Long Span Structures

Generally Architectural definition of long span structure can be as ;

When, as a consequence of the size of the span, Technical considerations are placed so high on the
list of architectural priorities that they significantly affect the form and style of aesthetics in the
overall form of the building.

What can be technically categorised as ‘long span structure’ will depend on the loading pattern and the
material used for the structure, i. e. Steel structures can have larger spans for the similar sizes of
members in a particular type of structure than RCC etc, however , Structure with span larger than
20m can be regarded as long span structure for this span is usually unable to be achieved by
ordinary RC structure.

All structures while supporting loads are designed to counter bending moments, shear stress
along with deformation. Different structural systems avoid or counter the stresses by rigidity,
flexibility, and geometric form of the structure. As per there mode of supporting loads, long span
structures irrespective of its material, can be categorized as;

1. Bulk/section active structures

2. Vector active structures
3. Form active Structures
4. Surface active structures

This categorization is purely to understand the various structural systems and in fact none of the
structures are purely belongs to one particular category in practice but only majorly have the
characteristics of a particular category. As the categorisation is highly abstract, it applies to any
level of scale. Per level, a structure may feature a different structural action. For example
consider the case of space frame which is categorized as vector active structure. However its
analysis at various level is as below

Space frame-structure transfers the applied loads through splitting them into vectors ( vector
action), such that all bars in the space frame are loaded axially, in either tension or compression.
Observing this structure from a distance, disregarding the separate members, the total structure
becomes a thick layer structurally acting in bending, so in section action. Zooming in on the
space frame’s bars, these are commonly tubes that provide strength against axial forces as well as
stiffness against bending and buckling. To resist this bending, the cross section is sollicitated,
resulting in the section-active mechanism. As it is the tube’s curved exterior that provides the
stiffness, it is also featuring surface action.

Thus, though the structural systems are categorised for sake of simplifying understanding, mostly
all of them will have an overlap on other categories.
 A. Bulk Active or section Active structures: Structural system in which the members support load
by bending and their moment of Resistance is proportional to the size(bulk) of their cross section
are categorized as bulk active structures.

Examples of Structures:

RCC Frame structure: Beams and various types of RCC slabs

Horizontal members of the section active structure (beam and slab) , if simply supported on the
vertical member gets maximum bending moment at the mid span. Bending moment grows
exponentially with length of the span requiring deeper and larger cross section. Consequently
Members with larger cross section have larger self weight which in turn increases the bending
moment. Hence bulk active structures like beams and slabs become not so efficient for longer
spans. There are two ways in which the bending moment in the individual member of the bulk
active structure can be reduced to make a longer span feasible. Firstly by reducing the effective
span of individual member by arranging the members in a particular manner i.e. ribbed slab ,
waffled slab etc. Secondly by distributing the bending moment amongst the other vertical
connecting members by providing rigid connection between members i.e. Portal frame

Ribbed (Waffle) Slab

Ribbed floors consisting of equally spaced ribs are usually supported directly by columns They
are either one-way spanning systems known as ribbed slab or a two-way ribbed system known as
a waffle slab. A rib thickness of greater than 125 mm is usually required to accommodate tensile
and shear reinforcement. Ribbed slabs are suitable for medium to heavy loads, can span
reasonable distances, are very stiff and particularly suitable where the soffit is exposed. Slab
depths typically vary from 75 to 125 mm and rib widths from 125 to 200 mm. Rib spacing of 600
to1500 mm can be used. The overall depth of the floor typically varies from 300 to 600 mm with
overall spans of up to 15 m if reinforced, longer if post-tensioned. The use of ribs to the soffit of
the slab reduces the quantity of concrete and reinforcement and also the weight of the floor. For
ribs at 1200-mm centres (to suit standard forms) the economical reinforced concrete floor span
'L' is approximately D x 15 for a single span and D x 22 for a multi-span, where D is the overall
floor depth. The one-way ribs are typically designed as T-beams, often spanning in the long
direction. A solid drop panel is required at the columns and loadbearing walls for shear and
moment resistance.
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SECTION

Plan

Waffle slab
Thumb Rules for proportion of structure: it is not simple to give a thumb rule for assuming spanning
possibilities for a particular structure in all situations of loading and other peripheral conditions. Also
sizes of structural members will depend on number of factors. However a very approximate thumb rule
can still be assumed considering the conventional building and loading conditions. The proportion and
spanning thumb rules given below are for commercial building with usual loading conditions. These are
only to get an idea of proportions and the thumb rules might not hold true for heavily loaded or un-
conventional buildings.
A. Concrete
Type of Element Span Range (meters) Typical Span/Depth ratio
Beam: Simply Supported Upto 8mts 15-20
Beam: Continuous Upto 12 mts 20-27
Beam: Cantilever Upto 5 mts 1-7
Slab: One-way Simply Supported Upto 6 mts 20-30
Slab: One-way Continuous Upto 6 mts 20-30
Slab: One-way Cantilever Upto 3 mts 5-11
Slab: Two-way Simply Supported Upto 6 mts 30-35
Slab: Two-way Continuous Upto 6 mts 30-35
Profiled Steel Decking Concrete Composite Upto 6 mts 35-40
Ribbed Slab Upto 11mts 35-40
Waffle Slab Upto 15 mts 18-25
B. Steel
Type of Element Span Range (meters) Typical Span/Depth ratio
Primary Beam (Supported by Column) Upto 12mts 15-20
Secondary Beam (Supported by other beams) Upto 7 mts 15-20
 Portal frames: Portal frames can be defined as two-dimensional rigid frames that have the basic
characteristics of a rigid joint between column and beam. The main objective of this form of design is to
reduce bending moment in the beam, which allows the frame to act as one structural unit.

Comparison of Bending moment in a simple beam and portal frame

The transfer of stresses from beam to the column can result in rotational movement at the foundation
which can be overcome by introducing pin or hinge joint. The pin or hinge joint will allow free rotation to
take place at the point of fixity while transferring both the load and shear from one member to another. In
practice the true pivot is not always possible but it should be ensured that the rigidity at the point of
connection is low enough to not built up stresses due to the tendency of rotational movement. Frames
with pinned bases are heavier than those having fixity at the bases. However, frames with fixed base may
require a more expensive foundation.

This manipulation at the joints gives rise to several possibility of types of joint connection to be employed
as necessary. Some of them are discussed below.
1. Fixed or rigid Portal Frame: All joints or connection are rigid, transferring the stresses to the
column and further to the foundation. Since it has to be ensured that the moment at the foundation
are not excessive, This type of portal frame can be employed for small or medium span structures.
 Rigid Portal Frame

2. Two Pin Portal Frame: Pin Joint or Hinges used at the foundation connection to eliminate
tendency of base to rotate. Used where high base moment due to longer span and weak ground
are encountered.

Two Pin Portal Frame

3. Three Pin Portal Frame: Pin joint or hinge used at foundation connection and at the centre of
beam which reduces bending moment in beam but increases deflection. Used as an alternative to
two pin portal.

Three Pin Portal Frame

At first glance there might not appear to be any advantage in using a 3- pin portal frame against 2-pin
portal, but since both the maximum bending moment and maximum shear force are at the column and
beam connection, aesthetically pleasing structure can be erected of the type shown below.

One of the architectural form of 2-pin portal

Form of Three Pin Portal frame

Two pin portals requires a even depth to the beam since it will develop maximum bending at the mid span
and shear at the support. The architectural form can be that of a vault as shown above

Portal frames are more often constructed out of steel sections. The main frame is assembled using hot
rolled steel section while the purlins may be out of cold rolled sheet metal sections. At times portals can
also be constructed using precast concrete members. A typical assembly of the both types is shown below
Connection at the Ridge

Connection between beam and column

Approximate structural sizing and span for steel portal (This is to understand the proportions only)
1. ROOF BEAMS (RAFTERS)
Typical span 20-50 m
Beam depth Span/60
Cold formed rafters span up to 18 m
Centre to centre distance from 4.5 to 7.5 m
2. COLUMNS
Column depth 1.25 x roof beam
Width as UB sections

3. PURLINS
Maximum span 4.5 – 7.5 m
Purlin depth Span/35
Steel portal frames are capable of spanning large distances. They are used in the construction of factories
and warehouses, and other low-rise
rise buildings that require wide spans. Wall and roof bracing is normally
provided in selected bays, often at the end of buildings. Roof beams (rafters) and columns are usually
fabricated from rolled steel sections, while purlins are usually in light steel sections

Bulk Active structures are typically not very long span compared to other structural systems due to its
mode of countering the load. The cross section of the members required, beyond a particular span do not
remain feasible for its dimensions and self weight.

Bending subjects the different fibre in the section to diagonal compressive or tensile stresses. If these
fibers are separated and compressive and tensile stresses are countered individually with members
connected with hinge joint, the intermediate material may be eliminated which will have a effect of
reduced bulk and dead weight. This will change entirely the mode of countering forc
forces
es on the structure
and will become a vector active structural system, having possibility of larger spans.
 B. Vector Active Structures: These are structural systems consisting of short, solid, linear
members, joined together with hinge joint and so arranged that the forces on the structure
(due to self weight and imposed loads) are resisted by multidirectional splitting of single
force simply to tension or compressive forces in individual members.

Explanation: In solid beam of any material and simply supported at each end, the maximum
compressive stress occurs in the top fibres and the maximum tensile stress at the bottom fibre. It
is therefore advantageous to concentrate most of the material in the top and bottom fibres of the
beam. Also there are vertical and horizontal shear stresses which results in diagonal compressive
and tensile stresses. If these fibres are separated and instead of having a solid continuous beam, a
beam built of separate members jointed together in an appropriate geometry, can be used. If
these members are connected with hinge joint, none of the members will have bending moment
but purely tensile or compressive stresses axially.

Truss Mimic Beam behaviour

Individual Members in vector active structural system are subjected to axial compressive
or tensile forces and negligible or no bending.

Triangulated truss with proper alignment of adequate number of members will have following
relation between number of members and number of joints;
(No. of joints X 2 ) – 3=
= No. of members
The multidirectional splitting of forces can be done in one plane or multiple planes and
accordingly following types of Vector active structures can be constructed

A. Plane / Flat trusses

B. Curved trusses
C. Space trusses
Plane/flat Truss: A number of triangles joined together in the same vertical plane forms a plane
truss. It can have a profile with pitch or linear. The various types of forms for Plane/ flat trusses
are as below
Simple flat trusses Various forms
Pitched Top Chord
system

Bottom chord system

Two chord system

Cambered system
Transmitted flat
Various forms
trusses
Linear system

Folded system

Intersecting system

Curved Trusses: Redirection of forces through vector mechanism need not has to be in one
single plane nor load distribution in one axis. Redirection of forces can also be accomplished in
curved plane. By arranging the members in single or doubly curve planes the advantage of form
active redirection of forces is integrated with the efficiency of vector mechanism.
Some of the forms of curved trusses are shown below.
Curved trusses Various forms
Singly curved truss

Doubly curved truss

Spherical truss
Space trusses: A space frame is a structure system assembled of linear elements so arranged that
forces are transferred in a three-dimensional
dimensional manner. A space truss/frame is a rigid structure
constructed from interlocking struts in geometric pattern. Space frame
framess span in multiple
mul direction
and can cover long span with few flexibly places supports. Most often there geometry is based
on platonic solids. The simplest form is a horizontal structure of interlocking square based
pyramid bilt from aluminium or steel tubular struts.AA stronger purer form is composed of
interlocking tetrahedral pyramids in which all struts have unit length. This structure is refered to
as isotropic vector matrix. Other variation have variable strut lengths and overall geometry. In
space frame, numerous members connected to one node requires a proper detailing and is critical
for space frame structures.

Basic elements of space frame

Example of Jointing detail at the node

Depth and module of space frame

Advantages of Space Frames

1. One of the most important advantages of a space frame structure is its light weight. It is
mainly due to fact that material is distributed spatially in such a way that the load transfer
mechanism is primarily axial—tension
tension or compression. Consequently, all material in any given
element is utilized to its full extent. Furthermore, most space frames are now constructed with
steel or aluminum, which decreases considerably their selfself-weight.
weight. This is especially important
in the case of long span roofs that lled
ed to a number of notable examples of applications.

2. The units of space frames are usually mass produced in the factory so that they can take full
advantage of an industrialized system of construction. Space frames can be built from simple
prefabricated units, which are often of standard size and shape. Such units can be easily
transported and rapidly assembled on site by semi
semi-skilled
skilled labor. Consequently, space frames can
be built at a lower cost.
3. A space frame is usually sufficiently stiff in spite ooff its lightness. This is due to its three
dimensional character and to the full participation of its constituent elements.
4. Space frames possess a versatility of shape and form and can utilize a standard module to
generate various flat space grids, latt
latticed shell, or even free-formform shapes. Architects appreciate
the visual beauty and the impressive simplicity of lines in space frames. A trend is very
noticeable in which the structural members are left exposed as a part of the architectural
 expression. Desire for openness for both visual impact as well as the ability to accommodate
variable space requirements always calls for space frames as the most favorable solution
Some of the forms are given below;
Space frames/ trusses
Flat space frame/ truss

Folded space truss

Curved space truss

Linear space truss

To each structure type a specific stress condition of its member is inherent. This essential trait
decides the choice of material of the structure and also indicates optimum span range possible for
the structure. Below is tabulated the range spanning possibility of the various vector active
structures in wood and steel (since wood and steel are the most likely material chosen for linear
members of vector active structures). It is only indicative and not absolute.

Structural system Material Application span range(Mts) Optimum Span range(Mts)

Wood 8Mts-40Mts 15mts-30mts

Steel 10 mts -50mts 15 mts -30 mts

Wood 10mts -60 mts 20 mts -50mts

Flat truss

Steel 20mts -100 mts 20mts -80 mts

Wood 6mts -25 mts 10 mts -20mts

Steel 10mts -35 mts 12mts -25 mts

Structural system Material Application span range(Mts) Optimum Span range(Mts)
Wood 15Mts-60Mts 20mts-50mts

Steel 15 mts -120mts 25 mts -100 mts

Transmitted flat trusses

Wood 8mts -50 mts 12 mts -25mts

Steel 10mts -90 mts 20mts -80 mts

Wood 8mts -45 mts 15 mts -35mts

Steel 15mts -80 mts 15mts -60 mts

Structural system Material Application span range(Mts) Optimum Span range(Mts)

Wood 8Mts-30Mts 12mts-25mts

Steel 10 mts -90mts 20 mts -80 mts

Curved trusses

Wood 8mts -30 mts 12 mts -25mts

Steel 10mts -90 mts 20mts -80 mts

Wood 20mts -200 mts 40 mts -160mts

Steel 20mts -500 mts 50mts -190 mts

Structural system Material Application span range(Mts) Optimum Span range(Mts)

Wood 8Mts-80Mts 15mts-60mts
Space frame / trusses

Steel 8 mts -130mts 25 mts -100 mts

Wood 8mts -80 mts 15mts -60mts

Steel 8mts -130 mts 25mts -100 mts

Wood 15mts -70 mts 20 mts -50mts

Steel 15mts -150 mts 25mts -120 mts

It clear from the above discussion that the vector active structural system is a system comprising
of short linear members, so arranged and assembled that the stress due to load is multi-
directionally split so that the individual members are subjected to majorly compressive or tensile
stress and very nominal bending. The mechanism of vector active redirection of forces can also
be applied to other structure systems like arches and shells especially when, because of excessive
self-weight of the solid material of construction limits its feasibility. In such situations arches,
shells or domes etc can also be designed as trussed systems.
With increasing use of steel in structure , the requirement of larger span and necessity of speedy
construction, vector active truss structure would find wide applicability in the future.

C. Surface Active Structures : These are systems of flexible or rigid planes able to resist
tension, compression or shear, in which the redirection of forces is throughout and along the
surface of the structure and is effected by mobilization of sectional forces. Examples are:
1. Plate structures
2. Folded structures
3. Shell structures

Plate structures
A plate is a relatively thin rigid (solid) body bounded by two surfaces. It has uniform thickness
and is flat in the unstressed state. These structures sustain loading using bending stresses.
They resist loads by shear and moments. They act like membranes when their bending stiffness
is reduced to zero.
A flat plate is a two-way reinforced concrete framing system utilizing a slab of uniform
thickness, with neither drop panels nor column capitals to resist heavier loads.

Difference between Plate and Slab

Since the flat plate resist the load through moment of bending , it has a limitation of span, unless
it is provided with stiffeners in some form (frame structure will have beams). Stiffening can also
be provided in the continuity of flat plate by creating folds.
 The folded plate, under load will be subjected to bending
moments resulting in the top fold region subjected to
compressive stresses and bottom fold region subjected to
tensile stresses. Thus each unit will behave like a beam. The
flat plate between the folds will be the local span which is
stiffened by folds (stiffeners) on both the sides.

Tendency of spreading of the unit due to load acting

downwards across the fold can be restricted by diaphragm
beam.

Edge buckling along the fold can be resisted stiffener in form

of a beam or a curb fold.

Thus folded plate structure will not require any intermediate vertical supports (columns) but will
need peripheral columns to support the diaphragm beam and the edge beam. Long span
structures are possible by using this geometrical configuration of flat plate.

The structural characteristics of folding structures depend on-

The pattern of the folding.

Their geometrical basic shape.

Its material.

The connection of the different folding planes.

The design of the bearings.

 Pattern of folding in linear composition

One Edge Folding giving flat edge at the

other end.

Two Edge Folding giving folded edge

at the other end.

Twin Folding

Folded roof and wall

Pattern of folding in Three dimensional composition

Triangular unit

Square Unit

Hexagonal Unit
Folded plate can be constructed with practically all the materials used for building construction.

Merits of folding plate construction

Very light form of construction. To span 30 m shell thickness required is 60 mm only.

The use of concrete as a building material reduces both materials cost and a construction
cost.

Longer span can be provided.

Flat shapes by choosing certain arched shapes.

Esthetically it looks good over other forms of construction.

 De-merits of folding plate construction

Shuttering is difficult.

Greater accuracy in formwork is required.

Good labor and supervision necessary.

Rise of roof may be a disadvantage.

Shell structures:
A shell structure is a thin curved membrane or slab usually of reinforced concrete that
functions both as structure and covering. The term “shell” is used to describe the
structures which possess strength and rigidity due to its thin, natural and curved form.
The essential ingredients of a shell structure are continuity and curvature. shells are
structurally continuous in the sense that they can transmit forces in a number of different
directions in the surface of the shell, as required by the arrangement of other structural
members in the system. Shell structures have quite a different mode of action from
skeletal structures, of which simple examples are trusses, frameworks, and trees because
other structures are only capable of transmitting forces along their discrete structural
members.

A thin shell is defined as a shell with a thickness which is small compared to its other dimensions
and in which deformations are not large compared to thickness. A primary difference between a
shell structure and a plate structure is that, in the unstressed state, the shell structure has
curvature as opposed to the plates structure which is flat. Membrane action in a shell is primarily
caused by in-plane forces (plane stress), though there may be secondary forces resulting from
flexural deformations. Where a flat plate acts similar to a beam with bending and shear stresses,
shells are analogous to a cable which resists loads through tensile stresses. Though the ideal thin
shell must be capable of developing both tension and compression.

a) Shell acts like a beam to transmit the loads to end supports.

b) Shell acts like an arch to transmit the load to the edge beam which collects the load to be
transmitted to end supports.
c) Shell acts like series of arches.
The example (c) is demonstrates the load transfer that typically happens in masonry vaults. The
vault will have compressive stresses and therefore will tend to be thicker. That is precisely the
difference between the masonry vaul vaultt and a thin barrel vault which will also be capable to
transfer tensile
nsile stresses along its length.
Shells derive their strength from there curved form. They a categorized on the basis of their
curvature.

Single or double curvature shells

Single curvature shell: are curved on one linear axis and are a part of a cylinder or cone in the
form of barrel vaults and conoid shells.

Double curvature shell: are either part of a sphere, or a hyperboloid of revolution.

The terms single and doublee curvature are used to distinguish the comparative rigidity of the two
forms and complexity of centering necessary to construct the shell form.

Forms of curvature:
Surfaces of revolution: Surfaces of revolution are generated by the revolution of a plane
plan curve,
called the meridional curve, about an axis, called the axis of revolution. In the special case of
cylindrical and conical surfaces, the meridional curve consists of a line segment. E.g. : cylinders,
cones, Spherical or elliptical domes, Hyperb
Hyperboloids of revolution, toroids.
1.

Revolution of meridional curve Revolution of line along the curve path

 2. Surfaces of translation:
Surfaces of translation are generated by sliding a plane curve along another plane curve, while
Keeping the orientation of the sliding curve constant.
The latter curve, on which the original curve slides, is called the generator of the surface.
In the special case in which the generator is a straight line, the resulting surface is called a
cylindrical surface.

3. Ruled Surfaces: Ruled surfaces are generated by sliding each end of a straight line on
their own generating curve. These lines are not necessarily at right angle to the planes
containing the end curves.
Shells geometry can also be understood by categorizing them as ‘developable’ and ‘non-
developable’ surfaces.

Developable Surfaces:
Developable surface is a surface that can be unrolled onto a flat plane without tearing or stretching
It. It is formed by bending a flat plane, the most typical shape of a developable shell is a barrel, and a
Barrel shell is curved only in one direction.

Barrel : Arch action & Beam action together make a barrel. There are mainly two types of barrel
Long barrels; Beam action is prominent
Short barrels; Arch action is prominent structural behavior of short barrel shells: these shells
are typically supported at the corners or continuously along the edge and can behave as series of
arches.
structural behavior of long barrel shells: these are typically supported at the corners and
behave structurally as a large beam.
Non-developable surfaces (doubly curved) :
They are mainly classified as : 1) synclastic 2) anticlastic
Synclastic shells:
These shells are doubly curved And have a similar curvature in each direction. E.g. domes
A dome is a good example of a synclastic shell, it is doubly curved and can be formed by rotating
a curved line around an axis.
A dome can be split up into two different directions; vertical sections separated by longitudinal
arch lines (also called meridians), and horizontal sections separated by hoops or parallels.
Structural behavior :
Similar to arches under a uniform loading the dome is under compression everywhere, and the
stresses act along the arch and hoop lines.
A dome is a space structure covering a more or less square or circular area. The best known
example is the dome of revolution, and it is one of the earliest of the shell structures. Excellent
examples are still in existence that were built in roman times. They are formed by a surface
generated by a curve of any form revolving about a vertical line. This surface has double
curvature and the resulting structure is much stiffer and stronger than a single curved surface,
such as a cylindrical shell.

Anticlastic shells : are doubly curved but each of the two curves have the opposite direction to
the other. E.g. saddle points. Conoids, hyperbolic paraboloid and hyperboloids are all considered
to the anticlastic shell because they are saddled shape with different curvature in each direction
and straight lines can be drawn of the surface.

Anti-Clastic
Conoids: formed by moving a one end of a straight line along a curved path and the other along
a straight path.

Hyperboloids: formed by rotating a straight line around a vertical axis.

Hyperbolic paraboloid:
Formed by sweeping a convex parabola along a concave parabola or by sweeping a straight line
over a straight path at one end and another straight path not parallel to the first.
Structural behaviors:
Depending on the shape of the shell relative to the curvature, there will be different stresses.
Shell roofs, have compression stresses following the convex curvature and the tension stresses
follow the concave curvature.
Merits and De-merits of shells:
Merits:

1. Very light form of construction. To span 30.0 m shell thickness required is 60mm
2. Dead load can be reduced economizing foundation and supporting system
3. They further take advantage of the fact that arch shapes can span longer
4. Flat shapes by choosing certain arched shapes
5. Esthetically it looks good over other forms of construction

De-merits:

1. Shuttering problem
2. Greater accuracy in formwork is required
3. Good labour and supervision necessary
4. Rise of roof may be a disadvantage

D. Form Active Structures: These are systems of flexible, non-rigid elements, in which the
redirection of forces is effected by particular form design and characteristic form stabilization.
Examples are:
1. Cable structures
2. Tent structures
3. Pneumatic structures .
4. Arch structure

The cable structures, Tent structures and Pneumatic Structures are Tensile structure. Tensile
Structure are those in which every part of the structure is loaded only in tension, with no
requirement to resist compression or bending forces.

Cable structures will very often have an anticlastic form as they are better stabilized.
Consider the following example;
• Large flat pieces of fabric are very poor at resisting loads.
• Imagine four of you each pulling on the strings laced through a tennis ball. Fig 1. A fifth
person pushing down on the ball can deflect it easily.
 • Imagine a flappy marquee roof. Try lifting two opposite strings and lowering the other
two. (Second figure). The ball is now locked in space. Apply this principle to fabric and
you have created ‘anticlastic’ double curvature

Stabilizing single point in space will require two cables across each other in opposite curves

Single cable will support the drying clothes above ground through tension in the cable
stayed across two trees but flutter with wind(lateral load)

Single cable will support the drying clothes above ground through tension in the cable
stayed across two trees will resist the lateral load by putting some weights or by generating
an anticlastic form using compressive or tensile member s between them.

All the cables are in tension

One can utilize several cables in the arrangement as shown to stabilize a plane which will
assume Anticlastic form and all the cables will have only tensile stress.

By definition, the membrane can only resist Forces in tension, so forces perpendicular to the
Membrane cause large deformations and large Membrane forces. Tensile roofs are susceptible to
vibration.
Reverse curvature and/ or prestressing can bring these Forces to zero.

Tensile cable structures can be of the following types

1. Stayed
2. Suspended
3. Anticlastic
4. Pneumatic
5. Trussed
Various form of cable structures

Tent Structures: Tent structures constitute membranes stretched in frames rigid in bending or
rings rigid in compression. The formation is subjected to the position of tension points. These
points can take the shape of simple pillars, arches or other shapes. They are flexible and are
difficult to close these structures in front thus finding it difficult to air condition the building.

Typical Tent Structure

Tent structure. National stadium, Abuja

Material for constructing tensile roofs:

1. Roof Covering Material: Fabric of various types are used. They could be categorised as;
a) Uncoated fabrics, Simple woven fibers like canvas or nylon fabric.
 b) Coated fabrics
• High strength woven fibers w/ coatings to prevent UV– & Environmental
degradation and improve weather Resistance.
• PVC–coated polyester: relatively short service life
• PTFE–coated glass fiber: high strength, long service life
c) Foils: PVC– and ETFC– foil

2. Fabric Edge fastening:

a) Rope Edge: A cable running in a sleeve and connected to a rigid structure at both ends
b) Hard Edge: A continuous connection to a rigid structure through clamping plates w/ or
w/o prestressing devices.

3. Point Support: Masts capable of resisting compression and buckling forces. The
magnitude of forces at the point support require distribution via rings or umbrellas

4. Line Shape Support: They can be in the form of;

a) Arches ( Internal or External)
b) Valley and ridge cable

5. Some Specialized Hardware for specific tensile structure arrangement:

Merits and Demerits of tensile Structures:

Merits:
Flexible Design Aesthetics - Tensile membrane structures provide virtually unlimited
designs of distinctive elegant forms that can be realized because of the unique flexible
characteristics of membrane resulting in an iconic and unique structure or feature for any
building owner, city or even region.
Outstanding Translucency – In daylight, fabric membrane translucency offers soft
diffused naturally lit spaces reducing the interior lighting costs while at night, artificial
lighting creates an ambient exterior luminescence.
Excellent Durability – With several different membranes in the market place such as
PTFE fiberglass, ETFE film, PVC, and ePTFE, the durability and longevity of tensile
membrane structures have been proven.
Lightweight Nature - The lightweight nature of membrane is a cost effective solution
that requires less structural steel to support the roof compared to conventional building
materials, enabling long spans of column
column-free space.
Low Maintenance – Tensile membrane systems are somewhat unique in that they
require minimal maintenance when compared to an equivalent
equivalent-sized
sized conventional
building.
Cost Benefits – Most tensile membrane structures have high sun reflectivity and low
absorption of sunlight, thus resulting in less energy uused
sed within a building and ultimately
reducing electrical energy costs.

Other merits are:

Demerits:

Pneumatic Structures: Pneumatic structures are structures using thin membrane supported by
pressure difference. The membrane are subjected to tensile stresses which a distributed as per the
form of the structure.

Pressure difference between the enclosed space and the exterior are responsible for giving the
building its shape and its stability.

They can be categorised as:

1. Air supported structures

2. Air inflated structures
Different types of Pneumatic structures
System Components:
Merits and demerits of pneumatic structures:

Merits:

1) LIGHT WEIGHT :-

• The weight of the structure as compared to the area it covers is very less

• The weight of the membrane roof , even when it is stiffened by cables, is very small

• Low air pressure is sufficient to balance it

• Even with spans of more than 100mts, the weight of the structure does not exceed
3kg/square metre .
 2) SPAN :-

• Another advantage over other structures is that, for pneumatic membrane , there is no
theoretical maximum span as determined by strength, elasticity, specific weight or
any other property.
• It is hardly possible to span a distance of over 36km. With a steel cables as they
would fail because of their inability to sustain their own weight. But with pneumatics,
such spans are quiet possible.

3) QUICK ERECTION AND DISMANTLING:-

• Suitable for temporary constructions because they are as easy to dismantle as to

establish.

• 1 sq.Km. Of an area can be brought down in 6 hours. And establish in less than 10
hours. The 4 hours difference is due to establishment of pegs etc.

4) ECONOMY:-

Pnuematic structures are relatively cheaper for erecting temporary structures when
compared to permanent ones. Otherwise the cost per square foot of air supported structures is
among the lowest for large span roofs.

5) GOOD NATURAL LIGHT:-

Gives good natural light as translucent/transparent plastic sheets are used to cover spaces.
Daylight can be brought in efficiently. There is a lot of flexibility in getting sun light(50%-
80%).

Demerits
• Need for continuous maintenance of excess pressure in the envelope
• Relatively short service life
• Continuous operation of fans to maintain pressure
• Cannot reach the insulation values of hard-walled structures