Cracking: Cracks that inherently develop due to shrinkage and heat of hydration are discussed.

Cracks also
occur due to defective design. The coefficient of expansion of cement paste is greater than that of the other
ingredients of concrete. The setting of cement is an exothermic reaction. The heat of hydration is proportional to
the cement content and hence richer mixes develop more heat of hydration and give rise to more extensive
cracking. To avoid excessive heat of hydration and consequent cracking, the code specify a maximum limit for
cement content. The products of hydration which form later during curing may heal some of cracks which form
during the initial evolution of heat. Shrinkage cracks normally occur on the surface and are skin deep. In mass
concreting work, the effect of heat of hydration is considerable and some preventive measures shall be taken to
avoid such cracks.

Causes of Cracks in Concrete

Causes of cracks in concrete can be many summarized as:

o Concrete expands and shrinks due to temperature differences

o Settlement of structure
o Due to heavy load applied or
o Due to loss of water from concrete surface shrinkage occurs
o Insufficient vibration at the time of laying the concrete
o Improper cover provided during concreting
o High water cement ratio to make the concrete workable
o Due to corrosion of reinforcement steel
o Many mixtures with rapid setting and strength gain performance have an increased shrinkage potential.

Types of Cracks in Concrete

The following figure shows types of cracks in concrete:
How to Prevent Cracks in Concrete Structures?
Preventive measures to avoid creation of cracks:
Preventive measures must be taken at the time of concreting and later to reduce cracks after concrete formation.
Main factors are:

Reduce Water Content in Concrete:

A low water cement ratio will affect the quality of concrete. W/C ratio is weight of water to the weight of
cement used. A lower w/c ratio leads to high strength in concrete and lesser cracks.

Proper Concrete Mix Design and use of Quality Materials

The concrete itself must be properly proportioned, and properly mixed. If you use too little cement, you can
almost guarantee cracks. Using too much water will make the concrete weak, leading to cracking.
 Finishing of Concrete Surface
Use proper finishing techniques and proper timing during and between finishing operations. Flat floating and
flat troweling are often recommended.

Avoid overworking the concrete, especially with vibrating screeds. Overworking causes aggregate to settle and
bleed water and excess fines to rise.

Proper Curing of Concrete

Stop rapid loss of water from surface or drying of concrete due to hydration (liquid concrete converts to plastic
and then to solid state) causes drying of the slab, so it’s recommended to cure the slab for several days.

Proper Placement and Vibration of Concrete

Properly placed, vibrated, finished concrete reduces the chances of producing cracks. Properly vibrate to release
entrapped air which later leads to cracks.

Proper Compaction of Soil to Prevent Settlement Cracks in Concrete

The area below the concrete slab has to be compacted properly and in layers so as to ensure against settlement
of soil later. If the soil is left loose it will settle over time and create cracks on surface. This applies in the home
as well as constructions on highways.

Providing Control Joints in Concrete

Control joints should be located at regular intervals so as to adjust the shrinkage of concrete. Generally, for 4-
inch depth of slab joints are provided 8 to 12 ft. apart. Control joints are pre-planted cracks. An engineer should
have an idea that concrete will crack at control joints instead of cracking any other location.

Repairing Methods of Cracks in Concrete

Various types of Concrete Crack Repair Methodologies:
o Stitching
o Muting and sealing
o Resin injection
o Dry packing
o Polymer impregnation
o Vacuum impregnation
o Autogenously healing
o Flexible sealing
o Drilling and plugging
o Bandaging

Carbonation : Concrete made with Portland cement is highly alkaline due to the presence of calcium
hydroxide. This alkalinity present in the pore water of concrete can be reduced by the acidic compounds in the
atmosphere, especially carbon dioxide and Sulphur dioxide. The effect of reduction of pH value of concrete by
these chemicals is known as carbonation. Concrete gets carbonated on the surface, including on the sides of cracks
and wherever it is in contact with the atmosphere. This carbonated concrete does not provide necessary protection
to steel reinforcement. The rate of carbonation is determined by chemical reaction between CO2 and Ca(OH)2 in
pore water, resulting in the formation of CaCO3. Hence, the rate of diffusion of CO2 inwards through concrete is
an important parameter. The diffusion takes place through the pore structure of concrete. The more water in the
concrete, the more rapidly carbonation takes place. To ensure a definite defence against carbonation, a low water
cement ratio is recommended.

Testing for carbonation

The affected depth from the concrete surface can be readily shown by the use of phenolphthalein indicator
solution. This is available from chemical suppliers. Phenolphthalein is a white or pale yellow crystalline
material. For use as an indicator it is dissolved in a suitable solvent such as isopropyl alcohol (isopropanol) in a
1% solution.

The phenolphthalein indicator solution is applied to a fresh fracture surface of concrete. If the indicator turns
purple, the pH is above 8.6. Where the solution remains colourless, the pH of the concrete is below 8.6,
suggesting carbonation. A fully-carbonated paste has a pH of about 8.4.

The phenolphthalein indicator solution is applied to a fresh fracture surface of concrete. If the indicator turns
purple, the pH is above 8.6. Where the solution remains colourless, the pH of the concrete is below 8.6,
suggesting carbonation. A fully-carbonated paste has a pH of about 8.4.

In practice, a pH of 8.6 may only give a faintly discernible slightly pink colour. A strong, immediate, colour
change to purple suggests a pH that is rather higher, perhaps pH 9 or 10.

Normal concrete pore solution is saturated with calcium hydroxide and also contains sodium and potassium
hydroxide; the pH is typically 13-14. Concrete with a pore solution of pH 10-12 is less alkaline than sound
concrete but would still produce a strong colour change with phenolphthalein indicator. It therefore follows that
the indicator test is likely to underestimate the depth to which carbonation has occurred.

In confirmation of this, microscopy - either optical microscopy using thin-sections, or scanning electron
microscopy using polished sections - shows carbonation effects at greater depths than indicated by
phenolphthalein indicator. Nevertheless, this test is very useful as a means of making an initial assessment - it is
quick, easy and widely used.

The indicator has not changed colour near the top and bottom surfaces, suggesting that these near-surface
regions are carbonated to a depth of at least 4 mm from the top surface and 6 mm from the lower surface.
Where the indicator has turned purple - the centre of the slab - the pH of the concrete pore fluid remains high
(above 8.6, probably nearer 10). Whether the cement paste here is completely uncarbonated is unclear, despite
the strong purple indicator color; a more complete assessment would require microscopic examination.
Indicator was not applied to the concrete at the right of this image and so the concrete here retains its original
colour.

The carbonation depth is approximately proportional to the square root of time. For example, if the carbonation
depth is 1mm in a one-year-old concrete, it will be about 3mm after 9 years, 5mm after 25 years and 10mm
after 100 years.
Alkali-Silica reaction :”The reaction between the alkalis in cement ( mainly sodium and potassium
hydroxides) and the reactive silica (SiO2) found in aggregates in the presence of water ( Hydroxyl ions) can cause
expansion and serious cracking in hardened concrete. The chemical reaction occurs as follows
SiO2 + NaOH + H →Na2SiO22H
Silica Alkali water Alkali-silica gel

The alkali silica gel is expansive in nature and generates considerable internal bursting force resulting serious
cracking. Alkali silica reaction (ASR) leads to expansion and cracking of concrete, loss of strength and pop outs
and exudation of alkali-silica gel. The following methods may be used to prevent ASR damage. a) limiting alkali
content b) limiting reactive aggregate c) Limiting the presence of moisture d) using pozzolanic mineral admixture
e) using air entrainment to allow expansion f) structural design- limiting access to water.

Efflorescence: The water leaking through cracks or faulty joints or through the areas of poorly compacted
porous concrete dissolves some of the readily soluble calcium hydroxide and other solids and after evaporation
leaves on the surface the calcium carbonate as white deposit. These deposits on the surface of concrete resulting
from the leaching of calcium hydroxide and subsequent carbonation and evaporation are termed as efflorescence.
Unwashed seashore aggregate, gypsum and alkaline aggregate also cause efflorescence.

Fire resistance: Fire resistance means the period of time under fire during which concrete continues to
perform satisfactorily is relatively high and no toxic fumes are emitted. The length of time over which the
structural concrete preserves structural action is known as fire rating. Under sustained exposure to temperature in
excess of 35 0C under the condition that a considerable loss of moisture from concrete is allowed leads to decrease
in strength and modulus of elasticity. The loss of strength at higher temperature is greater in saturated than in dry
concrete. Excessive moisture at the time of fire is the primary cause of spalling. In general, moisture content of
concrete is the most important factor that determines the structural behaviour at higher temperature. The loss of
strength is considerably lower when an aggregate does not contain silica. Low conductivity of concrete improves
its fire resistance and hence a light weight concrete is more fire resistant than ordinary concrete.

Creep and relaxation-Parameters affecting:

The increase of strain in concrete with time under sustained stress is termed as creep. The shrinkage and creep
occur simultaneously and they are assumed to be additive for simplicity. When the sustain load is removed, the
strain decreases immediately by an amount equal to the elastic strain at the given age. The instantaneous recovery
is then followed by a gradual decrease in strain, called creep recovery which is a part of total creep strain suffered
by the concrete. If a loaded concrete specimen is viewed as being subjected to a constant strain, the creep decreases
the stress progressively with time. This is called relaxation.

The rate of creep decreases with time and creep strain attained at a period of five years are usually taken as
terminal value. While 80 to 85 per cent shrinkage strain occur in six months, only about 75 per cent of creep
strains occur in twelve months. The factors that influence creep are type of aggregate, cement, admixtures,
entrained air, mix proportions, mixing time and consolidation, age of concrete, level of sustained stress, ambient
humidity, temperature and size of specimen

Factors Affecting Creep -

 1. Aggregate
2. Mix Proportions
3. Age of concrete

The magnitude of creep strain is one to three times the value of the instantaneous elastic strain, it is proportional
to cement-paste content and, thus, inversely proportional to aggregate volumetric content. The magnitude of creep
is dependent upon the magnitude of the applied stress, the age and strength of the concrete, properties of
aggregates and cementitious materials, amount of cement paste, size and shape of concrete specimen, volume to
surface ratio, amount of steel reinforcement, curing conditions, and environmental conditions.

Effects of Creep on Concrete and Reinforced Concrete

 In reinforced concrete beams, creep increases the deflection with time and may be a critical consideration
in design.
 In eccentrically loaded columns, creep increases the deflection and can load to buckling.
 In case of statically indeterminate structures and column and beam junctions creep may relieve the stress
concentration induced by shrinkage, temperatures changes or movement of support. Creep property of
concrete will be useful in all concrete structures to reduce the internal stresses due to non-uniform load or
restrained shrinkage.
 In mass concrete structures such as dams, on account of differential temperature conditions at the interior
and surface, creep is harmful and by itself may be a cause of cracking in the interior of dams. Therefore,
all precautions and steps must be taken to see that increase in temperature does not take place in the interior
of mass concrete structure.
 Loss of prestress due to creep of concrete in prestressed concrete structure.
 Because of rapid construction techniques, concrete members will experience loads that can be as large as
the design loads at very early age; these can cause deflections due to cracking and early age low elastic
modulus. So, creep has a significant effect on both the structural integrity and the economic impact that it
will produce if predicted wrong.

Shrinkage of concrete- Types and Significance, Parameters affecting shrinkage, Measurement of creep and
shrinkage:
Shrinkage can be defined as the decrease in volume of concrete with time. This decrease is due to changes in
moisture content and is caused by physiochemical factors. These changes occur without stress and are caused by
environmental actions in concrete. Shrinkage is caused by loss of water by evaporation or by hydration of cement
and also by carbonation. The reduction in volume i.e. volumetric strain is equal to three times the linear
contraction and it is measured simply as linear strain. Its units are mm per mm usually expressed in 10-6. The type
of shrinkages are plastic shrinkage, drying shrinkage and carbonation shrinkage. It is a time-dependent
deformation (strain) which reduces the volume of concrete without the impact of external forces. Shrinkage is
measured in an unloaded and unrestrained specimen at constant temperature.
Types Of Shrinkage -
1. Plastic shrinkage:
The hydration of cement causes a reduction in the volume of the system of cement plus water to an
extent of about 1 per cent of the volume of dry cement. This contraction is plastic strain and is
aggravated due to loss of water by evaporation from the surface of concrete, particularly under hot
climates and high winds. This can result in surface cracking.

Plastic Shrinkage Cracks

High Water /Cement ratio, badly proportioned concrete, rapid drying, greater bleeding, unintended vibrations are
some of the causes of plastic shrinkage.Use of expansive cement, proper vibration of the concrete and use of
polyethylene sheeting are some of the remedial measures undertaken to prevent plastic shrinkage.

2. Drying shrinkage:
The shrinkage that takes place after the concrete has set and hardened is called drying shrinkage. And
most of it takes place in the first few months. Withdrawal of water from concrete stored in unsaturated
air voids cause drying shrinkage. A part of shrinkage is recovered on immersion of concrete in water. It
is termed as moisture movement. The rate of shrinkage decreases with time. The tests indicate that 14 to
34 percent of 20 years shrinkage occurs in two weeks, 40 to 70 percent in 3 months and 66 to 80 percent
in one year. Drying shrinkage is caused by the loss of surface -absorbed water from the calcium silicate
hydrate ( C-S-H) gel and also due to the loss of hydrostatic tension in the small pores. Swelling is the
opposite phenomenon of shrinkage.
 Drying Shrinkage Cracks

This can be calculated by means of Schorer’s Formula:

Es = 0.00125 (0.90 -h)

Where Es is the shrinkage strain and ‘h’ is the relative humidity as a fraction.

3. Carbonation shrinkage:

The calcium hydroxide in the concrete, which is a by product of hydration reaction will be found enormous in
the concrete. This calcium hydroxide will react with the atmospheric carbon dioxide to give calcium carbonates.
This will lead to the conversion of the concrete surface to get carbonated or acidic in nature. This process is
called as carbonation.The carbonation penetrates beyond the exposed surface of concrete slowly. Carbonation is
accompanied by increase in weight and shrinkage. The shrinkage due to carbonation occurs mainly at
intermediate humidities. Carbonation also results in increased strength and reduced permeability. The
carbonates that are formed by the carbonation will result in filling up of the pores and hence decrease the
permeability and thereby increase the strength.
The following parameters affect shrinkage -
a) Water / cement ratio: As the water/cement ratio increases, the strength of the paste and the whole stiffness
will decrease and therefore shrinkage increases with the increase in water cement ratio.
b) Cement content: The shrinkage increases with cement content but is inter related to water cement ratio
because of the necessity to maintain workability. It is not much affected by by cement content if the water
content per unit volume is constant.
c) Ambient humidity: The shrinkage increases with the decrease in humidity and the immersion in water
causes expansion. With the increase in humidity in the environment, there is a decrease in the decrease
of shrinkage.

d) Material Selection :Ingredients that are chosen for the concrete mix must be good quality to ensure
chances of drying shrinkage. The properties of the ingredients in terms of quality and specification must
be as per the standard codes of that region.

e) Type of aggregate: The aggregate which exhibit moisture movement themselves and have low elastic
modulus cause large shrinkage. A concrete using sand stone may shrink twice as much as one using
limestone. An increase in maximum size decreases the shrinkage. The grading and shape has little effect
on shrinkage. Those aggregates that have high rough surface will resist the shrinkage.
f) Size and shape of specimen: Both rate and ultimate magnitude decrease with surface/volume ratio of the
specimen.
g) Type of cement: The rapid hardening cement will harden fastly, hence the shrinkage is more in the same
compared to the ordinary Portland cement. The use of shrinkage compensating cement will help in either
reduction or the elimination of the shrinkage cracks.
h) Admixtures: The shrinkage increases with the addition of calcium chloride and reduces with the lime
replacement.
i) Other factors: The steam curing has little effect unless applied at high pressure.

This Assignment work is done and submitted by Reg No.- 1602030046,1602030047.