 1, 1980
Supercedes Rev. B, Jan. 14, 1978
PROCEDURE P-3650
STEEL CLEANLINESS BY THE MAGNETIC PARTICLE METHOD
1.0 Scope
This document provides a procedure for magnetic particle inspection of the steel cleanliness
specimens prepared in accordance with Procedure P-2468.
2.0 References
PBA-1004 Aircraft Quality Steel Cleanliness – Magnetic Particle Method
PBA-906 Magnetic Particle Inspection
Mil-1-6868 Inspection Process, Magnetic Particle
SNT-TC-1A Personnel Qualification and Certification in Nondestructive Testing (1980 edition)
P-2468 Steel Cleanliness Specimen Preparation
3.0 Personnel
Personnel shall be certified in accordance with SNT-TC-1A, June 1980 edition. These tests
shall be conducted by certified Level I personnel working to this procedure under the
supervision of certified Level II personnel.
4.0 Equipment
1. Wet horizontal magnetic particle machine with fluorescent suspension
2. Betz Ring
3. 1-inch diameter copper bar, 12-inches long
4. 100 watt minimum pressure mercury-vapor black light
5. 100 ml pear-shaped centrifuge tube
5.0 Definition of Terms
Stringers — Nonmetallic inclusions in the steel
Steel Cleanliness Specimen —A steel specimen that has been machined in accordance with
Procedure P-2468
Perimeter — Perimeter of a square or rectangle is the sum of the four sides
Magnetizing Current for a Square or Rectangular Specimen Cross-Section
X 1000
For example, for a bar 1/2" thick and 4" wide, the perimeter = 4 + 4 + 1/2 + 1/2 = 9;
the amperage = 9/3.1416 x 1000 = 2964.
Note: The next highest current available shall be used if current selection is not
continuous.

6.0 Standardization
Prior to any test in accordance with this procedure, the pump on the machine shall be
operated continuously for 30 minutes. A 100 ml centrifuge tube shall be filled with suspension
taken from the exit nozzle to the 100 ml level and allowed to stand for 30 minutes. A range of
0.2 to 0.7 ml of particles shall be indicated in the tube. If necessary, the suspension shall be
adjusted or changed to comply with the requirements of PBA-906.
Conduct a slurry sensitivity test in accordance with Mil-1-6868, using the Betz Ring. At least 4
holes in the ring must be indicated at 2500 amperes on a one-inch copper bar. This test must
be made immediately prior to the cleanliness test in accordance with this procedure.
7.0 Test Procedure
7.1 Cleaning
Degrease the specimens to remove oil or antirust coatings in accordance with PBA-906
7.2 Inspection
Using a wet continuous DC fluorescent particle procedure, start at the smallest size on
the specimen and magnetize at 1000 amperes per inch diameter. To compute the
amperage for a rectangular specimen, measure the perimeter of each step of the
specimen and divide by 3.1416. The formula for the amperage of a 1 inch square bar
would be: Amperage = 4/3.1416 x 1000 = 1270. (Note: The next highest current
available shall be used.if current selection is not continuous.)
The specimen shall be clamped between the contact plates and direct circular
magnetism used. Magnetize one time, cover the part with suspension, stop the flow of
suspension, and magnetize three times in a fast sequence. The magnetization shall not
be less than 0.2 second.
7.3 On each successive step of the specimen, count the number of stringers and record on
the record sheet as required by Paragraph 8.0 of this procedure.
7.4 Repeat steps 7.2 and 7.3 for each step of the specimen.
7.5 Post-Cleaning
Wipe the specimen with a clean cloth to remove magnetic particles and oil, then wrap in
paper.
8.0 Recording Procedure
A separate recording form shall be used for each specimen. The form used shall be attached
to this procedure.
a. From the forms accompanying the specimens, record the Material Spec., P.O. Number,
and Heat Number in the upper corner. Fill in the size of the largest diameter in "Size" in the
upper corner.
b. Fill in the date.
c. Fill in the diameter of the first step in the first column.
d. Compute the area of the step and record in the second column. The area of the circular
cross-section = diameter x 3.14 x length of step. The area of the rectangular cross
section step = perimeter x length of step.
e. Count and measure the length of each indication on each step. Record the number of
indications according to their length in the proper column.
f. Add all of the indications for each step and record in the Sum column.
g. Divide the Sum by the Area; enter in Sum/Area column.
h. Add all of the Sum/Area entries and record in Frequency per Specimen column.

i. Multiply the number of indications of each length range by the Progression Factor at the
top of the column.
j. Add all of the products for each step and record in the Total Product column.
k. Divide the Total Product by the Area for each step and enter in Product/Area column.
l. Total the Product/Area column and enter in the Severity per Specimen space.
m. If more than one specimen is tested for a single Heat Number, P.O. Number, and Material
Spec., sum the Frequency per Specimen from each record sheet to obtain the TOTAL
FREQUENCY OF HEAT. Divide the TOTAL FREQUENCY OF HEAT by the NUMBER OF
SPECIMENS and enter in the AVERAGE FREQUENCY OF HEAT space on each record
sheet.
n. Similarly, sum the severity Per Specimen from each record sheet to obtain the TOTAL
SEVERITY OF HEAT. Divide the TOTAL SEVERITY OF HEAT by the NUMBER OF
SPECIMENS and enter in the AVERAGE SEVERITY OF HEAT space on each record
sheet.
9.0 Sign each sheet in the lower right-hand corner.


CHAPTER TEN
REVIEW
_______ 1. Which of the following would NDT Level I personnel normally use on a daily
basis?
a. The model specification
b. Component quality specification
c. The AWS Structural Welding Code
d. The magnetic particle process specification
e. Magnetic particle inspection procedures
_______ 2. A document in wide-spread use by large segments of industry is entitled,

“Recommended Practice for Measurement and Control of Magnetic Particle
Materials used in Magnetic Particle Inspection”. What type of document i's
most probably represented?
a. Code
b. Standard
c. Process specification
d. Maintenance manual
e. Component quality specification
_______ 3. Of the following, what type of organization most probably developed and
issued the document referenced in question no. 2 above?
a. A large corporation
b. An industry association representing a number of corporations which all
produce the same type of product
c. A technical or professional society representing design engineers
d. An association of magnetic particle equipment manufacturers
e. A national or international consensus standards-writing organization
_______ 4. Small parts are sometimes fabricated from engineering drawings that
contain acceptance criteria in the notes on the face of the drawing. In such
cases, what type of document does the drawing most nearly represent?
a. Code
b. Standard
c. Specification
d. Procedure
_______ 5. During an audit, a magnetic particle inspector was found to be inspecting a

particular part by a procedure that differed substantially from the one that
was indicated to be used. On questioning the departure from standard
practices, the auditor was informed that the inspector’s procedure was
“better than” the one required. As the inspector’s supervisor, which of the
following actions would be most appropriate?
a. Immediately fire the inspector.
b. Side with the inspector and inform the auditor that the inspector’s procedure
was probably better than the one required.
c. Verify that the required procedure properly fulfills the engineering specification
requirements and inform the inspector in writing that in the future he or she
shall only use the required procedure.
d. Verify that the inspector’s procedure is “better than” the required procedure in
that it is much more sensitive in revealing very small defects. Then, change
the required procedure and compliment the inspector for being innovative.
e. Report to the auditor's supervisor that the auditor is incapable of recognizing a
better procedure being performed.

_______ 6. A customer's specifications for a particular part include a detailed procedure
for magnetic particle inspection. Your facilities do not include equipment of
the specific manufacture that the customer has required. However, as the
Level II, you are familiar with the customer's equipment and can verify that
your equipment is at least as effective. You are being asked to comment on
the customer's procedure because your company wishes to bid
competitively. Which of the following should be your recommendation?
a. Management should be informed that your equipment, while different, has
equal capabilities on the equipment specified and that you will prepare a
procedure based on your equipment that can be sent to the customer for
approval along with the bid.
b. Since this situation represents an opportunity for you to get additional
equipment, you should inform management that the only safe way to bid on
this job is to promise to purchase the customer-specified equipment.
c. You should recommend that the company not bid on the job because you
don't have the proper equipment.
d. You should inform management that after you get the job, you can work out
the details with the customer.
e. Inform management that it is inappropriate for you as a Level II to be asked to
supply such comments, since such touchy situations should be dealt with by a
higher level of responsibility.
_______ 7. Of the following types of controlling documents, which is most likely to
contain acceptance criteria for defects indicated by a magnetic particle
inspection on a particular casting?
a. Standard
b. Component specification
c. Code
d. Process specification
e. None of the above
_______ 8. In the following list of document types, which sequence represents the order
of documents with the most contractually binding listed first and the least
binding listed last?
1. Magnetic particle inspection procedure
2. Magnetic particle equipment operators' manual
3. Engineering specification (component specification)
4. ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code
a. 4, 3, 2, 1
b. 3, 4, 1, 2
c. 4, 3, 1, 2
d. 2, 1, 4, 3
e. 2, 1, 3, 4
_______ 9. One step in a procedure makes reference to a sequence of steps
contained in another document without reproducing them in the procedure
being used. Which of the following statements is true?
a. The referenced document is for advisory use only; it i's not necessary to
perform the steps included in the referenced document.
b. It is improper to reference one procedure in another. The referenced
document steps need not be performed unless they are reproduced in the
document being used.
c. The referenced document steps should be performed, but only if the inspector
is familiar with the referenced document and can perform the steps without
having the document in hand.
d. The referenced document steps should be performed, based on oral
instructions in the steps contained in the referenced document by the
inspector's supervision.
e. None of the above statements represent the proper approach.

The following questions refer to the procedure P-3650, Steel Cleanliness by the Magnetic
Particle Method.
_______ 10. What specific inspection personnel should perform the magnetic particle
tests of P-3650?
a. Certified Level I working under the supervision of a Certified Level II.
b. Certified Level II working under the supervision of a Certified Level III.
c. A Certified Level I should perform the magnetizing procedure and a Certified
Level II should count the indications and record the results.
d. This procedure is of sufficient complexity that only a Level II or Level III should
perform the test.
e. This procedure should be performed only by laboratory personnel; they need
not be qualified or certified as NDT Magnetic Particle inspection personnel.
_______ 11. Procedure P-2468 provides for step-down specimens that have various
step lengths. If specimens were received for testing under P-3650 that had
step diameters of 1.0, 2.0, and 3.0 inches and step lengths of 3.0 inches,
the areas of the survey surfaces for each step would be, for the 1.0, 2.0,
and 3.0 inch diameter steps, respectively:
a. 9.42, 6.28, and 3.14 square inches.
b. 3.14, 6.28, and 9.42 square inches.
c. 9.42, 18.84, and 28.26 square inches.
d. 28.26, 18,84, and 9.42 square inches.,
e. None of the above is correct.
_______ 12. Fluorescent particles are not readily available for these tests. Under which of
the following conditions would it be permissible to use visible magnetic
particles?
a. Under no condition is it permissible.
b. Visible particles may be used if the concentration as measured in the
centrifuge tube ranges between 1.0 and 1.2
c. Visible particles may be used if the slurry sensitivity test produces indications
of at least 4 holes in the Betz Ring.
d. Any technique may be used since the procedure does not specify the use of
either fluorescent or visible particles.
_______ 13. From the manner by which it is referenced, PBA-906 is apparently:

a. a component quality specification.
b. a Code
c. an internal process specification.
d. a military process specification.
e. a procedure for preparing test specimens for magnetic particle inspection for
steel cleanliness.
_______ 14. In order to reveal all of the inclusions of interest, the specimens should be
magnetized by:
a. AC longitudinal magnetization.
b. DC circular magnetization.
c. DC circular magnetization followed by three fast AC circular shots.
d. AC circular magnetization.
e. Both circular and longitudinal magnetization.

_______ 15. A specimen was received for testing in accordance with P-3650. The
specimen was 1.251” x 2.38” cross-section and 4.06” long. What minimum
magnetizing current should be used?
a. 1156 amperes
b. 2311 amperes
c. 4691 amperes
d. 7260 amperes
e. none of the above is correct.
_______ 16. For the specimen in question no. 15, what is the area of the survey section?
a. 3.84 in2
b. 7.26 in2
c. 9.38 in2
d. 12.08 in2
e. 29.48 in2

REFERENCES
ASNT, NDT Training Program – Magnetic Particle Method, Columbus, 1979.
Eick, Charles W., ASNT Level II Study Guide – Magnetic Particle Testing Method, ASNT, Columbus,
2003.
McKelvey, Ed W., Level III Study Guide – Magnetic Particle Method, ASNT, Columbus, 1980.
Smilie, Robert W., Classroom Training Handbook, Nondestructive Testing – Magnetic Particle, PH
Diversified, Inc., South Harrisburg, 1995.
Smilie, Robert W., Programmed Instruction Handbook, Nondestructive Testing – Introduction, PH
Smilie, Robert W., Programmed Instruction Handbook, Nondestructive Testing – Magnetic Particle, PH
Smith, Gordon E., Magnetic Particle Testing – Classroom Training Book, ASNT, Columbus, 2004.

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TRAINING HAND OUT

Right-hand Rule vs Left-hand Rule 10

Chapter One Review 13

Chapter Two Review 20

Alternating Current (AC) 21

Direct Current (DC) 22

Magnetic Hysteresis Curve 24

Chapter Three Review 29

Direct Current Field Distribution 30

Alternating Current Field Distribution 35

Chapter Four Review 37

Current Requirements (Circular Magnetization) 38

Current Requirements with Prods 42

Current Requirements (Longitudinal Magnetization) 43

Leakage Field Indicators 53

Chapter Five Review 54

Magnetic Particle Testing Equipment 55

Limitations of Magnetic Particle Testing 58

Magnetic Particle Mediums and Their Preparation 60

Control and Verification of Equipment Functions 62

Chapter Six Review 65

Magnetic Particle Applications 66

Testing Medium (Powder and Suspensions) 67

Application of Magnetic Particle Testing Procedures 69

Chapter Seven Review 79

Classification of Magnetic Particle Discontinuities 81

Classification of Discontinuities by Origin 85

Chapter Eight Review 98

Identification and Comparison of Dicontinuities 99

Training and Certification 100

Chapter Nine Review 102

CHAPTER TEN 103

Procedures, Standards, and Specifications 103

A Magnetic Particle Testing Procedure 106

Chapter Ten Review 110

MAGNETIC MATERIALS MATERIAL MAGNETIS

Table 1.1. Magnetic characteristics of materials.

FLUX DENSITY KERAPATAN FLUX

CURRENT FLOW THEORY

ELECTRON FLOW THEORY

_______ 5. A subsurface discontinuity could be detected if the leakage field that is

_______ 8. Because ferromagnetic metals have a large susceptibility to magnetization,

___________________________ 14. The amount of force necessary to remove residual

___________________________ 15. A magnet will attract other magnetizable material only

CIRCULAR MAGNETIZATION MAGNETISASI MELINGKAR

Direct induction using PRODS. Induksi langsung memakai PRODS.

INDIRECT INDUCTION of a circular fields. INDUKSI TAK LANGSUNG medan melingkar.

Circular magnetic field in a ferromagnetic Medan magnet melingkar di dalam material

In both ferromagnetic and nonmagnetic Pada material-material ferromagnetik dan nonmag-

Coil (solenoid) Kumparan (solenoid)

Answer: Discontinuities A and B. Jawab: Diskontinuitas A dan B.

_______ 2. A circular magnetic field induced into a ferromagnetic material establishes

_______ 7. Prods and yokes both produce a longitudinal magnetic field.

_______ 8. Where the highest flux density possible is needed to longitudinally

Three-phase full wave direct curent.

The points to remember are: Beberapa poin untuk diingat adalah:

Permeability, μ, is defined as B/H, which is the Permeabilitas, μ, didefinisikan sebagai B/H,

_______ low permeability

_______ high coercive force

_______ high residual magnetism

_______ high permeability

_______ low reluctance