CHAPTER -I

THE UNTOUCHABLES AND UNTOUCHABILITY I N KERALA

The p r a c t i c e of u n t o u c h a b i l i t y and unapproachability

p r e v a i l e d i n Kerala d u r i n g t h e modern period. A t this time,

t h e Hindu
i s o c i e t y i n Kerala had been d i v i d e d i n t o two
c l a s s e s , ' p o p u l a r l y known a s t h e *Savarnast ( t o u c h a b l e s ) o r
high c a s t e Hindus and t h e 'Avarnas' (untouchables) o r - l o w
c a s t e Hindus. These e v i l p r a c t i c e s touched every a s p e c t of
t h e l i f e of t h e Hindus a t t h i s t i m e .

M A I N CAUSES OF THE PRACTICE OF UNTOUCHAETLITY AND

UNAPDROACHABILITY

The main c a u s e s of t h e p r a c t i c e of Untouchability and

Unapproachabllity might have been t h e d i s t o r t i o n of Vedic
i d e a s a s t h e f i r s t cause and t h e f o r c i b l e conversion from
Hinduism t o o t h e r r e l i g i o n s a s t h e second cause. The
r e l i g i o u s i d e a s and p r i n c i p l e s of u n i t y and oneness
enshrined i n t h e Rigveda w e r e ignored a s a r e s u l t of t h e
d i s t o r t i o n o f v e d i c ideas. There i s r e f e r e n c e i n t h e
Rigveda about t h e secret of ional stab hich can be
a t t a i n e d through t h e u n i t y o f men i n a l l matters a£ t h e i r
life i n society. The Rigvedic a d v i c e t o human beings is
t h a t f o r t h e enjoyment of good r e s u l t s of dharma and
p r o s p e r i t y i n a uniform n a t u r e ? human u n i t y through
organislrrions and s t r e n g t h of mental u n i t y through knowledge

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 are e s s e n t i a l f o r t h a t purpose. Another Rigvedic

suggestion t o human beings i s t h a t f o r t h e achievement

oncept of prosperous f u t u r e , t h a t

i s , t h e paramount aim, t h e u n i t y of Mantra, o r g a n i s a t i o n

and e q u a l i t y of thought a r e e s s e n t i a l f o r t h e purpose. 2

Rigvedic b l e s s i n g t o human beings i s t h a t f o r t h e achievement

of e s t a b l i s h i n g mutual f r i e n d s h i p f o r ever, t h e equality i n

concept, h e a r t and mental u n i t y a r e e s s e n t i a l f o r t h a t

purpose.3 The p r a c t i c e of u n t o u c h a b i l i t y and

u n a p p r o a c h a b i l i t y and t h e concept of p o l l u t i o n a r e not

i n consonance w i t h t h e gbove mentioned r e f e r e n c e s c i t e d

from t h e !?igveda. The i d e a s i n t h e Rigveda have been

changed from period t o p e r i o d according t o t h e influence

of each period.4 The changed v e d i c i d e a s i n each period

helped t o s t r e n g t h e n t h e c a s t e s t r u c t u r e and led t o make

r e s t r i c t i o n s i n regard t o casteism.

Another important cause of t h e e v i l customs of

u n t o u c h a b i l i t y and unapproachability might have been t h e

,/ f o r c i b l e conversion from Hinduism t o o t h e r r e l i g i o n s . The

I. Ripedarn, Vo1.8 Malayalarr Trans.C.F.C

Narayanan Nampoothiripad, (vadakkemadam, (3rahmaswom)
Trichur-1, September 1986) Mandalam-10, Suktham-191,
P.1096, V.Z.

2. -
ibid, F.1097, V.3

4.
-
3. i b i d , P.1097-98, V.4
Vedabandu, Rigveda Pravesika, (Malayalarr.), (Kerala
Sahitya Acaderni, T r i c h u r , (ITational Book S t a l l ,
Kottayam, 1988). FP. 144-91.

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 Resolutions passed a t t h e meeting of t h e Vaidikas held a t

t h e E s t a t e o f f i c e of zamorin under t h e auspices of zamorin

Manavikrama Raja and Malayam C o l l e c t o r R.H. E l l i s on

20th August 1922 proves t h e f a c t t h a t t h e r e occured

-
conversions from Hinduism t o Islam a s a r e s u l t of Mappilla

r e b e l l i o n of 19 2 1 .5 Because t h e f o r c i b l e ~ r o m
'
-----"
t h e s i d e of Mappilas made customary v i o l
/ n t o t h e Hindus.
The defaulted persons a r e provided t o g e t a r e c e i p t f o r
information of t h e i r p u r i f i c a t i o n through temple worship
from t h e owner o r manager of t h e temple: and p r e s e n t it
b e f o r e t h e zamorin f o r t h e i s s u e of a c e r t i f i c a t e from h i m
by i n d i c a t i n g t h e i r r e - e n t r y i n t o t h e i r own c a s t e by
6
removing p o l l u t i o n through t h e e x p i a t o r y f u n c t i o n s a t ten-ples.
we m y conclude here i n t h e l i a h t of t h e above s a i d Resolution

t h a t t h e progranune of r e t u r n of t h e converted Hindus t o t h e

Hindu f o l d might have been a p r a c t i c e here i n t h e p a s t ,

t h a t i s f r o m t h e time of f o r c i b l e conversions t o o t h e r

r e l i g i o n s onwards. Gradually such conversions might' have been

increased here; and t h e r - . l e r s and people might have been

5. Resolution passed a t t h e meeting of t h e Vaidikas

held a t E s t a t e O f f i c e of Zamorin under t h e auspices
of Zamorin Manavikrama Raja and Malayam C o l l e c t o r
?.He E l l i s , on 20th August 1922 MS.(Malayalam)
7 v a l l a t h o l Vidya Peedam Library, Sukapuram, ~ d a p a l ) .

6. ibid, P.2.

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 i n d i f f e r e n t t o t h i s p r a c t i c e of r e t u r n of t h e converted
Hindus a t a l a t e r time, because of p o l l u t i o n . The
converted Hindus on t h e o t h e r hand might have been
i n d i f f e r e n t towards t h e e x p i r a t o r y procedure a t temples.
So t h i s concept of p o l l u t i o n w i t h t h e conjunction of
changed vedic i d e a s might have been a cause of r i g i d i t y 'of
casteism i n Kerala and t h e e v i l p r a c t i c e s of u n t o u c h a b i l i t y
and unapproachability. The Resolution passed i n 1 9 2 2 must
o n l y have been a remnant of t h e p a s t procedure t o r e t u r n
t h e converted Hindus. So i t i s c l e a r t h a t t h e f o r c i b l e
conversions of t h e p a s t w e r e t h e r o o t cause of t h e e v i l
p r a c t i c e s of u n t o u c h a b i l i t y and unapproachability i n Kerala.
/ "Malabar law was custom modified i n accordance w i t h t h e i r
I needs by t h e Erahmins. Thus r e g u l a t i o n s r e g a r f i n g
I u n t o u c h a b i l i t y , unapproachability. u n p e r c e i v a b i l i t y etc.
( Were made by them and s t r i c t l y enforced by t h e s t a t e which
t o t e l l y change6 t h e manner of l i f e of m i l l i o n s of low c a s t e
7
men who formed t h e m a j o r i t y of population of Kerala".

C a s t e i s m was p r m l n e n t i n Hindu Society a t t h e

beginning of the 19th century. The high caste Kindus
l i k e t h e Nambuthiris an&

'I.T.K,Ravindraa I n s t i t u t i o n s and Movements in

Kerala History (Charithram P u b l i c a t i o n s ,
Trivandruar, 19%) Ch.11, o ~ . c i t . , p.42.

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 privileged s t a t u s i n society, Even high c a s t e Nairs
servad the N e m b u t h i r i s as danestlc servants. The
untouchable c a s t e s who c o n s t i t u t e d t h e bulk of the population
w e r e i n a very backward c o n d i t i o n and severe r e s t r i c t i o n s
w e r e imposed upon their general freedom of movement.

The Nambuthiri Brehmins were the highest c l a s s i n

Kerala i n the s o c i a l hierarchy. The second important classes

PI were t h e Kshatriyas. The Ambala V a s i s and the high class

N a i r s belonged t o t h e t h i r d category. The f o u r t h category

'!-u belonged t o t h e Sudras which included t h e l o w c l a s s N a i r s of

K e r a l e as w e l l a s non-Brahmin (non-Malayali) castes of
h i g h e r class. The f i f t h category applied t o the untouchable
castes and s i x t h category applied t o t h e s t i l l lower
unapproachable c a s t e s , Frun t o p t o bottun of the s o c i a l
hierarchy, p o l l u t i o n w a s p r a c t i c e d i n Kerala.

Each of t h e above s a i d c a t e g o r i e s of Hindus had c a s t e s

and sub-castes. Brahmins t h a t i s , the Nambuthiri Brahmins
i n c l u d i n g a l l classes of V e d i c and non-Vedic Brahmins were
considered t o belong t o the f i r s t catagory of castes. The
second category was t h e Kshatriyas which included Tampurans, \

Tamoans, Samanthans etc. The t h i r d category w a s t h e Ambala

u
Vasis. I n Malabar Sociology, Vaisyas have been conspicuous
by their absence .' Adikal, Chakkiyar, Chakkiyar Nambiar,

8. M.Sankara Menon, Census Reoort of India. Cochin

1901,Vol,XX, pt,~,-(Cochin Govt, Ijress, Ernakulam,
Ch,VIII, P.189.

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 Chengazhi Nanbiar, Kollattu Kurup. M a r a f . N-iyassan,
Pisharodi, Poduval, Thiyyattunni. V a r i a r etc, were included
i n Anrbala V a s i s . Below them s t o o d t h e high caste N a i r s
i n c l u d i n g many sub-divisions i n which t h e N g h e s t
sub-castes were known as Wriyam, i n Malabar and Vellayma
i n Cochin. &nong t h m t h e r e were various grades of s o c i a l
s t a t u s and t h e members of t h e h i g h e r sub-castes d i d not
f r e e l y mingle with those of t h e lower. The Brahmins were
deemed t o be p o l l u t e d by the touch of t h e N e i r s . Below
them w a s the s t a t u s of l o w c a s t e Sudras. "There are f o u r
inter-mediate castes between Nayars and t h e p o l l u t i n g
C a s t e s t h a t may be c a l l e d low class Sudras f o r want of a
better generic nameY .' Veluthedans, Velakka Thalavans,
Chaliyans and Ezhuthachans etc, were included i n t h i s
category. Nairs and t h e castes above t h e N a i r s were
p o l l u t a d by t h e touch of t h e s e people. The non-Malayali

Brahmins and sane non-Malayali castes had t h e same s t a t u s

as t h o s e of the l o w c l a s s Sudras. The c a s t e s below t h e l o w
caste N e i r s w e r e t h e popularly known untouchable and
unapproachable castes.

9. C.Achutha Menon, Cochin S t a t e Mannual, (Gochin

Govt. Prea8, Ernakulam. 1911) Ch.111, Cb.cit.,
P.202.

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 The castes below the low c a s t e N a i r s were generally
having socia ith varying degrees i n accordance
with their Th. K-alans within t h e ,I
- --
s o c i a l distance of 24 Malabar f e e t polluted c a s t e s above'
I
them. The Ezhavans and Panans had t o keep 32 f e e t away'
from t h e higher castes. The fishermen canmunity a s such
a s Mukkuvan. Valan. Arayan e t c , had t o keep a d i s t a n c e of
36 f e e t fran the c a s t e s above them. The Kanakkans and
Kootans had t o keep a distance of 48 f e e t from t h e higher
castes. The higher csstes would be polluted by t h e
approach of Cherumans o r Eulayann w i t h i n a distance of
64 Malabar feet. The Parayans and Vettuvans had t o keep

p t d i s t m c e from the higher c a s t e s . The Nayadies

/,--
and Ulladans had t o keep 74 f e--.
a- t _.
distance £ r u n t h e h i s h e r
-
castes.

The c a s t e s t a t u s s t i p u l a t e d t h a t a member who

acquired pollution by t w c h o r approach o r i n any o t h e r

manner but had not performed any p u r i f i c a t o r y ceremony
would be severaly d e a l t w i t h . the nature of punishment
dependins on t h e degree of p o l l u t i o n acquired. The

10. There i s reference i n the following source about

the s o c i a l d i s t a n c e d each c l a s s e s of people-
Census Report of Cochin, 1901. Vol.XX, Pt.1,
Ch.VIII, P.182.

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 p o l l u t i o n v a r i e s i n connection w i t h i n t e r 4 n i n g .
i n t e r - m a r r i a g e and p o l l u t i o n by touch o r approach. l1 I n
connection with inter-dining, t h e h i g h e r caste members if
p a r t a k i n g of t h e meals ~ r e p a r n dby one of a lower caste
was a caste offence. For example. no m e m b e r of any h l g h e r

11. C.Achutha Menon. Census of I n d i a , Cochin, 19111

Vol.XVI11 Pt.1. (Cochin Govt. Press. Emakulan.
1912 Ch.XI, P.68. Par-92.
We et a cleer p i c t u r e of the above said restricted
=as% r u l e s frcm t h i s Report that, "The meals
prepared by persons belonging t o h i g h e r c a s t e s can
be p a r t a k e n of by t h o a e belonging t o t h e lower ones,
b u t the converse.'is s t r i c t l y p r o h i b i t e d , e s p e c i a l l y
i n the caee of females. A high class Nambudiri
male may e a t t h e food cooked by low c l a s s Nembudiries,
and even by Tinnnulpads, ht their females cannot*
S i m i l a r l y Nayar males c a n p a r t a k e of t h e meals
prcpared by any Nayar w i t h o u t d i s t i n c t i o n of sub-
caste; b u t a female belonging t o a lower. A l l
Nayar females can eat t o g e t h e r i n ehe same room.
b u t t h o s e of h i g h e r sub-castes may n o t s i t i n t h e
same row for t h e purpose w i t h t h o s e of a lower one.
S i m i l a r r u l e s are observed a l s o a o n g the lower
castes. I n t a r - m a r r i a g e a l s o is g e n e r s l l y governed
by the same r u l e s a s t h o s e of Inter-dining. A
Nambudiri female c a n of c o u r s e be married only i n
h e r own c l a s s . b u t a N m b u d i r i male can form
Sambandham union i n any caste below h i s . b u t n o t
below t h a t of Hayara. As a rule Nayar belonging
to the Nayar and i n - m e d i a t e c a s t e s may marry only
where t h e y e a t , t h a t is. w i t h e q u a l s and s u p e r i o r s .
b u t these r u l e s are n o t s o s t r i c t l y observed i n
these days as formerly, e s p e c i a l l y bg the Nayars.
P o l l u t i o n i s another e l e m e n t f o r c a s t e d i f f e r e n -
t i a t i o n , and there a r e some f e a t u r e s of it which
are p e c u l i a r t o this p a r t of India. A Naabudiri is
p o l l u t e d by the touch of any one below h i m i n the
Social Scale, while Kammalans and the c a s t e s below
them p o l l u t e h i m , i f t h e y approach w i t h i n a p r e s c r i b e d
r a d i u s . Similarly, the members of any o t h e r castes
a n p o l l u t e d by the touch or approach. a e t h e case
may be, of the castes b l o w them."

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 c a s t e e a t s w i t h t h e Ezhavans o r Tiyyans o r chogmars. The
higher male members were prevented from having sexual
connection with lower c a s t e females below t h e rank cf Nairs
and male m e m b e r s of a l l castes w e r e prevented fran having
sexual r e l a t i o n s with females of higher castes. The
non-performance of funeral rites and non-observance of ceremonial
pollutions such as death, b i r t h and pollution i n connection
with women e t c , were sane Of the offences t o caste rules
and r e s t r i c t i o n s . Similar offences, i f canmitted between
members of sub-castes, were t r e a t e d as m i n o r oms.

The e a t i n g of flesh, f i s h and t h e use of intoxicating

drinks were prohibited t o B r a h m i n s , Kshatriyas and Ambala
Vasis. E u t t h e Nayars and c a s t e s below them were prohibited
f r a n t h e use of beef only from t h e i r food. The accounts
of 1901 Madras Census Report show t h a t there were twenty
two c a s t e s i n Halabar which p o l l u t e e v e n without touching
but do not e a t beef. l2 It i s noticeable t h a t i n f e a s t s
and on ceremonial occasions, some r e s t r i c t e d formalities
had t o beobserved i n the a l l o c a t i o n of s e a t s i n the dining
h a l l according t o s o c i a l status. This customary s t a t u s
i n Ksrala bound up i n a l l dealings between each c a s t e

12. W.Francis, Census R e ~ o r tof India Madras, 19018

Vol.XV, Pt.1, (G4vt. P r e s s , Madras, 1902) Ch.VIII.
-
PP 138-9.

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 with o t h e r castes. Widow remarriage w a s not allowed
among Brahmins. I n f a n t marriage was a camon r u l e among
t h e Malayalis and g i r l s were enforced t o marry before
puberty i n t h e Malaya11 c a s t e syetem.

At t h i s t i m e t h e Hindus observed varying degrees of

d i s t a n c e s i n p o l l u t i o n . l3 These varying degrees of d i s t a n c e s
i n p o l l u t i o n according t o caste s t a t u s were a p p l i c a b l e t o
t h e whole of Kerala. l4 Every man considered himself
p o l l u t e d by t h e touch o r approach of one of a c a s t e below
him. "A Nambudiri i s p o l l u t e d by t h e touch of any one

below hlm. i n the S o c i a l Scale, while Kammalans and the

1 4 . Pharoah 61 Co., G a z a t t e e r of Southern India,

Athaenem P r e s s , Madras, 1855) P.518.
I t i s s a i d i n t h i s G a z e t t e e r t h a t t h e Thiyyas of
Malabar w e r e not allowed t o approach within s i x t e e n
f e e t of Superior Hindus: b u t i n t h e north of
Malabar they may approach w i t h i n f i v e f e e t , and
g e n e r a l l y a c t u a l c o n t a c t only i s considered t h e r e
t o cause p o l l u t i o n .
L.K. Anantha Krishna I y e r , The Cochin Tribes and
C a s t e s Vol.1, (Cochin Government Press, Ernakulam,
1909., F i r s t Edition, Cowo Publications, New D e l h i
1981) Ch.XVI, p.311
The a u t h o r rejects t h i s above s a i d d i s t z n c e
by saying t h c t "So f a r as my information goes,
t h i s does not appear t o be c o r r e c t . They
(Thiyyas of North Malabar) cannot approach
Brahman houses o r temples, nor can they
pass through Brahman Villages i n Palghat.
No member of any higher c a s t e s e a t s with them'.

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 c a s t e s below them p o l l u t e him i f they approach within a
prescribed radius. The Namtuthiri was considered himself
16
p o l l u t e d even by t h e approach of a N a i r within s i x f e e t .
Similarly, t h e m e m b e r s of any o t h e r c a s t e s were p o l l u t e d
by t h e touch o r approach of the c a s t e s below them. The

members of a l l castes must s t r i c t l y obey t h e d i s t a n c e

pollution. No such d i s t a n c e of p o l l u t i o n was associated
with t h e C h r i s t i a n s and Muslims whose touch was considered
a s polluting. Such type of p o l l u t i o n acquired by t h e
Hindus varied on t h e grounds of t h e i r s o c i a l s t a t u s . It

was decided by t h e Vaidikas t h a t t h e suggested expiatory

provisions t o t h e d e f a u l t s of Hindus i n regard t o t h e
Mappila r e b e l l i o n of 1 9 2 1 a t t h e i r meeting is enough t o
17
a l l Hindus except Brahmins. For example, i f Brahmins
acquired it by touch o r by inter-dining o r i n t e r - m a r r i a g e
with them. they were ex-caamunicated f r a n t h e caste.
Similar was t h e c a s e of a l l o t h e r Hindu castes. because
of t h e Orthodox c h a r a c t e r of t h e society. The Mappila
rebedlion of 1921 a l s o r e s u l t e d i n various degrees of
p o l l u t i o n t o some of the Hindus of B r i t i s h Malabar. The

15. C. Achutha Menon, The Cochin State Manual, o ~ . c i t . ,

Ch.111,
. . P.195.
16. K.V. Krishna Ayyar, A s h o r t History of Kerals. .m-
Pub.by S.V.Pal (Pai & Co., E r n a k u l a 1966)
CheXVI. P.128.

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 c o n t a c t s by touch l i k e Co-living and e a t i n g of the food
prepared by the Mappilas i n t e r - d i n i n g and s o on, w i t h the
Hindus d u r i n g the c o u r s e of r e b e l l i o n r e s u l t e d i n s e v e r a l
types of p o l l u t i o n t o the Hindus i n regard to the period
of r e b e l l i o n . l8 Thus i n t e r - m a r r i e g e , i n t e r d n i n g and .
p o l l u t i o n by touch or approach were the tests by which
c a s t e - s t a t u s o r s o c i a l s t e t u s was determined i n Kerala.

P u r i f i c a t i o a trczm p0Uutrioa
There were v a r i o u s kinds of p u r i f i c a t i o n wbfch e x i s t e d
i n Kerala i n regard t o p o l l u t i o n by touch o r apprcach. The
i d e a of p u r i t y or c l e a n l i n e s s was r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e
p o l l u t i o n by touch or approach. The Nambuthiri Brahm-
and Kshatriyas were p o l l u t e d by t h e touch of h i g h c a s t e
N a i r s i n such a way t h a t the l o w c a s t e N a i r s who p o l l u t e d
t h e high c a s t e Piairs by touch. The Kammalans p o l l u t e d the
N a i r s by appmaching w i t h i n twelve f e e t . l9 "The approach '

\ .
o f a Nayadi w i t h i n a d i s t a n c e of three hundred feet i s said
--
t o c o n t m i n e t e a Brahman, who h a s t o bathe and p u t on a new I

s a c r e d thread, t o c l e a n himself of pollution... I f a Nayar p

touches a Brahman, t h e l a t t e r should bathe.
J
I f a thandan, \
Tiyan. Carpenter, blacksmith, gold s m i t h , cheruman, Paraiyan,

19. V. Nagam Aiya, The Travancore S t n t e Manual, V01.11

( T r a v a n c ~ r eGovernment Press. Trivandrum,1906)~h.~,~.390.

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 o r Nayadi approaches a Brahman o r Nayar w i t h i n t h e
p r o h i b i t e d &stance, they have t o b a t h e t o c l e a n s e themselves
f r u u t h e p o l l u t i o n . *20 A plunge b a t h e i n t h e tank o r stream
w a s t h e method of washing o f f p o l l u t i o n of a l l kinds. But

t h e p o l l u t i o n by touch o r approach c a n be removed o n l y with

some p u r i f i c a t o r y ceremonies a l s o b e s i d e s bathe i n water.
For example, i f a Nayadi who p o l l u t e s a B r a h m i n by
approaching him w i t h i n a d i s t a n c e of f o u r f e e t ( i n s p i t e of
t h e 74 f e e t approach d i s t a n c e between t h e Nayadi and Brahmin),
t h e Brahmin has t o bathe, renew h i s sacred t h r e a d and d r i n k
Panchagavyam. Such k i n d of p u r i f i c a t o r y bathe and o t h e r
p u r i f i c a t o r y ceremonies had been observed i n Kerala during
t h i s time. The lower castes a l s o observed p o l l u t i o n a r y
p u r i f i c e t i o n s , j u s t as i n the c a s e of h i g h e r castes.
Mr.K.V. Krishna Ayyar s a y s t h s t 'A Pulayan almost a t t h e
o t h e r end o f t h e s o c i a l s c a l e , would b o t l ~ ef i v e t i m e s i f
touched by a Parayan. and seven times if a p ~ r o a c h e dw i t h i n
t h e p r o h i b i t e d d i s t c n c e by an U l l a t a n , and symbolically
empty himself of h i s p o l l u t e d blood by p r i c k i n g h i s f i n g e r

20. S. Appadorai I y e r , Madras Government Museum

B u l l e t t i n , Vol.11, N o . 1 ; Anthropology. Na a d i e s
of Malabar (Government P r e s s , Madras, 1901 o ~ . c i t . ,
P.71.
+
-
21. Panchaqawam i s a m i x t u r e o f t h e f i v e g i f t s of t h e
cow milk, c u d s , b u t t e r , u r i n e and dung.

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 w i t h a t h o r n and s h e d d i n g a few d r o p s b e f o r e h i s l a s t
22
bathe:' I n t h e same way, i f B V e t t u v a n who was p o l l u t e d
by a Nayadi o r a n U l l a t a n , s h o u l d have been t a k e n

p u r i f i c a t o r y b a t h e s w i t h f a s t f o r s e v e n days: s u b s i s t i n g

on water a n d t o d d y f o r t h e r e m o v a l o f p o l l u t i o n . 23 Thus'

t h e l o w e r c a s t e s as w e l l a s t h e h i g h e r c a s t e s observed

p u r i f i c a t o r y ceremonies f o r removing p o l l u t i o n .

The p o l l u t i o n a c q u i r e d by t h e Hindus by t h e touch o f

o t h e r r e l i g i o n i s t s l i k e C h r i s t i e n s and Muslims c o u l d b e

removed t h r o u g h t h e p u r i f i c a t o r y p r o v i s i o n s o r d e r e d by t h e

rulers. F o r example, d u r i n g t h e t i m e of Mappila R e b e l l i o n i n

1921, t h e p u r i f i c a t i o n from t h e p o l l u t i o n a c q u i r e d by t h e Hindus
( e x c l u d i n g Brahmins) who had d o n e any work a t t h e t i m e i n

c o n t r a v e n t i o n of Hindu r e l i g i o u s P r a c t i c e s c o u l d b e o b t a i n e d
/3
by d o i n g e x p i a t i o n a s t w e n t y one d a y s

- V a s h i v a d u s ( o f f e r i n g s ) and s h o u l d b e o f ' e r e d

Namajapams ( t o u t t e r name of t h e d e i t y such a s ' S i v a '

'Narayana ' )
twelve thousand

t o t h e i r n e a r e s t temple a c c o r d i n g t o t h e

temple customs a p p l i c a b l e t o t h e i r c a s t e s .
0 *
or

Each t y p e of s u c h
p o l l u t i o n had e a c h t y p e o f p r o p e r p u r i f i c a t i o n s l i k e t h e
above s a i d , f o r t h e removal o f p o l l u t i o n and a g a i n t o become

22. K.V.Krishna liyyar, A s h o r t H i s t o r y of K e r a l a ,

o p . c i t , , Ch.VI, ~ p . 1 2 8 9. -
23. T.K. Sankara Menon, Census R e p o r t o f Cochin, 1931,
Vol.XX1, P t . 1 ( C o c h i n Government P r e s s , Ernakulam,
1933) App.11, P.290, par.4.
24. R e s o l u t i o n p a s s e d a t t h e m e e t i ~ go f the-...
.
PP. 1-2.

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 Hindus. 25 An i n t e r e s t i n g type of p u r i f i c a t i o n had e x i s t e d
i n t h e Cochin s t a t e i n regard t o such p o l l u t i o n s . 'In the
case of caste o f f e n c e s m e r i t i n g ex-communication, Sudras and
p e r s o n s i n f e r i o r t o them i n c a o t e c o u l d be saved f r o m t h a t
p e n a l t y bg the Raja of Cochin by p r e s e n t i n g t o them w i t h h i s
own hands a Kindi o r v e s s e l of w a t e r t o drink. m26 Few
of t h e converted low c a s t e peoples such as Pula)-ans,
F i s h e m e n etc; had taken this o p p o r t u n i t y t o r e t u r n again
t o Hinduism fran the converted r e l i g i o n . They had t o take
w a t e r from any member of t h e Cochin r o y a l f m i l y f o r t h e
removal of t h i s p o l l u t i o n acquired by being converts,

Enforcement of C a s t e Rules
The C a s t e System of Kerala was t h e most r i g i d cunpared
t o o t h e r parts of India. The c a s t e r u l e s and ordinances

were d r a s t i c and t h e i r observances w e r e r i g o r o u s l y enforced.

Even v i o l a t i o n of i t s u n i n p o r t n n t rules had merited p e n a l t y
o f ' v a r i o u s kinds and imposition of v a r i o u s degrees of
purifications. V i o l a t i o n of i t s more important rules had
m e r i t e d complete ex-communication from t h e c a s t e and s o c i e t y .

25. =-The Vaidikas decided i n t h i s meeting t h a t t h e

r e a d i n g of Vedas by t h e Sudras,the wearing of ear
r i n g s by the Hindu females l i k e Mappila women,
draped d r e s s e s by t h e Hindu females etc. through t h e
pznacez- -: of Mappilas; and suggested e x p i a t i o n t o
t h e s e d e f a u l t s a s three days Panchaaawm Seva and
should be o f f e r e d n o t less t h a n three thousand
Namai aDams.
26. Census R e ~ o r to f Cochin, 1911* Vol.XVII1, Pt.1,
o ~ . c i t . , Ch.XI, P.70, Par.95.

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 K e r a l a had s t r i c t l y observed atmospheric p o l l u t i o n with
t o u c h p o l l u t i o n , b u t other p a r t 6 of I n d i a observed only
touch p o l l u t i o n . "The t i n y p l a n t of u n t o u c h a b i l i t y grew
i n t o t h e mighty and many-branched tree of unapproachability
27
i n i t s p r i e s t - r i d d e n and f e r t i l e s o i l .

Caste rules and r e s t r i c t i o n s were s t r i c t l y enforced

i n Kerala through t h e agency of c a a t e a s s o c i a t i o n s popularly

-
known as enangu and t a r a g s s o c i a t i o n s z a n d through t h e
v a i d i k a n s and t h e r u l e r of t h e s t a t e . "The duty o f t h e
s o v e r i g n w a s t o p r o t e c t t h e Dheala ( g e n e r a l l a w of this
c o u n t q ) and uphold t h e Marvadp o r Acharam (customary r u l e s )
o f each caste and l o c a l i t y . 2e These r u l e s were enforced
by t h e enanqu and a s s o c i a t i o n s i n t h e case of minor
o f f e n c e s and by t h e v a i d i k a n s and t h e ruler of t h e s t a t e i n
t h e c a s e of more s e r i o u s ones. 29 I t was on t h e occasion of

27. T.K. Sankara Menon, Census Rewrt of I n d i a , Cochin,

1 9 3 l , o ~ . c i t . V o l . x x I , pt.1 ch.XII, p.251, par.11.
28. K.V. Krishna A w a r . The Zamorins of C n l i c u t f n m the

was the a s s o c i a t i o n of a number of families

onging t o t h e same sub-caste i n a v i l l a g e and
was the a s s o c i a t i o n of t h e l e a d i n g men of
v a r i o u s castes i n a v i l l a g e .

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 a death o r marriage o r o t h e r occurances i n a family, the
family mmbers of enansu system, who made the necessary
arrangements f o r t h e occasion. 30 on such occasions, the
e l d e r s of the families used t o s e t t l e a l l a o c i a l disputes
and dispose of minor c a s t e offences. The type of
punishments were suspension from t h e enanqu a s s o c i a t i o n
and imposed f i n e s o r o t h e r s m a l l e r punishments. The f i n e s
t h u s r e a l i s e d were paid i n t o t h e funds of t h e v i l l a g e
temple. Although t h i s system d i d not exist and t h i s
a s s o c i a t i o n f a i l e d t o t a k e action, m e m b e r s of o t h e r
c a s t e s and sub-castes came t o take actions. The tars
a s s o c i a t i o n punished f o r t h e breach of caste r u l e s by
suspending fzun t h e p r i v i l e g e s of t h e v i l l a g e comunity
such as the s e r v i c e s of the v i l l a g e barber, washeman,
c h i t i k a n o r p u r i f i e r &om p o l l u t i o n etc. h e more
important cases w e r e reported t o t h e Vaidikans OT

a s o r t of head among p r i e s t s , o r H i s Highness, t h e Raja,

according t o t h e seriousness of t h e offence, and a c t i o n

30. The d e t a i l s about the functions of enanau

and &
a a s s o c i a t i o n s taken from: P.Govinda
Menon, Census R e ~ o r tof Cochin, 1921, V~.XIX,
Pt.1, (Cochin Government Press, Ernakulua, 1922)
Ch.XI, P.69, Par.94.

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 was taken according t o t h e i r o r d e r s . 31 Complete ax-
communication could n o t be passed without t h e s a n c t i o n
o f t h e mler. It i s clear from t h e foregoing e x p l a n a t i o n
t h a t i n the casteism, t h e p r e c t i c e of u n t o u c h a b i l i t y and
unapprc)achability i n Kerala was t h e imposed c u r s e upon the
p e o p l e a s a n a t i o n a l product of t h e s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e and
t h e s t r i c t enforcement of c a s t e r u l e s .

A BRIEF DESCRIPRION ABOUT THE UNTOUCHABLE AND USAPPROACHABLE

CASTES I N KERALA

From t o p t o bottom o f t h e s o c i a l h i e r a r c h y
u n t o u c h a b i l i t y and u n a p p r o a c h a b i l i t y w a s p r a c t i c e d i n Kerala.
These c a s t e s b e a r i n g d i f f e r e n t names, ( f o r example, chiruman,
pulayan etc.) b u t p e r f o m i n g t h e same f u n c t i o n s i n d i f f e r e n t
p a r t s of t h e c o u n t r y , should be t r e a t e d as belonging t o t h e
same c a s t e o r not. According t o t h e customs of t h e Orthodox
Hindu S o c i e t y i n Kerala, a l a r g e number of castes belonged t o
t h e impure c a t e g o r y of p o p u l a t i o n i n regard t o t h e i r s o c i o ,
economic and r e l i g i o u s s t a t u s . The measurement s c a l e of
i m p u r i t y v a r i e d from caste t o c a s t e . The most important

31. The p o l l u t i o n acquired by t h e Hindus e x c e p t

Brahmins d u r i n g t h e t i m e of Mappila r e b e l l i o n
of Malabar i n 1 9 2 1 i s an example of more s e r i o u s
o f f e n c e s t o caste r u l e s . T h i s c a s e had been seen
by the Zamorin o f C a l i c u t and Malayam C o l l e c t o r as
one of n s e r i o u s case. So a committee of Vaidikas
h e l d a t t h e E s t a t e o f f i c e of Zamorin and Malayam
C o l l e c t o r R.H. E l l i s on 20th August 1922 and
passed a r e s o l u t i o n w i t h some p r o v i s i o n s i n regard t o
remove such p o l l u t i o n .

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 impure s e c t i o n s among them were t h e low c l a s s Hindus,

a b o r i g i n a l t r i b e s and lower c u s t e i m m i g r a n t s from o t h e r

p a r t s of India. Each o f t h e s e c l a s s e s had c a s t e s and

sub-castes.
Unapproachable class woo a s e c t i o ~o f Hindu s o c i e t y

i n r e g a r d t o t h e p o l l u t i o n i n K e r a l a compared t o o t h e r

p a r t s of Inc?ia. I n o t h e r p a r t s of I n d i a , " T h e i r ( P o l l u t i n g

c a s t s ) e s s e n t i a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c is t h a t , according t o t h e

t e n e t s of o r t h o d o x Hinduism, t h e y are, though w i t h i n t h e

Hindu system, 'untouchable', - that i s t o say, t h a t f o r a l l

o t h e r Hindus t h e y c a u s e p o l l u t i o n by touch a n d d e f i l e f o o d
32
o r water. But i n X e r a l a , t t r e h i g h c a s t e Hindus had been

2 o l l u t e d even t h e a?>roach of p o l l u t i n q c a s t e s w i t h i n a

prescribed distance. Caste S t a t u s w a s important i n t h e

c a s e d approach t o a person. F o r example, t h e d i s t a n c e of

ap?roach was h i g h s r when a - . p r o a c h i n g t h e h i g h e z c a s t e s l i k e

Erahmins a n d X s h a t r i y a s a n d it was lower when approaching

t h e Nairs. It i s c l e a r from t h e a b w e f a c t t h a t t h e

2:;proachable d i s t a n c e t o h i g h e r c a s t e s was v a r y i n s a c c o r d i n g

t o t h e c a s t e s t a t u s of h i g h e r c a s t e s . It is an interesting

thing that the unap?roacbbkcastes a l s o o b s e r v e d mutual

polluLkion among them within the fold of p o l l u t i n g

classes of Hindu Society, just as in the case of

hiaher castes. So K. M. Panikkar observes

32. R e p o r t o f t h e I n d i a n S t a t u t o ~Commission , Vol. I,

PT. I The C o n d i t i o n of t h e problem, (Gov?rnment of
I n d i a , C e n t r a l p u b l i c a t i o n Branch, C a l c u t t a , 1930)
op. c i t , Ch.4 p.37.
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 that ''Untouchable Society was in fact an imitation of
Hindu life, in all its weakn~sses,often enforcing amon
themselves social distinctions as rigid as among caste
Hindus, and consequently as broken up and divided as the /
other. "3 3

The low class Hindus can be divided into four

sections in regard to the length of unapproachability.
The first section can be called as higher unapproachable
castes and the second section as lower unapproachable
castes, the third section as the Forest and Hill tribes
and the fourth section as non-indegenous castes. The
higher unapproachable castes can be again divided into
three groups, in regard to the distance of their
unapproachability.

Hibher Una~roachab3eCaster

The castes belonging to the first group of higher

unapproachable section polluted the higher castes by
approach within twenty four feet. In the distance of
pollution, the artisan class, collectively known as the
Karmnalans belonged to the first group of polluting
castes. Marassari or Carpenter, Kallassari or Mason,

33. K.M. Panikkar, Hindu Society at Cross Roads,

Published by P.S. Jaya Singh, (Asia publishing
House, Bombay, First Ed.1955, Reprint:1967)
0p.cit.. P.54.

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 Musari 07brazier, Kollan or blacksmith, Tattan or gold
smith were included among the artisan community.
Tolkollan or leather worker also included in the
c o m n i t y . o f Kamalans.

The second group of higher unapproachable section

-
included the castes like the Ezhavas, Panans, --~elans,~'
Mannans and Vilkurups. These castes had to keep a I '
7%

distance of thirty
>
,
two feet away _ from .._.
the h-i , g b e r , m s .
.. - ., ~

The Ezhavas were known in different names at various

parts of the country. "To the South this class is known
as Shannars: to the north as Teeans, Denominations
carrying with them but slight shades of disinction,
and all may be considered as applicable to the same
race". 34 Palm cultivation and toddy drawing were their
heriditary occupations but they were also engaged in
agriculture. The Panans were engaged in sorcery as
well as medicine. In the case of profession, the Panans
were"... the musicians of the inferior order, but to this
profession they add that of players, pretend to a
knowledge of medicine and the occult sciences-the two
latter accomplishments are here generally united -a
doctor being necessarily a nusician, and about equally

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 s k i l f u l i n b o t h c h a r a c t e r s n . 35 L.K, ~ n e n t h aKrishna 1 y e r
states t h a t some of t h e Pananm were engaged i n magical
rites of a r e p u l s i v e c h a r a c t e r , i n order to become
p o s s e s s o r of a powerful "medicinen, t h e p o s s e s s i o n of
which was believed t o have t h e power of o b t a i n i n g anythlnq
he wished,36 The Vilkurupa were engaged i n making
umbrellas, bows and arrows. Vilkurups w e r e s o c a l l e d
because t h e i r t h e i r occupation i n former t i m e s was t o
t r a i n low caste youngmen t o a t h e l e t i c f e a t s and arms,
and t o make bows and arrows. 37 There were no s u b c a s t e
'I
_
\
among t h e Vilkurups. Velans and -Manna8
- -....- were -- t h e-._
washenmn
_-
of t h e p o l l u t i n g castes, T h e y had t o s t a n d a t a d i s t a n c e /
- - . . . . ... . ~

-
of t h i r t y two feet__ f r o. m. t h. e.. .Brahmins.
~ '
-- , The s e r v i c e s of
)ZC____
,)
&,. ~-
mannans ___-,--- - .. - _ _ ___
and Vela,ns arenxrsgu.tre.d by caste women for "

-~
p u r i f i c a t i o n -a f t e r d e l i v e r y and monthly period. The !
,

Velans a l s o a c t e d as phvaicians-
- .~.,. ~.~.
".
-.0., 6... -.-~.--
~ ~ k wclasses.
ec ~. . ,
L/<
------
The fishermen c o m n i t y an2 some o t h e r c a s t e s
below t h e rank of t h i r t y t w o f e e t d i s t a n c e were p o l l u t i n g
unapproachable c a s t e s . They h3d t o keep a d i s t a n c e of t h i r t y
s i x f e e t away from t h e h i g h e r c a s t e s . W k u v a n , Valan,
Arayan etc. belonged t o t h e fishermen community. They were

35. ibid, cp.cit.. p.156.

36. The cochia Tribes and Castes,Vol.I. Ch.X. P.174
37. C.Achutha Menon. The Cochin State annual,
Ch,III, P. 204.

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 engaged i n works r e l a t i n g t o f i s h i n g and sea. The
39
P u l l m a n casts w a s g e n e r a l l y held t o be i n f e r i o r t o Tiyyans.
They were t h e s i n g e r s b e f o r e th. S e r p e n t K ~ v M . ~ O They s i n g
a t t h e S e r p e n t Kavus a p e c u l i a r song, accompanied by t h e
t o g of an i n s t r u m e n t called Pulluva Kudam ( a k i n 5 of p o t ) .
They were also tmployed i n medicine and t h e i r females
were mid wives of t h e low c a s t e s . The Kaniyans belonged
t o t h i s group of t h i r t y s i x f e a t d i s t a n c e c a s t e s - 'I
3G
The
L .
A
_-
,
.,
.
,.
.
., ... .. , -
c h i e f occupation of t h e Kaniyan6 w a s t o cast horoscopes
and t o choose t h e p r o p i t i o u s t i m e f o r t h e c e l e b r a t i o n of
marriages and o t h e r ceremonies. Logan saps, " H i s @aniyan94
work i n s h o r t mixes him up w i t h t h e g r a v e s t a s with t h e most
t r i v i a l of t h e domestic e v e n t s of t h e people, and h i s
i n f l u e n c e and p o s i t i o n are correspondingly g r e a t . "42

39. H,A.Stuart, Census Report of Madras. 1891, Vol.XII1

Government Press, Madras, 18-72.
40. S e r p e n t Kavue w e r e t h e worshipping p l a c e s of s e r p e n t s .
They were g e n e r a l l y known i n Kerala a s S i
The p u l l w a n s had t o eep a
Serpent Kavus f o r s i n g i n g songs.
v
41. L.K. Anantha Krishna Xyer. The Cochin T r i b e s and
castes, Vol.1, Ch.XI, p.228.
The a\lthor s a y s t h a t t h e Kaniyans had t o keep
t h i r t y s i x f e e t from a Brahmin and twenty f o u r f e e t
from h N a i r , but on a u r r i a g e o c c a s i o n s a - ? a i r g i v e s
a B i f t (dakshina) o f f o u r annas and betel l e a v e s
t o t h e a s t r o l o g e r s t a n d i n g c l o s e b e s i d e him and y e t
t h e r e was no p o l l u t i o n .
42. William Logan, UALABAR, Vol-I (Government of IWBtas,
1887r R m r i n t , Charfthram ~ u b l i c a t i o n s . Trivandrur~.

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 LOWS Wlapprochable: Castes

The above mentioned t h r e e groups of c a s t e s were t h e

highestunapproachable c a s t e s i n Kerala and b e l w them
stands t h e p o s i t i o n of lowest unapproachable castes.

There were four groups among t h e lowestunapp,pmachable.

castes.

The f i r s t group of t h e lowest p o l l u t i n g c a s t e s was

t h e Kanakkans and Kootans. They had t o keep a distance

of f o u r t y e i g h t f e e t away from the higher c a s t e s . The

Kanakkans were good boat-men a s well as a g r i c u l t u r a l

labourers. The Kootans were a g r i c u l t u r a l labourers.

The second group of t h e lowest p o l l u t i n g c a s t e s

was included t h e rmlayans. The Pulayans o r Cherumans ,&{
-*-
had t o keep a d i s t a n c e of s i x t y four f e e t away from t h e
higher c a s t e s . They were engaged i n a g r i c u l t u r a l labour.

The Malavedans of Travancore were not a h i l l t r i b e a s

t h e i r name implies. They were employed by 'Sudra8

farmers t o guard t h e crops from t h e ravages of wild

beasts. 43 The Malankuravans were engaged i n a g r i c u l t u r a l
labour found mostly i n some t a l u k s of Travancore areas,
with two sections-one l i v i n g i n t h e jungles and the o t h e r
i n t h e plains. The Malankuravans were obliged t o stand

43. Edgar Thurston, Madras Government ~ I u s ~ w ,

B u l l e t i n , Vo1.III. No.1, ~nthropology. Notes
on some of t h e people of Malabar, ' ~ a l a v e d a n s
of ~ravancore'; Pdscel lanea with six p l a t e s ,
'(~overnmentP r e s s Madras, 1900) P. 06.

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 a t a d i s t a n c e of f o u ~ t ypaces according t o some c a s t e s ,

and according t o others, s i x t y f o u r paces from t h e hiqh

44
c a s t e Hindus.

The Parayans and Vettuvans were included i n t h e

t h i r d group of lowest unapproachable castes. They were
~~
... .. . ~

unapproachable t o the higher c a s t e s within a prescribed

(,: radius of seventy-- r o f e e t . The Parayans were engaged

i n a g r i c ~ i l t u r a lf i e l d labour. The Parayans. t h e lowest

c l a s s among t h e lower c l a s s Hindus were p a r t i c u l a r l y

regard a s one of the worst powers of witchcraft. 45 The
Wttuvans were hunters by occupation: a l s o engaged i n
a g r i c u l t u r a l labour and c o l l e c t i o n of f o r e s t productions.

The Nayadies and Ulladans were included i n t h e

fourth group of lowest unapproachable c a s t e s . They had
__C_-- -
t o keep a d i s t a n c e of seventy f o u r f e e t away from the 7;'
superior castes. The Nayadies a s a c l a s s were averse t o

manual labour. 47 Begging, watching crops i n t h e p l a i n s ,

and c o l l e c t i n g f o r e s t produce were t h e i r chief

44. L.A.Krishna Iyer, The Travancore Tribes and

Castes, Vol. I, (Government Press, Trivandrum,
mTTTp.95.
45. Pharoad & Co., Gazetteer of Southern India,
P.524.
47. L.K. Anantha Krishna Iyer, The Tribes and
Castes of Cochin, Vol.1, Ch.111, P.54.

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 c c c u p a t i c r , ~4. e The Ulladans were c h i e f l y engaged i n

a g r i c u l t u r a l l a h u r , f e l l i n g t r e e s and i n scopping out

logs f o r boats.

The approach of f o r e s t t r i b e s and h i l l t r i b e s a l s o

causes p o l l u t i o n t o c a s t e Hindus. They were influenced

by a l l t h e prejudices of c a s t e , and were divided i n t o

, several d i s t i n c t t r i b e s w i t h l i t t l e i n t e r c o u r s e w i t h each
other but t h e i r c h a r a c t e r was s i m i l a r which p a r t a k e s of
t h e rude wildness of t h e i r h i l l s , but it was i n no instance

ferocious. 49 The r u l e r t r e a t e d t h e f o r e s t and h i l l t r i b e s

w i t h g r e a t a f f e c t i o n . eventhough t h e jungle and h i l l t r i b e s

cause p o l l u t i o n t o t h e higher castes. Their approach

48. c.Achutha Menon, Census Report of cochin, 1891,

Pt.1. Ch.XI.P.114. Dar.274- There is a reference
i n this r e p o r t abou't t h e Nayadies t h a t "They a r e
a lazy people a n d a z e t h e most i r r e s p e r e s s i b l e of
beggars. They s u r p r i s e t h e t r a v e l l e r by t h e i r
clamorous howl f o r c h a r i t y and follow h i m f o r
miles together till they g e t something. On t h e
r e c e i p t of some small present, they express t h e i r
g r a t i t u d e by discharaing a v o l l e y of B i l l i n g s gate".
49. Ward and Conner, Geographical and s t a t i s t i c a l
Memoir ...,
Vol.1, P.157
50. L.K.Anantha Krishna Iyer, The Cochin Tribes and
Castes, Vol.1, I P.21,
He savs i n t h e c a s e of Kadars. of Cochin. t h a t
wheneter H i s Highness t h e ~ a j at o u r s i n t h e f o r e s t s
they follow h i m c a r r y him from p l a c e t o p l a c e i n
ManjalS o r Palanquins, carry Samans and i n f a c t
do everythinq f o r him. H i s Highness i n r e t u r n was
much attached t o them, feeds them, gives them
c l o t h e s , ornaments, combs and looking glasses.

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 51
within twenty four f e e t causes pollution t o c a s t e Hindus,

There were a large umber Of Poteat and H i l l t t i b e s i n

Kerala. Some of them were t h e Irulas. Kadars Malayans,
Mala Pantaram, Walapulayans, Malayarayans etc, The I r u l a s
were a Semi-Brahmanised f o r e s t t r i b e who were found mainly
i n Malabar and w a d . The Badagas of B i l g r i s was a Kanarese
Caste and c h i e f l y engaged i n agriculture.'52 The Eravallena
were a Tamil and Malayalam speaking jungle tribe found i n
t h e Chittoor Taluk of Cochin State. Their chief occupation
was agriculture, The Kadars and Malayans were t h e most
typical of t h e f o r e s t t r i b e s i n Cochin. The Kadars were
found i n Nelliampathi and Parambikulam w h i l e t h e Malayans
were foudd i n other h i l l s and forests. The Mala pantaram
were a nomadic t r i b e found i n t h e h i l l ranges near r i v e r s
and were a l s o known a s Paliyans. The Mala pulayans were
found i n t h e Anjanad Valley of t h e Devikulam Taluk i n

51. Pharoah & Co., Gazetteer of Southern India, P.519.

52. Edgar Thurston, Madras Gwernment Museum Bulletin,
vo1.11, 1~0.1, ~ a a a g a sof Nilgris, tGovernment Press,
Madras. 1897) P . l - ~ h e author aavs t h a t "The name
Badaga-o r Vadugan means 'northeknert and t h e
Badagas, who speak a language a l l i e d t o Kanarese,
a r e no doubt descended front Kanarese Hindu
c o l o n i s t s from t h e Mysore Country, who migrated,
probably about t h r e e centuries ago. t o t h e h i l l s
owing t o famine, p o l i t i c a l turmoil, o r l o c a l
oppression i n t h e i r own countryY.

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 North Travancore. The mlayarayana were nomadic
a g r i c u l t u r i s t s and hunters. Thm Mannans of Travancore was
h i l l tribe; lived inside t h e forests under the custody of
Forest Department. T h i s department employed t h e m for the

collection of minor f o r e s t produces. The Kanikkars was a

h i l l t r i b e i n Travancere subsisting mainly on migratory
cultivation, hunting and on f o r e s t produce. Their social
s t a t u s was no so low as t h a t of the Pulayas. 53

There were a l s o some other t r i b e s i n Kerala who were

causing pollution t o high caste Hindus. Some of them were
Paniyans, Kururnans, Karimpalans and Mavilans. The members
of Paniyan, a jungle t r i b e were engaged i n agriculure
and fount5 chiefly i n the Wynad and Kottayam taluks of
Malabar. T h e i r position i s said t o be very l i t t l e above
t h a t of a slave, f o r every Paniyan is landlord's 'Nano,
and though he is, of course, f r e e t o leave h i s master,
he i s a t once traceU and good care is taken t h a t he does
not get employment elsewhere". 54 The Kurnman was another

53. V,Nagam Aiya, The Travancore State Mannual,

V01.13.r Ch-IX, P.408.
54. V. Stuart, Maaras, Census Report 1891. Vol.XII,
Ch-X Op.Cit., p.249.

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 caste whose p r i n c i p a l o c c u p a t i o n w a s wood c u t t i n g and
t h e c o l l e c t i o n of f o r e s t produce. 5 5 Karimpalans were

found i n t h e n o r t h e r n t a l u k s o f Malabar D i s t r i c t . The

K u r i c h y a s and Kurumbars w e r e f o u n d i n Malabar and engaged

i n t h e c u l t i v a t i o n o f t h e Cardamom trees which grow i n

56
t h e high p a r t s o f Malabar a b o v e t h e range o f s u k h e i n .

T h e i r C h i e f o c c u p a t i o n were Kumeri ( s h i f t i n g ) c u l t i v a t i o n

and g a t h e r i n g honey. b l a v i l a n s were found i n t h e C h i r a k k a l

Taluk o f Malabar and were employed a s mahouts, a l s o collect

honey and o t h e r f o r e s t p r o d u c e s .

A n o t h e r t y p e o f p o l l u t i n g c a s t e s were t h e non-

i n d i g e n e o u s Hindus i n K e r a l a . They had a s i m i l a r s t a t u s

-
55. R.Dis.Nd.4374/42 d a t e d 30.4.1942,
D.143 4 2 d ated 1 4 t h A p r i l 1942.
A r c h i v e s . Kozhikode) .
No.Per1.
(~egionai
I n t h e xnnual Report of
1 9 4 2 a b o u t t h e p r i m i t i v e tribes and back ward
communities t o t h e collector o f Malabar from t h e
Sub-Col lector o f M a lappuram, s tates t h a t t h e
P a n i y a n s and Kummans were t h e o n l y t w o backward
communities f o u n d i n l a r g e numbers i n N i l a m b u r ,
Amarambalaa and Mambad amsoms o f Ernad Taluk o f
B r i t i s h Malabar.
56. Reports o f a J o i n t Commission, Eengal and Bombay,
appointed t o i n s p e c t i n t o t h e state & condition
o f t h e P r o v i n c e of Malabar i n t h e years 1 7 9 2 and
93 P r i n t e d b y H.Smith,(Fort S a i n t George
e t t e P r e s s , 1 8 6 2 ) p.14, Par.15.

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 l i k e t h e low c a s t e Nairs. A l l foreign Hindus except

Brahmins cause a Nambuthiri i n Kerala by contact, while

57
t h e low c a s t e Hindus i n Malabar cause atmospheric p o l l u t i o n .

Some of these c a s t e s were t h e Ambattans, Andis, Chakkans,

Devangas, Kaikolans, Odden, Palans e t c .

The Ambattans were Tamil barbers and Andis were a

c l a s s of Tamil beggars. The Chakkans were t h e Tamil o i l

pressers and d e a l e r s i n o i l . Devangas were a c a s t e of

weavers who speak Telugu o r Canarese and were found i n t h e

C h i t t u r and T a l a p p i l l i Taluks of Cochin s t a t e . 58 The

Kaikolans were a l s o weavers and immigrants from Tamil Nadu.

Kudumbies were a Konkani speaking people and engaged i n

a g r i c u l t u r e and f i e l d labour. 59 It i s possible t h a t t h e i r

57. C.Achutha Menon, Cochin Census Report, 1891, P t . 1 ,

Ch.XI, p.114, pr.2'75.

-
58. L.K. Anantha Krishna I y e r , The Cochin Tribes and
Castes, Vol. 111, (Cochin Government Press, ~rnakul'am.
1912, Reprint Cosmo Publications, New Delhi,
1981) p.369.
59. Kudurbies were one of t h e immigrants from Konkanf
speaking s t a t e . They came t o Kerala i n regard t o
t h e inhuman p r a c t i c e s of Portuguese invaders a t
GOa. Souvenir, issued f o r t h e A l l India Saraswath
c u l t u r a l organisation, 3rd conference by t h e
General Secretary, G.Venugupalakamath (vidya
p r i n t s , Kaloor Road, Cochin, 1974) p.19,
K.P. Nayak i n h i s essay on t h i s Souvenier, says
t h a t an eminent researcher Valoulikar, e s t a b l i s h e d
t h e f a c t t h a t t h e c a p i t a l of t h e Bilaharas was t h e
famous town of B e l i i n Goa and t h e Bilaharas were
t h e ancestors o f Kudumbies today.

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 ignorance of Malayalam language might have been t h e cause

which r e l e g a t e d t h e Kudumbies t o a degraded l e v e l i n Kerala.

Odden was a Telugu c a s t e who were engaged i n e a r t h work and

digging tanks etc. Otans were o t h e r c l a s s of p o t t e r s from

Tamil Nadu. These were some of t h e foreign Hindus i n

Kerals who s u f f e r e d t h e e f f e c t s of untouchability i n

Kera la.

s o c i a l S t a t u s o f - t h e Low Caste Hindus --

The low c a s t e Hindus a l s o observe mutual p o l l u t i o n

among them, i n t h e matter of food and drink. A 1 1 the

p o l l u t i n g c a s t e s such a s t h e Kammalans, t h e Szhavas,

Fisherman, Pulsyas e t c . were forbidden t o e a t t h e food
prepared by t h e c a s t e s lower than them a s t h e case may be.

But the food and water from t h e c a s t e s above them was

acceptable t o them. For example, t h e food of c a s t e s above

t h e xammalans such a s t h e Brahmins, Kshatriyas and Sudras

were acceptable t o t h e Kammalans: but they were forbidden

t o e a t what ever was prepared by t h e barbers, washermen,

and o t h e r casteman below them i n ~ t a t u s . ~ ON

/o member of
r
any higher c a s t e s e a t s with t h e Ezhavas. The Ezhavas e a t
a t t h e hands of a l l c a s t e s above them i n Social Status,
but s t r i c t l y a b s t a i n from taking t h e food of Kammalans,

60. L.K.Anantha Krishna Iyer, The Cochin Tribes and

Castes, Vol.1, Ch.XVII1, pp.352-3.

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 61
v a l a n s , Arayans, and t h e members o f o t h e r low c a s t e s .

A s r e g a r d s s o c i a l s t a t u s , t h e P u l a y a n s e a t a t t h e hands

of a l l caste-men above them, b u t a b s t a i n from e a t i n g t h e

f o o d p r e p a r e d b y t h e V e l a k k a t h a l a v a n s , Mannans, Panans,

V e t t u v a n s , P a r a y a n s , Nayadis, U l l a d a n s , Malayans and

62
Kadars.

The p o l l u t i n g c a s t e s and sub-castes among e a c h

community w a s n o t f r e e i n t h e c a s e o f o b s e r v i n g a p p r o a c h

and t o u c h p o l l u t i o n . I n t h e case of t o u c h p o l l u t i o n ,

a l l t h e a r t i s a n c l a s s e s were p o l l u t e d by t h e t o u c h of
t o l k o l l a n s , a sub-caste among them. The d e g r a d a t i o n o f

t h e t o l k o l l a n s was p r o b a b l y on a c c o u n t o f t h e i r work i n

l e a t h e r , which i n i t s e a r l y s t a g e s w a s a n u n h o l y

s u b s t a n c e . 63 The t o u c h o f t h e Malayans p o l l u t e s t h e

Kadars a n d V i c e Versa. I n t h e case o f a p p r o a c h p o l l u t i o n ,

t h e P u l a y a n s were p o l l u t e d by t h e P a r a y a n s , Nayadies a n d I
i
Ulladans. P a r a y a n s and V e t t u v a n s h a d t o k e e p few d i s t a n c e s

mutually. P u l a y a n s and V e t t u v a n s b a t h e when t h e y a p p r o a c h

o n e a n o t h e r , f o r , ss r e g a r d s t h e i r s t a t u s t h e r e w a s a

p o i n t of d i s p u t e as t o who were s u p e r i o r t o t h e o t h e r .
64 1
/

61. -
ibid, Ch.XVI1, p.339.

62. a d , Ch.VI, P.120

63. C.kchutha Menon, Cochin S t a t e Manual,

Ch.III, p.203.
64. L.K. Anantha K r i s h n a I y e r , The Cochin T r i b e s
a n d Castnd, V01.1, Ch.VI, p.121.

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 The N a t t ' l ( ~ a t i v e )Malayans a n d Tamil Malayans had t o

kee? a c e r t a i n d i s t a n c e among them a n d t h e Tamil ~Xalayans

were n o t a l l o w e d t o a p r o a c h t h e N a t t u Malayans w i t h i n a

c e r t a i n distance. There w a s n e i t h e r inter-rrarriage nor

i n t e r - d i n n i n c ; between them.65 Thus p o l l u t i o n by t o u c h and

approach and c a s t e r e s t r i c t i o n s on i n t e r - m a r r i a g o and

inter-dinning ~ m sa l s o p r e v a l e n t among t h e p o l l u t i n g Hindu

&
c a s t e s a c c o r d i n g t o t h e i r c a s t e s t a t u s i n Kerala.

A m i x t u r e of v e d a n t i s m end animism which i s contained

i n t h e Hindu c u l t u r e o f I n d i a was t h e r e l i g i o n of

Palayalies. The 3rahmins o b s e r v e V e d a n t i c r i t e s f o r

r e l i q i o u s observances. The c a s t e s below them such a s the

K s h a t r i y a s f o l l o w t h e f o o t s t e p s o f arahmins. 3 u t t h e y were

n o t a l l o w e d t o r e a d Vedas, o r p e r f o r m t h e p u r e l y Brahminical
66
r i t e s such a s p r i e s t l y f u n c t i o n s , Y a q m s ( S a c r i f i e s ) , etc.

The High C l a s s N a i r s a n d Ambala V a s i s were n o t a l l o w e d even

t o r e a d o r h e a r t h e Vedas. * T h e i r knowledge of r e l i g i o n i s

c o n f i n e d t o what i s g l e a n e d from t h e I t h i h a s a s and P u r a n a s ,

-
65. i b i d , v o l . I, ChII, p. 37

66. Cochin Census R e ~ o r t , 1901, V o l . XX p t . I, p. 30

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 which p r a c t i c a l l y form r e l i g i o u s t e x t s for the people
i n general, and are very widely reed and s t u d i e d by them "6 7 .
The Hindu c a s t e s b l o w t h e high class Hairs and Pmbala
Vasis, worship the same god6 as those of the higher c a s t e s .
Besides t h i s worship they a l s o had f a i t h i n Sakti (female)
worship. a~ of them have t h e i r own temples also.
dedicated t c Kali, o r sane manifestation of t h a t Goddess.
w i t h pries- chosen f r a amongst themmlwes. where they
c e l e b r a t e c h i e f l y the Mandala D U I ~ . They
~ ~ were

ignorant about the vedic and T a n t r i c forms of r i t u a l s of

d e i t i e s vhich was performed i n temples by the Brahmin
priests. Most of t h e i r r e l i g i o u s knowledge had b e n coming
from t h e e p i c s of I n d i a such as Ramavana and Mahabharatp.
Bacause o l d members of these c a s t e s now a l i v e (80 years
o r more o l d ) including women have e x c e l l e n t knowledge
about these two epics.

Kaasaalans o r Ezhavans had the r i g h t to worship the

g r e a t Hindu gods i n their o m way and were not allowed
t o worship as i n t h e c a s e of higher c a s t e s i n public
r e l i g i o u s o r higher c a a t e s r e l i g i o u s i n s t i t u t i o n s , but
w i t h the influence of Sri. Harayaria Guru, the Ezhavas

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 had begun to worship higher fom8 of worship t o Siva,
Subrcraania and Oanapathi. 69 iha blayarr and parayam

worshipped the Baity through l e s s e r f o n w of EUndu

rituals. Their position on tho other hand w a s d i f f e r e n t
'
from t h a t of an Ezhavan or Kannalanr t h e m w a s nothing
camnon between the b e l i e f s , r i t u a l and p r a c t i c e of tho
former and those of the l a t t a r , mch l e s s those of the
B r a b i n o r the Hair. 70 ,... the lower c l a s s e s have

their own p a r t i c u l a r temples, though receiving the

d e i t i e s of the higher orderst their worship of thefa
hovever i s generally postponed to a long l i s t of
i n f e r i o r d i v i n i t i e s , o r minute demons, whom t h e i r
g r a t i t u d e o r apprehension leads them frequently to
p r o p i t i a t e , nor s h a l l we wonder t h a t the s a c r i f i c i a l
l i b a t i o n s which fona s o n a t u r a l a p a r t of those ceremonies,
should so often lead to excess, They t r e a t e d the
supkt n a t u r a l s w i t h m o r e f e a r and performed various
r i t u a l s t o p r o p i t i a t e the Godst to win t h e i r favour. The
Fulayans also believe t h a t s p i r i t exercise an influence

69. L.K, Ananta Krillhna Iyer, The Cochin T r i b e s an9

Cs
-, V01.1, CheXVI, p.311.
70- Census Remrt of CochAn 1911, Vol.XVII1, pt.1
Ch.IV, p.21. par.38.
71. WARD and COaRJICR. GeocrraDhical and statrstical
Memoir..., V01.1, pp.103-4.

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 over t h e members of t h e i r families, and, therefore,
regular o f f e r i n g s a r e given t o them every year e n
Sankranthi daysa. 7 2 ~ o s of
t t h e polluting c a s t e s have
done such o f f e r i n g s t o i n f e r i o r as well as superior d e i t i e s .

The low c a s t e people a l s o had taken pilgrimages to

other p a r t s of t h e country. wChowrymalay o r Rama ~ s h w a r
a r e t h e limits of t h e i r journeys; they seldom take religious
vows, o r become saunasees; a few may perhaps be met who
have v i s i t e d Benares, but it w i l l generally be found
t h a t discontent o r embarrassment has alone warmed t h e i r
piety i n t o such a pilgrimage. 73 Sastha o r I y y a p p a n * ~
worship was common among t h e Malayalies. nWorshipped a s
he i s by a l l c a s t e s of people i n Southern India,
especially, i n Malabar, Cochin. and Travancore, he is
more revered and feared by t h e low c a s t e s i n r u r a l
p a r t s n . 74 The lower c a s t e s worshipped t h i s d e i t y f o r
protection against demons and all kinds of i l l n e s s
because most of these c a s t e s were doing work i n
a g r i c u l t u r a l f i e l d s and f o r e s t s . The Brahmins a l s o
worshipped t h i s d i e t y r I n t h e temple a t Saberirnala,

72. L.K. Anantha Krishna Iyer, The Cochin Tribes

and Castes. Ch.VI. P.113.
73. WARD and commR, Geographical and S t a t i s t i c a l
Memoir.. ,
74. L.K. Anantha Krishna Iyer, The Cochin Tribes
and Castes, Vol.1, Ch.XVI, p.312.

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 t h e r e was no s c c i a l discriminatiOn i n regard to worship
frcm time immemorial and a l s o before the t h e of temple
e n t r y movement i n Kerala. 'Amongst the crowd of shrines.
t h a t of Iyappa a t Chow- Malay attracts p a r t i c u l a r
devotion; i n c r e d i b l e numbers (and many from the e a s t e r n
c o a t ) flocking t o it a t the period of the f e s t i v a l
(January) to present their w w s and o f f e r i n g s , although
it is s i t u s t e d i n the wildest country possible, "75

76
T h i s land had c e r t a i n numbr o f Bhagavati Kavus.
These Kavus were b u i l t malnly of wood w i t h tiled W f s .
Sane images of stonee o r i d o l s stand in t h e open a i r space
under b i g trcMs l i k e A 1 (Ficus t e l i g i ~ s a )p~a l a
( a l s t o n i a s c h o l a r i s ) etc; these were a l s o known as Kavus.
Basides Bhagaveti Kavus. Sastha. VettEkkorumakan and
demons l i k e Kuttichathaa. Oulikan a160 have Kavus, These
d e i t i e s and demons were gropitizted with s a c r i f i c e s and
t h e i r wishes had ta k i n t e r p r e t e d by oracles. Sane o f

these Kavus l i k e t h e Kavus of Sastha o r Ehagavathi have

75. Ward and Canner, G e o q r a ~ h i c a land S t a t l a t i c a l

Memoir..., Vol.1. p.105.

76. P. Anujan Achan. Arehaeolo~v. Leaf l e t No.3

(Helayalira). Gochin Government Gawttq
7th December 1927. Vol.WtI1. Noel6r
s&lement to pt;.II Bducation Dept. p.13
This docwrnnt s t a t e s t h a t Bhagavathi I c a w
-
w e r e the a n c i e n t places O f worship i n h r a l a .

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 offerings s i m i l a r to those of the temples. Most of the low
castes we- the worshippers of their own Kavus o r other.
*Their r e l i g i o n i s more purely animistic than t h a t of
c a s t e s above them. and included i n their number are the
devil-dancers. astmlogers. and o t h e r representative8 of
t h e primitive 'medicine-man* . 77

They have their own 'velicchapads* o r oracles i n

Kavus, *They v i s i t privata houaes and declare t h e i r
oracles when they have worked themselves up i n t o frenzy,
d a ~ c l o g*withershiner* round the yard. and slashing a t
t h e i r foreheads w i t h a sworda. 78 ~ h u sthe 1-r castes
who had completely immersed i n superstition, had their
own d e i t i e s f o r worship and p a r t i c u l a r mode of worship and
offerings. Moat of the oracles were from the castes
below the N a i r . All Hindus had f a i t h i n magic and witch
craft, *.. . there am a multitude of pagodas called
Nuddees, dedicated t o Bhagavadi (the Buddra Kali of the
Bastern Coast) 8 her favour i s bribed o r resentorent supposed
t o be averted by annual s a c r i f i c e of buffaloes. sheep, o r
poultry, a t h e r altar8 the Kirrupie of the v i l l a g e
perfonns the ceremonie.8 during the f e s t i v a l s i n s t i t u t e d

77. C.A.1NNES. Madras D i s t r i c t Gazetteers 'MALAB#'.

VO~OX m~a.by.#.BoE~an~r
, (B.S.Baliya, curator,
Madras Record o f f i c e , 1908; &print; GOV~.P=SS,
Madras, 1951) Ch,III, p.124.

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 i n honour of this gooddess. some of h e r v o t a t i e s suspended
from hooks a r e thus c a r r i e d round h e r shrinem.79

The h i l l t r i b e s w e r e purely a n i m i s t i c i n r e l i g i o u s
l i f e and worshiped demons of various denominations.
tree-spirits. and h i l l Gods l i k e Mala Vashi and Ayyappan.
They revered these s p i r i t s and demons a s patron of
v i l l a g e s , p r o t e c t o r s of springs and dwellers i n f o r e s t s .
The stone o r images under a tree was t h e i r worshipping
place and made o f f e r i n g s to it. "Amongst t h e d i v i n i t i e s
p e c u l i a r t o t h e h i l l t r i b e s a r e t h e shawars o r the
dead heroes fabled t o have f a l l e n beneath the sword of
panch a Pandoos". 80 "The p o l l u t i n g c a s t e s and h i l l
tribes some t i m e s nada o f f e r i n g s t o the Brahmanic
temples o r public Hindu r e l i g i o u s i n s t i t u t i o n s i n which
they had no access, a s an act of r e a l i t y i f t h e i r gods
were troubled by some s p i r i t s of ancestors o r demons.
The Paniss of Malabar, a f o r e s t tribe have only very crude
i d e a s of religion. 'Believing i n d e v i l s o f a l l s o r t s and
s i z e s . and professing t o worship t h e Hindu d i v i n i t i e s .
they reverence e s p e c i a l l y the god o f the jungles. Kad

Memoir ....
79. WARD and CONNER. a o a r a ~ h i c a land S t a t i s t i c a l
Val -I,ae.c;L,, p.104.

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 Bagavadi, o r according t o another version, a d e i t y c a l l e d
Kuli, a malignant and terrible being of n e i t h e r sex,
whose f h r i n a s take fho £ o m of a btorrg placed urwiar a
tree, o r sometimes a c a i r n of atones. 181

The worship of ancestors, snakes. trees and

animals was a l s o prevalent mong the Hindus. YAncestors
are worshipped with q u i t e a s much devotion as the Gods
o r Goddesses, and t h e i r relics a r e even enshrined and
given o f f e r i n g s to. m82 Usually. they w e r e worshipped
annually by canmenunoratlng the anniversary of the
ancestor's death, .The Mayadl has to keep s o f a r away

frcm o t h e r people t h a t he has no opportunity of

knowing anything about the Hindu gods o r the Auanas.
He believes t h a t h i t god is a Mala Devan - mountain
god. H e i a a l s o an ancestor worshipper, and keeps
representations of t h e departed m a r the h u t .83 me
serpent worship occupies a p m m i a e n t p l ~ c ei n the
r e l i g i o u s worship of Uair castes. The p l a c e of sexpent

B.Edgar Thurston, Madran Government Mus8um WI1lettinr

Vol.11, W.1, (Oovemment Press, Madras, 1879) p.21.
82,Cochin Census Remrt 19Q&, Vol.%X, pt.1, p.31.
83.S. Appadorai I y e r , Madras Government Mumeurn Bulletin,
Vol.II, No.1, bl Is of Malabar tGovemment Press,
Madras, 1901)

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 worship w a s known a s Sarpakavu o r Nagattam Kavu which w a s
i n t h e middle of jungle trees. "Sirpakaw. t h e y are
covered w i t h t h e image o f a snake, a r e p t i l e h e r e more
t h a n u s u a l l y venerated, and whose worship would appear t o
be of a v e r y a n c i e n t date. "" Before t h e temple
compounds o r w i t h i n t h e temple p e e p a l trees w e r e found
and worshipped. I n f e s t i v e a c c a s s i o n s a m i n i a t u r e image
of t h e d e i t y is placed n e a r t h e tree w i t h a bhandaram
o r t r M a u r e box i n t o which t h e v o t a t i e s of t h e p o l l u t i n g
c a s t e s d r o p t h e i r c a s h o r jewel o f f e r i n g s . 85 plants
l i k e T u l a s i (ocinaun sanctum), V i l w a m ( A e g l e mannelos)
were also worshipped a s sacred. The a n i m a l s l i k e cow,
and b u l l , w e r e a l s o worshipped a s sacred. So F r a n c i s
m y r i g h t l y o b s e r v e s t h a t T h e Hindu a d o r e s n a t u r e i n
a l l i t s forms. from t h e sun i n t h e sky. t o t h e s t o n e
on t h e e a r t h ; t h e oxen and implements of a g r i c u l t u r e
are both a l i k e venerated, a s are a l s o t h e k i t e s o a r i n g
i n t h e heavens. t h e monkeys i n t h e trees, and t h e snakes

Memriy.. .
84. ward and Conner, Geographical and S t a t i s t i c a l
V o l . I. O p . c i t r p.105.
8 5 . C.A. Innes, Madras D i s t r i c t G a z e t t e e r s . *MALABAR:.
Vol.1. Ch.111, op.cit. p.152.

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 on the ground: w h i l s t k i l l i n g a cow, has been considered a s
deserving o f g r e a t e r punishment, than s l a y i n g a low casts
man. 86 Thus t h e r e l i g i o u s rites of t h e Hindus i n Kerala
w e r e a mixture of Vedantism and Animism because of t h e
d i v e r s i f i e d ideas i n a common fonn of r e l i g i o u s faith.

SOCIAL LIFE

The s o c i a l l i f e of the p o l l u t i n g classes i n Kerala

was i n a very miserable condition. Like the higher

c a s t e s . t h e i r dwellings a l s o were p o l l u t e d by t h e touch
o r approach of the c a s t e s below t h e m i n t h e s o c i a l s c a l e .
The p o l l u t i n g c a s t e s must s t a n d from a person of higher
c a s t e o r h i s dwelling a t t h e d i s t a n c e prescribed by t h e
s o c i a l scale. and they never l i v e d i n houses s i t u a t e d I

within a c e r t a i n d i s t r n c e Of each o t h e r . I n ordinary I

I
conversation such expressions as a Tiva-oad or a 1
!
Cheruma- ad ( t h a t is, t h e d i s t a n c e a t which a Tiyan o r I
I
87 I
cheruman has t o keep) were comnonly used.
1
I
The low caste Hindus were not permitted t o l i v e

near the temples. mPlace of residence becomes mom

86. Francis Day. The Land of the Parumals o r Cochia

i t a ~ a s and t its resent. (Gantz Brothers,
Adelphi presa. Vepery, 1863, AES Reprint.
J . J e t l e y , f o r Asian Educational serqice, New
Delhi, 1990) ch.VI1, op.cit, P.285. ,
87. C.A. Innor, Madras D i s t r i c t Gazatteers, 'MALABAR
Vo1.I. c ~ . x x p.103. ~,

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 honourable a s it approaches the Wicinity of t h e temples,... .88
The h i g h e r c a s t e s w e r e t h e r e s i d e n t s near the tamples and
the lower c a s t e s resided i n h u t s far away fran the
premises of temples. The p o l l u t i n g castas, e s p e c i a l l y
t h e s t i l l lower s e c t i o n s among t h e m lived f a r away from
t h e v i c i n i t y of high c a s t e men. Houses of parayas w e r e
s i t u a t e d away from o t h e r residences o u t s i d e the village,
These p l a c e s were o f t e n unhealthy and u n f i t f o r human
l i v e s where they had no access t o t h e amenities of
c u l t u r e d life. "Materially and Metaphorically t h e i r
/
e x i s t e n c e w a s dark. stoeped as they w e r e i n f i l t h and ,
4
wratchednes8, ignorance end s u p e r s i t i t i o n . 89 Thus
d i s t a n c e i n t h e case of r e s i d e n t s degraded t o lower
castes from the main stream of Hindu society.

They w e r e denied admiasion i n t o p u b l i c places

l i k e temples. markets, p u b l i c off ices, p u b l i c schools etc..
f o r the cause of pollution. For exmple. the Pulayas were
denied admission i n t o p u b l i c markets, and must stand a t a
d i s t a n c e to make t h i r purchases or s a l e s . The Behavas
w e n not peaaltted to e n t e r within a n a t i v e c o u r t of

....
88. W a s d and Conner. t k i o g r a ~ h i c a land S t a t i s t i c a l
Memoir p ~ . c i t . p.105.
89. Censue Rawrt of Cochin, 1931, V 0 l . W . pt.1
Appendix 11. o~.cit. p.290. par.5
90. L.K. Anantha Krishna Iyer,. The Cochin Tribes and
C a s a a , V01.1, Ch.VI, ~ 0 1 2 1 .

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 j u s t i c e as they might p o l l u t e t h e judges, who were members
o f t h e h i g h e r castes. Caste r e s t r i c t i o n s were a l s o made
i n connection w i t h the use of dress, ornaments.
dwellings etc. The p o l l u t i n g c a s t e s used c e r t a l n words
l i k e Tarnpuran f o r addressing t h e h i g h e r castes. The
p o l l u t i n g castea were forbidden t o use p u b l i c mads
according t o their wishes. When on o r n e a r e r a mad, they
announce t h e i r a p ~ r o a c hthrough sounds because t h e i r
presence caused p o l l u t i o n t o t h a h i g h e r c a s t e s . The
Parayas d a r e n o t t o a p ~ r o a c ht h e h i g h e r bibes. b u t i f
conversation between them pmve a t any time necessary
92
they must c a l l o u t aloud f r u n as f a r as they can be heard.
For enample. S. Appadoral I y e r s t a t e s t h z t , .while
t r a v e l l i n g by r a i l o r on the public roads i n Malabar,
one may observe a f e w ragged and d i r t y c l o t h e s spread
near t h e road, with one o r two copper c o i n s on them: and
a t the serne t i m e , hear a chorous of s t e n t o r i a n voices a t
a d i s t a n c e of a hundred yards, emanating ftam a f e w
miserable specimens of humanity, standing ghost-like with

92. R e ~ o r tof s J o i n t Conmission, Bengal. and Bombav

a ~ ~ o i n - dt o inswct i n t o t h e s t a t e and condition
o f t h e ~ r o v i n c eo f Malzbar i n t h e year 1792 and
1793. Vol.1, (Fort St. George Gazette press,

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 dishevelled h a i r and jaded lookm. The coins represent
t h e alms given by the charitably dlsposed traveller
t h e persons aro the Nayadis*. 93 The sounds used by the
low c a s t e s when passing through the roads helped the
higher c a s t e men go smoothly on the road without t h e .
attack of p o l l u t i o n and t h e lower castes from punishments.
The r e s u l t was t h a t a man of any of the very low c a s t e s

may undergo considerable inconvenience and delay i n

g e t t i n g from one place t o another. 94 1n this case, the
preference of using t h e road was only the monopoly of
higher c a s t e s a t t h i s t i m e . The higher c a s t e s viewed the
presence of untouchable castes. a t every place with alarm
and indignation because of the defilement.

There w e r e sane r e s t r i c t i o n s i n regard to drinking

water. Even i n r i v e r s the lower classes had separate
s p o t s t o cleanse themselves. any v i l l a g e draws its
water from a r i v e r , the
take t h e i r supply frun
les w i l l be required t o
point, lower down 95 ..
93. S.Appadorai Iyer, ~ a d r kGovt.Musatnn Wlllettin: ,
Vol.11, No.1. The Nayadis of Halabar, (Govt.Presa,
Madras, 1901) P.66
94. C.A. Innes, Madras ~ i a d r i c Gazetteers.
t 'HALABAR',
~ d .by P.B. Bvans, VO~JI,ch.111, p.104.
95. Report of t h e Indian Statutorv Commission, V01.1,
pt.1, Ch.4 O~.~it.p.38.

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 This s o c i a l custom might have been one of the products of
the s i x t y four a n a c h a r a s peculiar to Kerala and the
eleventh among them w a s 'you m u s t bathe i f you touch
polluted w e l l s o r tanks (polluted by t h e touch of low
castes). 96 The polluting castes were denied the use of
watar from the w e l l s o r tanks --ethe higher classes,

public tanks and wells. One of the requests t o t h e

Zamorin about the polfution of Mankawu (tank) i n
Calicut by t h e N k i r s and Menons of Mankavu w a s that the
above s a i d tank was being polluted by the touch and
bathe of Tiyyas and Moplahs and so i t became useless to
them and they complained t o t h e authorities. 97 The tank
w a s surrounded on a l l s i d e s by blair houses and Zamorin's
letter to M r . Thorne i n connection with this case explains
the seriousness of t h i s pollution. ~a s a y s i n his
l e t t e r dated 6th July 1925 t o M r . Thorne t h a t ,
"dear M r . Thorne,

Please go through the enclosed p e t i t i o n I

see from it t h a t a s i m i l a r p e t i t i o n has been sulmitted t o

96. Cochin Census R e ~ o r t , 1901, Vol.XX, Pt.1, Ch.VIII,

Appendix. o ~ . c i t , p.178.
97. P i l e No.R.Dis 4468/25 dated 5.8.1925. ~etition
of Mankavu residents dated 14th June 1925,
MS. (Malayelm), (Regional Archives, Kozhikode)
98. Mr.Thorne J.A. -
Thorne waa TheEState Collector
of t h e Zamorin of Calicut a t this time.

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 you. I do n o t know what action you have taken on it. The
f a c t s s t a t e d i n the p e t i t i o n a r e true. The tank i n f r o n t
of my palace i s a temple tank and cannot be used by persons
under p o l l u t i o n and the tank i n question is the only o t h e r
tank i n t h e l o c a l i t y f o r the use of the c a s t e residents. '

I f the t r e s p a s s complained i n the p e t i t i o n i s allowed t o

continue I am even a f r a i d of breaches of t h e peace between
the c a s t e Hindus and the ~hiyyasand Moplas of the l o c a l i t y .
I s h a l l be, thankful, t o you therefore i f you w i l l see your

way t o r e s t r i c t the use of the tank i n question t o the

c a s t e Hindus of the l o c a l i t y . m99 Some e x t r a c t s of the
remarks of the chairman (Muncipal) i n t h i s case t o the
c o l l e c t o r was t h a t *The tank i s surrounded on a l l the
s i d e s by Nair houses; and it i s s i t u a t e d near the place
where the l a d i e s of the Zamorin'e Kovilakanr resideg. 100
"According t o the ancient socio-religious custan, whenever
a death takes place i n a Nair fanily, t h e members have
t o perform f u n e r a l obsequies i n a tank f o r a c e r t a i n number
of days; i f any omits t o perform them, he loses caster

99. F i l e No.R.Dis 4468/25 dated 5.8.1925.

100. -
i b i d , Mankavu Kulam, -
op.cit, P.2, par.6

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 and he cannot p e r f o w them i n a tank which i s used o r
touched by the rnoplas, thiyyaa o r o t h e r so-called lower
castes.. . There a r e no doubt, two o t h e r tanks i n the
v i l l a g e , they are p r i v a t e ones; o m i s attached to the
zamorin's Kovilaksn, and t h e o t h e r t o a Nambudiri I l l c u a
and these cannot be touched by the Naira f o r the purposes
above mentioned. *lo' *If t h e Mbplas and Thiyyas are keen
on having a tank f o r t h e i r use, they can apply t o the
Municipal Council t o provide a tank f o r them, i f they
,102
cannot-themselves f i n d the means f o r sinking One.
The chainnan concluded t h a t i n the i n t e r e s t of peace it
i s b e t t e r t o leave the tanks as t h e y were. 103

I n Cochin, the accounts of 1933 records shows t h a t

the t o t a l number of tanks and wells maintained by public
funds and n o t open t o a l l sections of t h e people were
about 61 tanks and 123 w e l l s i n the state. lo4 1n their
p e t i t i o n regarding the use of Niloth Chira, (tank) a t
Panniankara ( i n B r i t i s h malabar) by the lower castes,
t h e p e t i t i o n e r s suggest t h a t if the l o w c a s t e s thmugh

101. x d , o ~ , c i t . par.7.

-
102. i b i d , o ~ . c i t , p.6. par.20
103. w.
104. Cochin L e g i s l a t i v e Council proceedings,
dated 12, December, 1928, p.471.

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 mistake, i g n o r a n c e o r i n t e n t i o n a l l y the h i g h e r caster
resumed t o use it o n l y a f t e r the customary p u r i f i c a t i o n s
d u l y performed by the Brahmins. lo5 nese rules were a l s o

a p p l i c a b l e t o t h e temple t a n k s and w e l l s . I n 1929, one o f

t h e d i s c u s s i o n s i n t h e Cochin L e g i s l a t i v e Council was .

about the a ~ c e s s l b i l i t yOf t h e Koodalmanikkam temple t a n k
' ~ u t t a nkulam* , to the lower c a s t e s , t h e Panehayat member
m106
observed t h a t , 'it c a n n o t be thrown open to a l l classes.

T h e e was a w e l l understood scale of d i s t a n c e s w i t h i n which

p e r s o n s of d i f f e r e n t castes may not a p p o a c h each o t h e r

w i t h o u t one of t h e m p o l l u t i n g t h e o t h e r and t h e y never

l i v e i n houses s i t u a t e d w i t h i n a c e r t a i n d i s t a n c e of each

other. F o r example, i n t h e case o f N a i r s . 'The near

aprroach anywhere n e a r h i s v i c i n i t y of a cheruman, pulayan,

o r any i n f e r i o r being, even a Tiyan. as h e walks t o h i s

house from t h e temple, c l e a n s e d i n body and mind, h i s marks

newly s e t on h i s f o r e h e a d w i t h Sandal wood p a s t e , i s

pollution. and h e must t u r n and bathe a g a i n ere he c a n

105. F i l e No.4466/25 d a t e d 5.8.1925-Petition to the

D i s t r i c t M a g i s t r a t e of Halabar by t h e r e s i d e n t s
o f Panniankara hsun of C a l i c u t Tzluk. (Bundle
N0.263 Regional AtchhUes , Kozhikode) p.1. par.4.
106. II.C.L.C., Vol.11, pt.28,dated 8 August, 1929,
Motion No.15, p.2425.

107. L e t t e r d a t e d 24 Januarv 1871, No.60, from Mr.T.

Shanaunni Menon. Diwan of Cochin. t o the B r i t -i -s h - - -

- P
-
~ r e s i d e n t . par.?; The Record o f Administration,
Cochin Sts*, pt.111, (Cochin Government
1925) p.66.

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 e n t e r h i s house and e a t m .
108 , ... and t h e Brahmins do n o t
f a i l t o encourage impressions so favourzble t o t h e i r own
i n t e r e s t , no class below t h e Hair d a r e approach t h e i r
neighbourhood. and d r a w water from t h e t a n k s a d j o i n i n g
them, o r persume t o b a t h e i n those l a v a t o r i e s . .
"109
.
The d e n i a l o f temple t a n k s and wells as w e l l a s
p u b l i c t u l k s and w e l l s on t h e p l e a t h a t t h e y would be
p o l l u t e d i f they b a t h e i n them, and t h e prevision of
s e p a t a t e t a n k s and w e l l s f o r the u s e o f p o l l u t i n g c a s t e s
were the e x l s t i n g p r a c t i c e s which i n s u l t e d the low caste
Hindus. These k i n d s o f p o l l u t i o n d i s t a n c e s from p u b l i c

p l a c e s s e g r e g a t e d t h e lower c a s t e s from c i v i l i s e d l i f e
i n Kerala.

I t i s clear frcm the f a c t s d e s c r i b e d i n this c h a p t a r

t h a t t h e r i g i d i t y of c a s t e customs and usages w e r e r e s p o n s i b l e
f o r t h e d e n i a l o f temple e n t r y t o untouchables. They w e r e
s u b j e c t e d t o s e v e r e s o c i a l d i s a b i l i t i e s i n t h e m a t t e r of
freedom of movement i n r e g a r d t o p u b l i c places a s w e l l a6
i n t h e v i c i n i t y of h i g h e r castes. The r e s t r i c t e d r i g i d

c a s t e i s m had given t h e low caste Hindus a degraded s t a t u s

i n society. A t this t i m e caste monopoly w a s reflected i n

10B.F.Fawcett. Madras Government Museum B u l l e t t i n ,

Vol.111,. No.3; Anthropology'Navars of Malabar'
~it h ; p i a t e s (Government press, Madras. 1901).

m i .
109. Ward and Conner. G e o a r a ~ h i c a land ststistical
Vol.1. p.105.

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 e v e r y aspect of life. The r i g i d i t y of this caste monopoly
c o n t r i b u t e d to the Hindus i n accordance w i t h t h e i r
o c c u p a t i o n a l s t a t u s , the d e n i a l of temple e n t r y . The
d e n i a l of temples and i t s premises t o a s e c t i o n of Hindus,
named them a s l o w c a s t e Hindus o r p o l l u t i n g Hindus, w a s .
t h e f i n a l s t a g e i n t h e p r a c t i c e of u n t o u c h a b i l i t y and

u n a p p r o a c h a b i l i t y e v i l s i n Kerala. As a r e s u l t of the
ban on e n t r y i n t o h e p r e c i n c t s of temples and approach
of h i g h e r c a s t e s made them s t r a n g e r s t o t h e new t u r n s of
social life. Thus the p r a c t i c e of u n t o u c h a b i l i t y and
u n a p p r o a c h a b i l i t y was a c u r s e upon Hindu s o c i e t y i n Kerala.
These e v i l p r a c t i c e s had k e n made a b l a c k s p o t upon

Hinduism i n Kerala, once upon a t i m e these e v i l s caused

t o forbidden temple e n t r y t o one s e c t i o n of Hindus, and
segregated t h e m from t h e e n l i g h t e n e d p r i n c i p l e s of
Hinduism by p r a c t i c i n g s t r a n g e r methods of Hinduism
i n t h e form of u n t o u c h a b i l i t y and unapproachability.

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