APPLICATIONS OF SECOND-ORDER DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

Second-order linear differential equations have a variety of applications in science and

engineering. In this section we explore two of them: the vibration of springs and electric
circuits.

VIBRATING SPRINGS

We consider the motion of an object with mass m at the end of a spring that is either ver-
tical (as in Figure 1) or horizontal on a level surface (as in Figure 2).
In Section 7.5 we discussed Hooke’s Law, which says that if the spring is stretched (or

g
compressed) x units from its natural length, then it exerts a force that is proportional to x :

i n
m equilibrium 0
restoring force
kx

n
position

r
where k is a positive constant (called the spring constant). If we ignore any external resist-

a
x m ing forces (due to air resistance or friction) then, by Newton’s Second Law (force equals

Le
mass times acceleration), we have
x

FIGURE 1 d 2x d 2x

kx
kx
0

e
1 m or m
dt 2 dt 2

g
equilibrium position
This is a second-order linear differential equation. Its auxiliary equation is mr 2
k
0
m

g a n
with roots r
 i, where 
skm. Thus, the general solution is

n ti o
x
0 x x
t
c1 cos  t
c2 sin  t

e c
FIGURE 2
which can also be written as

f C u
o rod
x
t
A cos
 t


where 
skm (frequency)

ty ep
A
sc 21
c 22 (amplitude)

e r r cos 

c1
sin 

c2

p or

 is the phase angle
A A

r o f
(See Exercise 17.) This type of motion is called simple harmonic motion.

P o t EXAMPLE 1 A spring with a mass of 2 kg has natural length 0.5 m. A force of 25.6 N is
required to maintain it stretched to a length of 0.7 m. If the spring is stretched to a length

N
of 0.7 m and then released with initial velocity 0, find the position of the mass at any
time t .
SOLUTION From Hooke’s Law, the force required to stretch the spring is

k
0.2
25.6

so k
25.60.2
128. Using this value of the spring constant k, together with m
2
in Equation 1, we have

d 2x
2
128x
0
dt 2
Thomson Brooks-Cole copyright 2007

As in the earlier general discussion, the solution of this equation is

2 x
t
c1 cos 8t
c2 sin 8t

1
 2 ■ APPLICATIONS OF SECOND-ORDER DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

We are given the initial condition that x
0
0.2. But, from Equation 2, x
0
c1.
Therefore, c1
0.2. Differentiating Equation 2, we get

x
t
8c1 sin 8t
8c2 cos 8t

Since the initial velocity is given as x
0
0, we have c2
0 and so the solution is

x
t
51 cos 8t

DAMPED VIBRATIONS

We next consider the motion of a spring that is subject to a frictional force (in the case of

g
the horizontal spring of Figure 2) or a damping force (in the case where a vertical spring

i n
moves through a fluid as in Figure 3). An example is the damping force supplied by a
shock absorber in a car or a bicycle.

rn
We assume that the damping force is proportional to the velocity of the mass and acts

a
in the direction opposite to the motion. (This has been confirmed, at least approximately,
by some physical experiments.) Thus

Le
m
dx
damping force
c
dt
FIGURE 3

g e
where c is a positive constant, called the damping constant. Thus, in this case, Newton’s

a
Second Law gives

g
n ti o n m
d 2x
dt 2

restoring force
damping force
kx  c
dx
dt

C e
or

c
f u d 2x
Schwinn Cycling and Fitness

dx

o rod
3 m
c
kx
0
dt 2 dt

ty ep
Equation 3 is a second-order linear differential equation and its auxiliary equation is

r
mr 2
cr
k
0. The roots are

e
p or r r1

c
sc 2  4mk
r2

c  sc 2  4mk

o
4

f
2m

r
2m

P o t
We need to discuss three cases.

c 2  4 mk  0 (overdamping)

N
CASE I ■

In this case r1 and r 2 are distinct real roots and

x
x
c1 e r1 t
c2 e r2 t

Since c, m, and k are all positive, we have sc 2  4mk  c, so the roots r1 and r 2 given by
0 t Equations 4 must both be negative. This shows that x l 0 as t l . Typical graphs of
x as a function of t are shown in Figure 4. Notice that oscillations do not occur. (It’s pos-
sible for the mass to pass through the equilibrium position once, but only once.) This is
x
because c 2  4mk means that there is a strong damping force (high-viscosity oil or grease)
compared with a weak spring or small mass.

CASE II c 2  4 mk
0 (critical damping)

■
Thomson Brooks-Cole copyright 2007

0 t
This case corresponds to equal roots

FIGURE 4 c
r1
r 2

Overdamping 2m
 APPLICATIONS OF SECOND-ORDER DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS ■ 3

and the solution is given by

x

c1
c2 te
c2mt

It is similar to Case I, and typical graphs resemble those in Figure 4 (see Exercise 12), but
the damping is just sufficient to suppress vibrations. Any decrease in the viscosity of the
fluid leads to the vibrations of the following case.

CASE III c 2  4mk  0 (underdamping)

■

Here the roots are complex:

r1


c
 i
g
i n
r2 2m
x

x=Ae– (c/2m)t


rn
s4mk  c 2

a
where
2m

Le
0 t The solution is given by

e
x=_Ae– (c/2m)t x
e
c2mt
c1 cos  t
c2 sin  t

a g We see that there are oscillations that are damped by the factor e
c2mt. Since c  0 and

g n
FIGURE 5 m  0, we have 
c2m  0 so e
c2mt l 0 as t l . This implies that x l 0 as t l ;

n ti o
Underdamping that is, the motion decays to 0 as time increases. A typical graph is shown in Figure 5.

C e c
EXAMPLE 2 Suppose that the spring of Example 1 is immersed in a fluid with damping

u
constant c
40. Find the position of the mass at any time t if it starts from the equili-

f
o rod
brium position and is given a push to start it with an initial velocity of 0.6 ms.
SOLUTION From Example 1 the mass is m
2 and the spring constant is k
128, so the

ty ep
differential equation (3) becomes

e r r 2
d 2x

40
dx

128x
0

p or
dt 2 dt

r o f
d 2x

20
dx

64x
0

t
or

P o
2
dt dt

N
The auxiliary equation is r 2
20r
64

r
4
r
16
0 with roots 4
and 16, so the motion is overdamped and the solution is

■ ■ Figure 6 shows the graph of the position

x
t
c1 e4t
c2 e16t
function for the overdamped motion in
Example 2.
We are given that x
0
0, so c1
c2
0. Differentiating, we get
0.03

x
t
4c1 e4t  16c2 e16t

so x
0
4c1  16c2
0.6

Thomson Brooks-Cole copyright 2007

1.5 Since c2
c1 , this gives 12c1
0.6 or c1
0.05. Therefore

0

FIGURE 6 x
0.05
e4t  e16t 

4 ■ APPLICATIONS OF SECOND-ORDER DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

FORCED VIBRATIONS

Suppose that, in addition to the restoring force and the damping force, the motion of the
spring is affected by an external force F
t. Then Newton’s Second Law gives

d 2x
m
restoring force
damping force
external force
dt 2
dx

kx  c
F
t
dt

g
Thus, instead of the homogeneous equation (3), the motion of the spring is now governed

n
by the following nonhomogeneous differential equation:

n i
5 m
d 2x
dt 2

c
dx
dt

kx
F
t

a r
Le
e
The motion of the spring can be determined by the methods of Additional Topics: Nonho-
mogeneous Linear Equations.

g
A commonly occurring type of external force is a periodic force function

g a n F
t
F0 cos  0 t where  0  
skm

e n ti o
In this case, and in the absence of a damping force (c
0), you are asked in Exercise 9 to

C c
use the method of undetermined coefficients to show that

f u
o rod
F0
6 x
t
c1 cos  t
c2 sin  t
cos  0 t
m
 2   02 

r ty ep If  0
, then the applied frequency reinforces the natural frequency and the result is

e
p or r vibrations of large amplitude. This is the phenomenon of resonance (see Exercise 10).

r o f
ELECTRIC CIRCUITS

R
P o t In Additional Topics: Linear Differential Equations we were able to use first-order linear
equations to analyze electric circuits that contain a resistor and inductor. Now that

N
we know how to solve second-order linear equations, we are in a position to analyze the
switch circuit shown in Figure 7. It contains an electromotive force E (supplied by a battery or
L generator), a resistor R, an inductor L, and a capacitor C, in series. If the charge on the
capacitor at time t is Q
Q
t, then the current is the rate of change of Q with respect
E to t : I
dQdt. It is known from physics that the voltage drops across the resistor, induc-
tor, and capacitor are
C
dI Q
FIGURE 7 RI L
dt C

respectively. Kirchhoff’s voltage law says that the sum of these voltage drops is equal to
the supplied voltage:

dI Q
L
RI

E
t
dt C
 APPLICATIONS OF SECOND-ORDER DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS ■ 5

Since I
dQdt, this equation becomes

d 2Q dQ 1
7 L
R
Q
E
t
dt 2 dt C

which is a second-order linear differential equation with constant coefficients. If the charge
Q0 and the current I 0 are known at time 0, then we have the initial conditions

Q
0
Q0 Q
0
I
0
I 0

g
and the initial-value problem can be solved by the methods of Additional Topics:

i n
Nonhomogeneous Linear Equations.

n
A differential equation for the current can be obtained by differentiating Equation 7

r
with respect to t and remembering that I
dQdt :

d 2I dI
a 1

Le
L
R
I
E
t
dt 2 dt C

EXAMPLE 3 Find the charge and current at time t in the circuit of Figure 7 if R
40 ,

both 0.
g e
L
1 H, C
16  104 F, E
t
100 cos 10t, and the initial charge and current are

g a n
SOLUTION With the given values of L, R, C, and E
t, Equation 7 becomes

e n ti o d 2Q
2
40
dQ

625Q
100 cos 10t

c
dt dt

C u
The auxiliary equation is r 2
40r
625
0 with roots

f
o rod
40  s900
r

20  15i

ty ep
2

r
so the solution of the complementary equation is

e
p or r Qc
t
e20t
c1 cos 15t
c2 sin 15t

r o f
For the method of undetermined coefficients we try the particular solution

P o t Qp
t
A cos 10t
B sin 10t

N
Then Qp
t
10 A sin 10t
10B cos 10t

Qp

t
100 A cos 10t  100B sin 10t

Substituting into Equation 8, we have

100 A cos 10t  100B sin 10t
40
10 A sin 10t
10B cos 10t

625
A cos 10t
B sin 10t
100 cos 10t

or
525A
400B cos 10t

400 A
525B sin 10t
100 cos 10t

Equating coefficients, we have

Thomson Brooks-Cole copyright 2007

525A
400B
100 21A
16B
4

or
400 A
525B
0 or 16 A
21B
0
 6 ■ APPLICATIONS OF SECOND-ORDER DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

The solution of this system is A
84

697 and B
697
64
, so a particular solution is

Qp
t
697
1

84 cos 10t
64 sin 10t

and the general solution is

Q
t
Qc
t
Qp
t
e20t
c1 cos 15t
c2 sin 15t
697
21 cos 10t
16 sin 10t
4

Imposing the initial condition Q
0
0, we get

Q
0
c1
697
84

0 c1
 697
84

To impose the other initial condition we first differentiate to find the current:
dQ

n g
i
I

e20t 
20c1
15c2  cos 15t

15c1  20c2  sin 15t
dt


21 sin 10t
16 cos 10t

rn
40
697

I
0
20c1
15c2
697
0

a
c2
 2091
640 464

Le
Thus, the formula for the charge is


e
4 e20t
Q
t

63 cos 15t  116 sin 15t

21 cos 10t
16 sin 10t

g
697 3

a
and the expression for the current is

g
I
t

n ti o n
1
2091 e20t
1920 cos 15t
13,060 sin 15t
120
21 sin 10t
16 cos 10t

C e c
u
NOTE 1 ■ In Example 3 the solution for Q
t consists of two parts. Since e20t l 0 as
0.2

f
t l  and both cos 15t and sin 15t are bounded functions,

o rod
Qp
Qc
t
2091 e20t
63 cos 15t  116 sin 15t l 0 as t l 
4

ty ep
Q
0 1.2
So, for large values of t ,

e r r
Q
t  Qp
t
697
4

21 cos 10t
16 sin 10t

p or
_0.2
and, for this reason, Qp
t is called the steady state solution. Figure 8 shows how the graph

o f
FIGURE 8 of the steady state solution compares with the graph of Q in this case.

5 m
d 2x
dt 2

c
dx
dt


r
P o t
kx
F
t
NOTE 2 ■ Comparing Equations 5 and 7, we see that mathematically they are identical.
This suggests the analogies given in the following chart between physical situations that,
at first glance, are very different.

N
d 2Q dQ 1
7 L
R
Q
E
t
dt 2 dt C
Spring system Electric circuit

x displacement Q charge
dxdt velocity I
dQdt current
m mass L inductance
c damping constant R resistance
k spring constant 1C elastance
F
t external force E
t electromotive force

We can also transfer other ideas from one situation to the other. For instance, the steady
state solution discussed in Note 1 makes sense in the spring system. And the phenomenon
Thomson Brooks-Cole copyright 2007

of resonance in the spring system can be usefully carried over to electric circuits as elec-
trical resonance.

EXERCISES
12. Consider a spring subject to a frictional or damping force.
A Click here for answers. S Click here for solutions.
1. A spring with a 3-kg mass is held stretched 0.6 m beyond its
natural length by a force of 20 N. If the spring begins at its
equilibrium position but a push gives it an initial velocity of
1.2 ms, find the position of the mass after t seconds.
2. A spring with a 4-kg mass has natural length 1 m and is main-
APPLICATIONS OF SECOND-ORDER DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS ■ 7
(a) In the critically damped case, the motion is given by
x
c1 ert
c2 tert. Show that the graph of x crosses the
t-axis whenever c1 and c2 have opposite signs.
(b) In the overdamped case, the motion is given by
x
c1e r t
c2 e r t, where r1  r2. Determine a condition on
1 2
the relative magnitudes of c1 and c2 under which the graph
of x crosses the t-axis at a positive value of t.
tained stretched to a length of 1.3 m by a force of 24.3 N. If the 13. A series circuit consists of a resistor with R
20 , an induc-

g
spring is compressed to a length of 0.8 m and then released tor with L
1 H, a capacitor with C
0.002 F, and a 12-V

n
with zero velocity, find the position of the mass at any time t. battery. If the initial charge and current are both 0, find the

i
charge and current at time t.
3. A spring with a mass of 2 kg has damping constant 14, and a

n
14. A series circuit contains a resistor with R
24 , an inductor

r
force of 6 N is required to keep the spring stretched 0.5 m
beyond its natural length. The spring is stretched 1 m beyond with L
2 H, a capacitor with C
0.005 F, and a 12-V

a
its natural length and then released with zero velocity. Find the battery. The initial charge is Q
0.001 C and the initial cur-

Le
position of the mass at any time t. rent is 0.
(a) Find the charge and current at time t.
4. A spring with a mass of 3 kg has damping constant 30 and
; (b) Graph the charge and current functions.
spring constant 123.

e
(a) Find the position of the mass at time t if it starts at the 15. The battery in Exercise 13 is replaced by a generator producing

g
equilibrium position with a velocity of 2 ms. a voltage of E
t
12 sin 10t. Find the charge at time t.
(b) Graph the position function of the mass.

a
;
16. The battery in Exercise 14 is replaced by a generator producing

g n
5. For the spring in Exercise 3, find the mass that would produce a voltage of E
t
12 sin 10t.

o
critical damping.

n ti
(a) Find the charge at time t.
; (b) Graph the charge function.

e
6. For the spring in Exercise 4, find the damping constant that

c
would produce critical damping. 17. Verify that the solution to Equation 1 can be written in the

C u
form x
t
A cos
 t
.
; 7. A spring has a mass of 1 kg and its spring constant is k
100.

f
o rod
The spring is released at a point 0.1 m above its equilibrium 18. The figure shows a pendulum with length L and the angle
position. Graph the position function for the following values from the vertical to the pendulum. It can be shown that , as a
of the damping constant c: 10, 15, 20, 25, 30. What type of function of time, satisfies the nonlinear differential equation

ty ep
damping occurs in each case?
d 2 t

r

sin
0
; 8. A spring has a mass of 1 kg and its damping constant is dt 2 L

e r
c
10. The spring starts from its equilibrium position with a
where t is the acceleration due to gravity. For small values of

p or
velocity of 1 ms. Graph the position function for the following
values of the spring constant k: 10, 20, 25, 30, 40. What type of we can use the linear approximation sin  and then the

o
differential equation becomes linear.

r f
damping occurs in each case?
(a) Find the equation of motion of a pendulum with length 1 m

t
9. Suppose a spring has mass m and spring constant k and let if is initially 0.2 rad and the initial angular velocity is

P o

skm. Suppose that the damping constant is so small d dt
1 rads.
that the damping force is negligible. If an external force (b) What is the maximum angle from the vertical?

N
F
t
F0 cos  0 t is applied, where  0  , use the method
of undetermined coefficients to show that the motion of the
mass is described by Equation 6.
10. As in Exercise 9, consider a spring with mass m, spring con-
stant k, and damping constant c
0, and let 
skm.
If an external force F
t
F0 cos  t is applied (the applied
frequency equals the natural frequency), use the method of
undetermined coefficients to show that the motion of the mass
is given by x
t
c1 cos  t
c2 sin  t

F0 
2mt sin  t.
(c) What is the period of the pendulum (that is, the time to
complete one back-and-forth swing)?
(d) When will the pendulum first be vertical?
(e) What is the angular velocity when the pendulum is vertical?
¨
L

11. Show that if  0  , but  0 is a rational number, then the

motion described by Equation 6 is periodic.
Thomson Brooks-Cole copyright 2007
 8 ■ APPLICATIONS OF SECOND-ORDER DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

ANSWERS

S Click here for solutions.

1. x
0.36 sin
10t3 3. x
 5 e6t
5 et

1 6 49
5. 12 kg
7. c=10
0.02 c=15

0 1.4
c=20
c=25
c=30

g
_0.11

13. Q
t

e10t250
6 cos 20t
3 sin 20t

i n
3
,

n
125
3 10t
I
t
e

r
5 sin 20t

a
15. Q
t
e10t [ 250 cos 20t  sin 20t]
3 3
500

Le
 3
cos 10t

3
250 125 sin 10t

g e
g a n
e n ti o
C u c
f
o rod
r ty ep
e
p or r
r o f
P o t
N
Thomson Brooks-Cole copyright 2007
 APPLICATIONS OF SECOND-ORDER DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS ■ 9

SOLUTIONS

1. By Hooke’s Law k(0.6) = 20 so k = 100 is the spring constant and the differential equation is 3x00 + 100 x = 0.
 103    3
The general solution is x(t) = c1 cos 3 t + c2 sin 10 t . But 0 = x(0) = c1 and 1.2 = x 0
(0) = 10
3
c2 , so the
3 
position of the mass after t seconds is x(t) = 0.36 sin 10 3
t .

2. k(0.3) = 24.3 or k = 81 is the spring constant and the resulting initial-value problem is 4x00 + 81x = 0,
   
x(0) = −0.5 (since compressed), x0 (0) = 0. The general solution is x(t) = c1 cos 92 t + c2 sin 29 t . But
−0.2 = x(0) = c1 and 0 = x0 (0) = 29 c2 . Thus the position is given by x(t) = −0.2 cos(4.5t).
3. k(0.5) = 6 or k = 12 is the spring constant, so the initial-value problem is 2x00 + 14x0 + 12x = 0, x(0) = 1,
x0 (0) = 0. The general solution is x(t) = c1 e−6t + c2 e−t . But 1 = x(0) = c1 + c2 and 0 = x0 (0) = −6c1 − c2 .

n g
i
Thus the position is given by x(t) = − 51 e−6t + 56 e−t .

4. (a) The differential equation is 3x + 30x + 123x = 0 with

rn
00 0
(b)

a
general solution x(t) = e−5t (c1 cos 4t + c2 sin 4t). Then

Le
0 = x(0) = c1 and 2 = x0 (0) = 4c2 , so the position is

given by x(t) = 21 e−5t sin 4t.

g e
5. For critical damping we need c2 − 4mk = 0 or m = c2 /(4k) = 142 /(4 · 12) = 49
kg.

a
12
√

n
√ √

g
6. For critical damping we need c2 = 4mk or c = 2 mk = 2 3 · 123 = 6 41.

n ti o
7. We are given m = 1, k = 100, x(0) = −0.1 and x0 (0) = 0. From (3), the differential equation is

e c
d2 x dx
+c + 100x = 0 with auxiliary equation r2 + cr + 100 = 0. If c = 10, we have two complex roots

C u
dt2 dt
√   √   √ 

f
o rod
r = −5 ± 5 3i, so the motion is underdamped and the solution is x = e−5t c1 cos 5 3 t + c2 sin 5 3 t .
√
Then −0.1 = x(0) = c1 and 0 = x0 (0) = 5 3 c2 − 5c1 ⇒ c2 = − 101√3 , so

ty ep
k  √   √ l
x = e−5t −0.1 cos 5 3 t − 101√3 sin 5 3 t . If c = 15, we again have underdamping since the auxiliary

r
k  √   √ l

r
√

e
equation has roots r = − 15
2
± 5 2 7 i. The general solution is x = e−15t/2 c1 cos 5 2 7 t + c2 sin 5 2 7 t , so

p or
√
−0.1 = x (0) = c1 and 0 = x0 (0) = 5 2 7 c2 − 15 c ⇒ c2 = − 103√7 . Thus

o
2 1

r f
k  √   √ l
x = e−15t/2 −0.1 cos 5 2 7 t − 103√7 sin 5 2 7 t . For c = 20, we have equal roots r1 = r2 = −10,

P o t
so the oscillation is critically damped and the solution is x = (c1 + c2 t)e−10t . Then −0.1 = x(0) = c1 and

N
0 = x0 (0) = −10c1 + c2 ⇒ c2 = −1, so x = (−0.1 − t)e−10t . If c = 25 the auxiliary equation has roots
r1 = −5, r2 = −20, so we have overdamping and the solution is x = c1 e−5t + c2 e−20t . Then
−0.1 = x(0) = c1 + c2 and 0 = x0 (0) = −5c1 − 20c2 2
⇒ c1 = − 15 and c2 = 1
30
,
2 −5t 1 −20t
so x = − 15 e + 30 e . If c = 30 we have roots
√
r = −15 ± 5 5, so the motion is overdamped and the
√ √
solution is x = c1 e(−15 + 5 5 )t
+ c2 e(−15 − 5 5 )t
. Then
−0.1 = x(0) = c1 + c2 and
 √   √ 
0 = x0 (0) = −15 + 5 5 c1 + −15 − 5 5 c2 ⇒
√ √
Thomson Brooks-Cole copyright 2007

c1 = 100
and c2 = −5 100
−5 − 3 5 +3 5
, so
 √  √  √  √
x = −5 − 3 5
100
e(−15 + 5 5)t + −5 100
+3 5
e(−15 − 5 5)t .
 10 ■ APPLICATIONS OF SECOND-ORDER DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

d2 x dx
8. We are given m = 1, c = 10, x(0) = 0 and x0 (0) = 1. The differential equation is + 10 + kx = 0 with
dt2 dt
√
auxiliary equation r2 + 10r + k = 0. k = 10: the auxiliary equation has roots r = −5 ± 15 so we have
√ √
15 )t 15 )t
overdamping and the solution is x = c1 e(−5 + + c2 e(−5 − . Entering the initial conditions gives
√ √ √
c1 = 2
1
√
15
and c2 = − 2 √115 , so x = 2
1
√
15
e (−5 + 15 )t − 2 √115 e(−5 − 15 )t . k = 20: r = −5 ± 5 and the
√ √
solution is x = c1 e(−5 + 5 )t
+ c2 e(−5 − 5 )t
so again the motion is overdamped. The initial conditions give
√ √
c1 = 2
1
√
5
and c2 = − 2 √
1
5
, so x = 2
1
√
5
e(−5 + 5 )t
− 2
1
√
5
e(−5 − 5 )t
. k = 25: we have equal roots

g
r1 = r2 = −5, so the motion is critically damped and the solution is x = (c1 + c2 t)e−5t . The initial conditions give

n
√

i
c1 = 0 and c2 = 1, so x = te−5t . k = 30: r = −5 ± 5 i so the motion is underdamped and the solution is

n
 √  √ 

r
x = e−5t c1 cos 5 t + c2 sin 5 t . The initial conditions give c1 = 0 and c2 = √15 , so

a
√  √
x= √1 e−5t sin 5 t . k = 40: r = −5 ± 15 i so we again have underdamping. The solution is

Le
5
 √  √ 
x = e−5t c1 cos 15 t + c2 sin 15 t , and the initial conditions give c1 = 0 and c2 = √1 .
15
Thus
√ 

e
x = √115 e−5t sin 15 t .

a g
g
n ti o n
C e c
f u
o rod s

ty ep
9. The differential equation is mx00 + kx = F0 cos ω0 t and ω0 6= ω = k/m. Here the auxiliary equation is

r
s
mr2 + k = 0 with roots ± k/m i = ±ωi so xc (t) = c1 cos ωt + c2 sin ωt. Since ω0 6= ω, try

  e
p or r
xp (t) = A cos ω0 t + B sin ω0 t. Then we need
 

o
(m) −ω20 (A cos ω0 t + B sin ω0 t) + k(A cos ω0 t + B sin ω0 t) = F0 cos ω0 t or A k − mω 20 = F0 and
 
r
P o t f
B k − mω 20 = 0. Hence B = 0 and A =
F0
k − mω 20
=
F0
m(ω2 − ω20 )
k
since ω2 = . Thus the motion of the mass
m

N
F0
is given by x(t) = c1 cos ωt + c2 sin ωt + cos ω0 t.
m(ω2 − ω20 )

10. As in Exercise 9, xc (t) = c1 cos ωt + c2 sin ωt. But the natural frequency of the system equals the
frequency of the external force, so try xp (t) = t(A cos ωt + B sin ωt). Then we need

m(2ωB − ω2 At) cos ωt − m(2ωA + ω2 Bt) sin ωt + kAt cos ωt + kBt sin ωt = F0 cos ωt or 2mωB = F0 and

−2mωA = 0 (noting −mω 2 A + kA = 0 and −mω 2 B + kB = 0 since ω2 = k/m). Hence the general solution is
x(t) = c1 cos ωt + c2 sin ωt + [F0 t/(2mω)] sin ωt.

F0
11. From Equation 6, x(t) = f (t) + g(t) where f (t) = c1 cos ωt + c2 sin ωt and g(t) = cos ω0 t. Then f
m(ω2 − ω20 )
Thomson Brooks-Cole copyright 2007

is periodic, with period 2π

ω
, and if ω 6= ω0 , g is periodic with period 2π
ω0
. If ω
ω0
is a rational number, then we can say
 APPLICATIONS OF SECOND-ORDER DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS ■ 11

ω
ω0
= a
b
⇒ a= bω
ω0 where a and b are non-zero integers. Then

       
x t+a· 2π
ω
= f t + a · 2π
ω
+ g t + a · 2π
ω
= f (t) + g t + bω
ω0
· 2π
ω
 
= f (t) + g t + b · ω2π0 = f (t) + g(t) = x(t)

so x(t) is periodic.

12. (a) The graph of x = c1 ert + c2 tert has a t-intercept when c1 ert + c2 tert = 0 ⇔ ert (c1 + c2 t) = 0 ⇔
c1 = −c2 t. Since t > 0, x has a t-intercept if and only if c1 and c2 have opposite signs.

(b) For t > 0, the graph of x crosses the t-axis when c1 er1 t + c2 er2 t = 0 ⇔ c2 er2 t = −c1 er1 t

g
⇔

n
er1 t

i
c2 = −c1 = −c1 e(r1 −r2 )t . But r1 > r2 ⇒ r1 − r2 > 0 and since t > 0, e(r1 −r2 )t > 1. Thus
er2 t
> |c1 |, and the graph of x can cross the t-axis only if |c2 | > |c1 |.

rn
(r1 −r2 )t
|c2 | = |c1 | e

a
13. Here the initial-value problem for the charge is Q00 + 20Q0 + 500Q = 12, Q(0) = Q0 (0) = 0. Then

Le
Qc (t) = e−10t (c1 cos 20t + c2 sin 20t) and try Qp (t) = A ⇒ 500A = 12 or A = 3
125
.

The general solution is Q(t) = e−10t (c1 cos 20t + c2 sin 20t) + 125 .
3
But 0 = Q(0) = c1 + 3
and

e
125

g
Q0 (t) = I(t) = e−10t [(−10c1 + 20c2 ) cos 20t + (−10c2 − 20c1 ) sin 20t] but 0 = Q0 (0) = −10c1 + 20c2 . Thus

a
 
the charge is Q(t) = − 250 e−10t (6 cos 20t + 3 sin 20t) + 125 and the current is I(t) = e−10t 53 sin 20t.

n
1 3

g
n ti o
14. (a) Here the initial-value problem for the charge is 2Q00 + 24Q0 + 200Q = 12 with Q(0) = 0.001 and Q0 (0) = 0.

e
Then Qc (t) = e−6t (c1 cos 8t + c2 sin 8t) and try Qp (t) = A ⇒ A = 3
and the general solution is

c
50

C u
−6t
Q(t) = e (c1 cos 8t + c2 sin 8t) + 3
50
. But 0.001 = Q(0) = c + 3
50
so c1 = −0.059. Also

f
o rod
0 −6t
Q (t) = I (t) = e [(−6c1 + 8c2 ) cos 8t + (−6c2 − 8c1 ) sin 8t] and 0 = Q0 (0) = −6c1 + 8c2 so
c2 = −0.04425. Hence the charge is Q(t) = −e−6t (0.059 cos 8t + 0.04425 sin 8t) + 3
and the current is

ty ep
50

I(t) = e−6t (0.7375) sin 8t.

(b)

e r r
op or
r
P o t f
N
15. As in Exercise 13, Qc (t) = e−10t (c1 cos 20t + c2 sin 20t) but E(t) = 12 sin 10t so try
Qp (t) = A cos 10t + B sin 10t. Substituting into the differential equation gives
(−100A + 200B + 500A) cos 10t + (−100B − 200A + 500B) sin 10t = 12 sin 10t ⇒ 400A + 200B = 0

and 400B − 200A = 12. Thus A = 3

− 250 , B= 3
125
and the general solution is

Q(t) = e −10t
(c1 cos 20t + c2 sin 20t) − 3
250
cos 10t + 3
125
sin 10t. But 0 = Q(0) = c1 − 3
250
so c1 = 3
250
.

Also Q0 (t) = 3
25
sin 10t + 6
25
cos 10t + e−10t [(−10c1 + 20c2 ) cos 20t + (−10c2 − 20c1 ) sin 20t] and

0 = Q0 (0) = − 10c1 + 20c2 so c2 = − 500

6 3
. Hence the charge is given by
Thomson Brooks-Cole copyright 2007

25
 
Q(t) = e−10t 250
3 3
cos 20t − 500 3
sin 20t − 250 3
cos 10t + 125 sin 10t.
 12 ■ APPLICATIONS OF SECOND-ORDER DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

16. (a) As in Exercise 14, Qc (t) = e−6t (c1 cos 8t + c2 sin 8t) but try Qp (t) = A cos 10t + B sin 10t.
Substituting into the differential equation gives
(−200A + 240B + 200A) cos 10t + (−200B − 240A + 200B) sin 10t = 12 sin 10t, so B = 0 and
1
A = − 20 . Hence, the general solution is Q(t) = e−6t (c1 cos 8t + c2 sin 8t) − 1
20
cos 10t. But

0.001 = Q(0) = c1 − 1
20
, Q0 (t) = e−6t [(−6c1 + 8c2 ) cos 8t + (−6c2 − 8c1 ) sin 8t] − 1
2
sin 10t and
0
0 = Q (0) = −6c1 + 8c2 , so c1 = 0.051 and c2 = 0.03825. Thus the charge is given by
Q(t) = e−6t (0.051 cos 8t + 0.03825 sin 8t) − 1
20
cos 10t.

(b)

n g
n i
a r
Le
c c2 
1
17. x(t) = A cos(ωt + δ) ⇔ x(t) = A[cos ωt cos δ − sin ωt sin δ] ⇔ x(t) = A cos ωt + sin ωt
A A

e
where cos δ = c1 /A and sin δ = −c2 /A ⇔ x(t) = c1 cos ωt + c2 sin ωt. (Note that cos2 δ + sin2 δ = 1 ⇒

g
a
c21 + c22 = A2 .)

g
n ti o n
18. (a) We approximate sin θ by θ and, with L = 1 and g = 9.8, the differential equation becomes
d2 θ
dt2
+ 9.8θ = 0.

e
√

c
The auxiliary equation is r2 + 9.8 = 0 ⇒ r = ± 9.8 i, so the general solution is

C
√  √  √

u
θ(t) = c1 cos 9.8 t + c2 sin 9.8 t . Then 0.2 = θ(0) = c1 and 1 = θ0 (0) = 9.8 c2 ⇒ c2 = √1 ,

f
9.8

o rod
√  √ 
so the equation is θ(t) = 0.2 cos 9.8 t + √9.8
1
sin 9.8 t .
√ √  √  √ 

ty ep
(b) θ0 (t) = −0.2 9.8 sin 9.8 t + cos 9.8 t = 0 or tan 9.8 t = √59.8 , so the critical numbers are

r
 
√1 tan−1 √59.8 + √n9.8 π (n any integer). The maximum angle from the vertical is

r
t=

e
9.8
  

p or
θ √1 tan−1 √5 ≈ 0.377 radians (or about 21.7◦ ).

o
9.8 9.8

r f
(c) From part (b), the critical numbers of θ(t) are spaced √π9.8 apart, and the time between successive maximum

P o t
 
values is 2 √π9.8 . Thus the period of the pendulum is √2π 9.8
≈ 2.007 seconds.

N
√  √  √  √
(d) θ(t) = 0 ⇒ 0.2 cos 9.8 t + √19.8 sin 9.8 t = 0 ⇒ tan 9.8 t = −0.2 9.8 ⇒
  √  
t = √19.8 tan−1 −0.2 9.8 + π ≈ 0.825 seconds.

(e) θ0 (0.825) ≈ −1.180 rad/s.

Thomson Brooks-Cole copyright 2007