Basic Radiation Physics

Basic Radiation Physics

Knowledge of basic radiation physics is necessary for properly understanding fluoroscopy

safety.

Radiation: is the transfer of energy in the form of particles or waves.

Energy: the ability to do work (Force·Distance)

X-rays are electromagnetic radiation. Electromagnetic radiation is a form of pure energy

which is carried by waves of photons. Electromagnetic radiation is also known as light.
Visible light, Radio and X-rays are all forms of electromagnetic radiation which vary in
energy and thereby wavelength and frequency as well (Figure 1-1).

Ionizing Radiation

X-ray radiation contains more energy than ultraviolet, infrared, radio waves, microwaves or
visible light. X-ray radiation has sufficient energy (>30 eV) to cause ionizations. An
ionization is a process whereby the radiation removes an outer shell electron from an atom
(Figure 1-2).

Non-ionizing radiation does not contain sufficient energy (30 eV) to cause ionizations
(Figure 1-3). While some non-ionizing radiation can be harmful, the ionization process is
clearly able to cause chemical changes in important changes to biologically important
molecules (e.g. DNA).

X-ray Production

X-rays are produced when high velocity electrons are decelerated (slowed or stopped) or by a
nucleus of an atom especially by high atomic number material, such as the tungsten target
(anode) in a X-ray tube. An electrically heated filament (cathode) within the X-ray tube
generates electrons that are accelerated from the filament to the tungsten target by the
application of a high voltage to the tube. The energy gained by the electron is equal to the
potential difference (voltage) between the anode and cathode. This electron energy is
typically expressed in kilovolts (kV). The accelerated electron interacts with the target
(anode) nucleus. As the electric field of the electron interacts with nucleus, the electron
releases energy in the form of X-rays. This method of of x-ray production is called
bremsstrahlung or braking radiation (Figure 1-4).

Since the degree of interaction of the accelerated electron with the target nucleus can vary,
the energy spectrum, or distribution of energy, of the X-rays produced by the bremsstrahlung
process is continuous.

As smaller number of characteristic x-rays are also produced as excited electrons interact
with the electrons of the target atoms. The X-rays produced from this interaction, with a
given orbital electron, have a single specific energy (discrete) instead of a continuous
spectrum. Mammographic x-ray tubes are designed to maximize characteristic production to
optimize breast tissue imaging. The amount of characteristic X-rays in a fluoroscopy beam is
relatively low.

The lower energy X-rays are absorbed within the X-ray tube. This reduces the number of
lower energy X-rays in the resultant spectrum since the lower energy X-ray are less
penetrating. The beam is considered "harder" when there is more filtration. Most X-ray
manufacturers add filtration, commonly consisting of aluminum, since lower energy X-rays
do not contribute to images and add to patient dose.

The resulting x-ray spectrum energy (Figure 1-5) is a mixture of the characteristic and
bremsstrahlung radiation, less the primarily low energy X-rays absorbed by the X-ray tube
(and added filtration). The maximum energy of the X-ray produced is equal to the
maximum potential applied across the x-ray tube. This peak X-ray energy is usually
described with the unit kVp (kilovolt peak or kilovolt potential). The type of target anode,
potential (kVp) and added filtration produce a beam of a given "quality" which implies
specific shape of an X-ray spectrum.

X-ray Production Efficiency and Heat Loading

The production of x-rays is a relatively inefficient process so that only a small fraction of the
energy imparted by the decelerating electrons is converted into X-rays. The remaining energy
is converted to heat. Thus, the production and dissipation of heat in the X-ray tube is a
serious consideration. Thus, most x-ray machines have rotating anodes to spread out the heat
to prevent anode melting. This is the reason why you can hear an X-ray machine make
noise. Most fluoroscopic x-ray machine anodes are primarily based on tungsten due to
tungsten's high melting point, excellent heat transmission, and high atomic number. In spite
of tungsten's favorable qualities, with sufficiently high usage, X-ray production is prevented
by the system to protect the tube. Substantial improvements have been recently made in the
ability of fluoroscopic X-ray equipment to remove waste heat and thereby maintain high
beam outputs.

Divergent Nature of X-ray Radiation

Once generated, the X-rays are emitted in all directions in a uniform manner (isotropically).
The lead housing surrounding the X-ray tube limits X-ray emission through a small opening
or port in the X-ray tube. The resulting primary beam of useful radiation is shaped by
additional lead shutters, or collimators, that can be adjusted to provide different beam shapes
or sizes.

X-rays Interactions with matter

X-rays have several fates as they traverse tissue. These fates fall into 3 main categories
(Figure 1-8):
No interaction: X-ray passes completely throughtissue and into the image recording device.
Producing an image

Complete absorption: X-ray energy is completely absorbed by the tissue. This produces
radiation dose to the patient.

Partial absorption with scatter: Scattering involves a partial transfer of energy to tissue, with
the resulting scattered X-ray having less energy and a different trajectory. This interaction
does not provide any useful information (degrades image quality) and is the primary source
of radiation exposure to staff.

X-ray Interaction with Matter

The probability of X-ray interaction is a function of tissue electron density, tissue thickness,
and X-ray energy (kVp). Electron dense material like bone and contrast dye attenuates more
X-rays from the X-ray beam than less dense material (muscle, fat, air). The differential rate
of interaction provides the contrast that forms the image.

Tissue Electron Density Interaction Effects:

As electron density increases, the interaction with X-rays substantially increases.

Higher atomic number materials have increased electron density. Thus, bone, which is
substantially comprised of calcium, produces more attenuation, than tissue, which is
comprised of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen (all of which have a lower electron density
or atomic number than calcium). Thus, the image of bone and soft tissue has contrast,
or difference, between bone and soft tissue.

The concept of contrast and electron density X-ray interaction can be shown in Figure 1-9.

Assume 1,000 X-rays strike the following body portions. The number of X-rays reaching the
recording media (film, TV monitor) directly effect the image's brightness.

In this example, 900 X-rays are capable of penetrating the soft tissue, while only 400
penetrate the bone (Higher electron density compared with soft tissue). The contrast between
the bone and soft tissue is (900-400)/900 = 0.56.

The fundamental tie between Physics and fluoroscopy Radiation Safety occurs during the
sequence of steps which lead to radiation biological effects. These steps are deposition of
energy (Figure 1-13) and biochemical changes caused by X-rays (Figure 1-14).

The biochemical changes produced by ionizing radiation radiations are the fundamental
event leading to radiation damage. The amount of energy absorbed in a system is the best
way to quantify the radiation damage. The amount of energy absorbed per mass is known as
radiation dose.

Description of Radiation Exposure/Units

There is a myriad of terms describing amount of absorbed by a system. This is often
confusing even to those quite familiar with radiation physics. Terms which the operator
should be aware of include those are:

The X-ray machine output is described in terms of Entrance Skin Exposure (ESE) and is
the amount of radiation delivered to the patient's skin at the point of entry of the X-ray beam
into the patient. The unit for ESE are Roentgens (R) (or C/kg air in SI units). The unit
Roentgen is defined in terms of charge (Coulombs) created by ionizing radiation per unit
mass (kg) of air (1 R =2.58 * 10-4 C/kg air). The radiation exposure can also be measured at
other locations and is the quantity indicated by many radiation detectors such as Geiger-
Muller meters. This unit recognizes Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen (Röntgen), who invented
(discovered) X-rays, and gave this technology to the world without personal profit (Figure 1-
15). For this achievement, he received the Nobel prize in Physics.

The unit Roentgen is only defined for air and can not be used to describe dose to tissue.
Radiation dose is the energy (joules) imparted per unit mass of tissue and has the US units of
rad (radiation absorbed dose). Patient exposures, particularly in Radiation Oncology are
described in units of radiation dose. There is an international (SI) unit for dose termed the
Gray (Gy). The conversion between the units is: 100 rad = 1 Gy.

The biological effectiveness of radiations vary. The unit rem (radiation equivalent man, now
person) is used to compare dose received by different types of radiations (e.g. alpha particles)
which have a different capacity for causing harm than X-ray radiation. This unit is properly
termed dose equivalent. The dose equivalent is the product of the dose times a quality factor.
Occupational radiation exposure is described in terms of dose equivalent. There is an
international (SI) unit for dose equivalent termed the Sievert (Sv). The conversion between
the units is: 100 rem = 1 Sv.
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