MODULE 4 :

IRRIGATION

Water is the most important element for the growth of plants. Different types of plants
require different quantities of water at different times during their growing period. Water
is supplied to the plants through direct rain or flood waters of the rivers which inundate
large land areas during floods. As these are natural processes, there may be heavy rain
and damaging the crops or creating a scarcity of supplying water for the crops. So an
artificial method is needed by which water can be collected and stored so that it can be
used when necessary. This method of science is termed as “irrigation”

irrigation may be defined as the science of the artificial application of water to the land in
order to fulfill the water requirements of the crops throughout the crop period for the full
nourishment of the crops.

Benefits of Irrigation: There are many direct and indirect benefits or advantages of
irrigation which can be listed as follows.

1. Increase in food production: Crops need optimum quantity of water at required

intervals assured and timely supply of water helps in achieving good yield and also
superior crops can be grown and thus, the value of the crops increases.

2. Protection from famine: Irrigation works can be constructed during famine

(drought). This helps in employment generation and people also get protection from
famine. After completion of such works, continuous water supply may be available for
crops and people.

3. Cultivation of Cash crops: With the availability of continuous water supply, cash
crops such as sugarcane, indigo, tobacco, cotton etc. can be grown.

4. Increase in prosperity of people: Due to assured water supply people can get good
yield and returned for their crops. Land value increases and this raises the standard of
living of the people and hence prosperity takes place.

5. Generation of hydroelectric power: Major river valley projects are designed to

provide power generation facilities also apart from irrigation needs.
6. Domestic and Industrial water supply: Water stored in reservoirs can also be used
to serve other purposes like domestic water supply to towns and cities and also for
industrial use. Canals can also be effectively used to serve these purposes.

7. Inland Navigation: In some cases, the canals are very large enough to be used as
channels for inland navigation as water ways are the cheapest means of transportation.

8. Improvement in communication: Main canals in large irrigation projects are

provided with inspection roads all along the sides. These roads can be asphalted and
used as a means of communication.

9. Canal plantation: Due to continuous flow of water adjoining areas of a canal are
always saturated with water. In such places, trees can be planted which increases the
timber wealth of the country.

10. Improvement in ground water storage: Due to constant percolation and seepage
of irrigation water, ground water table rises. The ground water may percolate and may
be beneficial to other areas.

11. Aid in civilization: Due to introduction of river valley projects, tribal people can
adopt agriculture as their profession which helps in improving the standards of living.

12. General development of a country: By assured water supply, farmers can expect
good yield. By exporting surplus goods, Government can get revenue. The government
can then come forward to improve communications facilities such as roads and railways
and also social development by providing schools, hospitals etc.,

Ill-effects of Irrigation: If water is used in a controlled and careful manner, there would
be no ill effects of irrigation. Excess and unscientific use of irrigation of water, givers
raise to the following ill effects.

1. Water logging: Excess water applied to the fields allows water to percolate below
and ground water table rise. The ground water table may rise saturating the root zone of
the crop and cutting of air supply to the roots of the crops. Such a phenomenon is called
water logging.
Under such conditions fertility of land reduced and also reduction of crop yield.

2. Breeding placed for mosquitoes: Excess application of water for irrigation leads to
water logging and formation of stagnant water fools, which become breeding places for
mosquitoes, thus helping spreading of malaria.

3. Unhealthy Climate: Due to intense irrigation the climate becomes damp during
summer due to humidity, the climate is sultry and in winter it becomes excessively cold.
The resistance of the body to diseases is reduced. In addition to the above, careless
use of water leads to wastage of useful irrigation water for which any government will
have incurred huge amounts.

Types or Systems of Irrigation:

FLOW IRRIGATION:

Perennial Irrigation: It is that system of irrigation in which irrigation water is supplied as

per the crop requirements at regular intervals throughout the crop period. The source of
irrigation water may be a perennial river, stored water in reservoirs or ground water
drawn from open wells or bore wells. This is the most commonly adopted irrigation
system.

Inundation Irrigation: It is that system of irrigation in which large quantity of water

flowing in a river is allowed to flood or inundate the fields to be cultivated. The land
becomes thoroughly saturated. Excess water is drained off and the land is prepared for
cultivation. Moisture stored in the soil is sufficient to bring the crop to maturity.
Inundation irrigation is commonly practiced in delta region of rivers. Canals may be also
employed to inundate the fields when water is available in plenty.

Direct Irrigation:

It is a type of flow irrigation in which water from rivers and streams are conveyed directly
to agricultural fields through a network of canals, without making any attempt to store
water this is practiced in areas where the rivers and streams are perennial. Small
diversion dams or barrages may be constructed areas the rivers to raise the water level
and then divert the water into canals.

Storage Irrigation:

Dams are constructed across rivers which are non- perennial. The discharge in such
rivers may be very high during rainy season and may become less during dry stream.
By constructing dams across such rivers water can be stored as reservoir during excess
flow and can be utilized or diverted to agriculture fields through canals as and when
required. Such a system is known as storage irrigation
Lift Irrigation: It is that system of irrigation in which irrigation water is available at a
level lower than that of the land to be irrigated and hence water is lifted by pumps or
other mechanism (Hydraulic ram and siphon action) and then conveyed to agriculture
fields by gravity flow. Irrigation through wells is an example of lift irrigation. Water from
canals or any other source can also be lifted when the level of water is lower than that
of the area to be irrigated

Bandhara Irrigation: It is a special irrigation scheme adopted across small perennial

rivers. This system lies somewhere between inundation type and permanent type of
irrigation. A Bandhara is a low masonry weir (obstruction) of height 1.2m to 4.5m
constructed across the stream to divert water into a small canal. The canal usually takes
off from one side and the flow into the canal is controlled by a head regulator.
The length of the main canal is usually restricted to about 8km. A series of Bandharas
may be constructed one below the other on the same stream so that water spilling over
from one Bandhara is checked by another Bandhara. The irrigation capacity of each
Bandhara is may be about 400 hectares. Bandharas are adopted across small streams
having isolated catchments which are considered to be non feasible or uneconomical to
be included under a large irrigation scheme. This method of irrigation is followed in
Central Maharashtra and is commonly known there as the `Phad‘ system.
Methods of Irrigation or mode of supplying of water:

WATER REQUIREMENTS OF CROP:

Water requirement of a crop is the total quantity of water required by the crop from the
time it is sown to the time it is harvested. Different crops require different amounts of
water. It is essential to maintain the quantity of water (readily available moisture) in soil
by supplying water more or less at fixed intervals throughout the plant growth. The
growth of crops is retarded, if the moisture content becomes, excessive or deficient.
Excessive soil moisture results in filling the pore spaces and there by drawing out the air
in root zone, which is also essential for plant growth. In case of moisture deficiency,
plants require extra energy to extract the moisture in soil.

DUTY OF WATER: Duty represents the irrigating capacity of a unit of water. It is usually
defined as the area of land in hectares which can be irrigated to grow a crop of one
cumec of water is continuously supplied for the entire period of the crop. Different crops
require different amounts of water before their harvesting and hence duty of water
varies with the crops. Duty of water is said to be high, if the area of land irrigated per
cumic is large.

FACTORS AFFECTING DUTY: The duty water of a canal system depends on the
following factors.
1. Methods and systems of irrigation: Perennial system of irrigation has more duty of
water than inundation irrigation system. the loss of water by deep percolation is
minimum in the first case. In flow irrigation by channels the duty is less as conveyance
losses are more. In lift irrigation the lands to be irrigated are very near to the source of
water than any surface irrigation method.

2. Type of Crop: Different crops require varying quantities of water and therefore duty
of water varies from crop to crop. Crops requiring large quantity of water have lower
duty than crops requiring lesser quantity of water.

3. Climate conditions of the area: The climatic condition such as wind, temperature,
humidity and rainfall affect the duty of water. At high temperature losses due to
evaporation and transpiration are more and hence duty decreases. At higher wind
velocity, rate of evaporation and transpiration are more thereby, duty decreased. But in
humid conditions evaporations and transpiration losses are minimum, there by duty
increases.

4. Canal conditions: In earthen canals, seepage losses are high resulting low duty. If
canal is lined, losses are minimum and hence duty increases. If the length of the canal
is very large before it reaches the irrigation fields (as in hilly areas) the duty of water
decreases.

5. Quality of Water: If water contains harmful salts and alkali contents, then more water
is to be applied liberally to leach out these salts and in turn duty of water decreases.

6. Characteristics of soil and subsoil in field and canals: If the soil and subsoil of
the field and canals are made of coarse-grained soils the seepage and percolation
losses are more and hence the duty of water decreases.

7. Topography of land: If the area to be irrigated is level, uniform water application is

possible which will result in economical views and hence duty of water increases.

8. Method of Cultivation: If the land is properly tilled up to the required depth and soil
is made loose before irrigation, water retaining capacity of soil increases. This reduces
the number of watering or frequency of watering and hence duty increases.
METHODS OF IMPROVING DUTY

When once the various factors affecting duty are properly understood, the duty can be
improved by making those factors less effective which tend to reduce the duty.

1. Suitable method of applying water to the crops should be used.

2. The land should be properly ploughed and leveled before sowing the crop. It should
be given good tilth.

3. The land should be cultivated frequently, since frequent cultivation reduces loss of
moisture specially when the ground water is within capillary reach of ground surface.

4. The canals should be lined. This reduces seepage and percolation losses. Also,

water can be conveyed quickly, thus reducing, evaporation losses.

5. Parallel canals should be constructed. If there are two canals running side by side,the
F.S.L. will be lowered, and the losses will thus be reduced.

6. The idle length of the canal should be reduced.

7. The alignment of the canal either in sandy soil or in fissured rock should be avoided.

8. The canal should be so aligned that the areas to be cultivated are concentrated along
it.

9. The source of supply should be such that it gives good quality of water.

10. The rotation of crops must be practiced.

11. Volumetric method of assessment should be used.

12. The farmers must be trained in the proper use of water, so that they apply correct
quantity of water at correct timing.

13. The land should be redistributed to the farmers so that they get only as much land
as they are capable of managing it.

14. Research stations should be established in various localities to study the soil, the
seed and conservation of moisture. The problems concerning the economical use of
water should be studied at research stations.

15. The canal administrative staff should be efficient, responsible and honest. The
operation of the canal system should be such that the farmers both at the head of the
canal as well as at the tail end get water as and when they need it.

DELTA: It is the total depth of water required by a crop during the entire crop period
and is denoted as ‗Δ‗

BASE PERIOD: It refers to the whole period of cultivation from the time when irrigation
water is first applied for preparation of the ground for planting the seed

to its last watering before harvesting.

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN DUTY AND DELTA:

Let, base period of the crop be B days, and

one cumec of water be applied to this crop on the field for B days.

Now, volume of water applied to this crop during B days

= V = (1 x 60 x 60 x 24 x B) m3

= 86,400 B m3

By definition of duty (D), one cubic meter supplied for B days matures D hectares of
land.

:. This quantity of water (V) matures D hectares of land or 104 D sq. m of area.

Total depth of water applied on this land

= Volume/area = 86400 B / 104 D = 8.64 B / D metres

By definition, this total depth of water is called delta (Δ),

Δ = 8.64 B / D meter

Δ = 864 B / D cm

where, Δ is in cm, B is in days ; and D is duty Water Requirement of Crop in

hectares/cumec.

CROP SEASONS OF INDIA:

Sowing of crops in irrigation of crops in India is usually done in 2 seasons, known as

Crop seasons. They are
1. Kharif season

2. Rabi season

Kharif season begins with the onset of south west monsoons. sowing of crops in Kharif
season is done during June-July and these crops are harvested in October-November.
In Rabi season the crops are sown during September-October and harvested during
march-April.

Problem : 1

An irrigation canal has gross commanded area of 80,000 hectares out of which 85% is
culturable irrigable. The intensity of irrigation for Kharif season is 30% and for Rabi
season is 60%. Find the discharge required at the head of canal if the duty at its head is
800 hectares/cumec for Kharif season and 1700 hectares/cumec for Rabi season.

Solution:

Gross culturable area = GCA = 80,000 hectares

Culturable commanded area = CCA = 0.85 x 80,000 = 68,000 hectares

Area under Kharif season = 68,000 x 0.30 = 20,400 hectares

Area under Rabi season = 68,000 x 0.60 = 40,800 hectares

Water required at the head of the canal in Kharif = Area/duty

= 20,400/800 = 25.5 cumecs

Water required at the head of the canal in Rabi = Area/duty

= 40,800/1700 = 24.0 cumecs

Since water requirement in Kharif is more so the canal may be designed to carry a
discharge of 25.5 cumecs.

Problem :2

A watercourse has a culturable commanded area of 2600 hectares, out of which the
intensities of irrigation for perennial sugar-cane and rice crops are 20% and 40%
respectively. The duty for these crops at the head of watercourse are 750
hectares/cumec and 1800 hectares/cumec respectively. Find the discharge required at
the head of watercourse if the peak demand is 20% of the average requirement.

Solution:

Culturable commanded area = CCA = 2,600 hectares

Area under sugar-cane = 2600 x 0.2 = 520 hectares

Area under rice = 2600 x 0.4 = 1040 hectares

Water required for sugarcane = Area/duty = 520/750 = 0.694 cumecs

Water required for rice = Area/duty = 1040/1800 = 0.577 cumecs

Since sugar-cane is a perennial crop, it will require water throughout the year.

Hence,

Watercourse must carry a total discharge = 0.694 + 0.577

= 1.271 cumecs

PROBLEM : 3

The left branch canal carrying a discharge of 20 cumecs has a culturable commanded
area of 20,000 hectares. The intensity of Rabi crop is 80% and the base period is 120
days. The right branch canal carrying a discharge of 8cumecs has a culturable
commanded area of 12,000 hectares, intensity of irrigation of Rabi crop is 50% and
base period is 120 days. Compare the efficiencies of the two canal systems.

Solution:

(a)For left branch canal:

Area under Rabi crop = 20,000 x 0.8 = 16,000 hectares

Discharge = 20 cumecs

Duty = Area/Discharge = 16,000/20 = 800 hectares / cumec

(b) For right branch canal:

Area under Rabi crop = 12,000 x 0.5 = 6,000 hectares

Discharge = 8 cumecs
Duty = Area/Discharge = 6,000/8 = 750 hectares / cumec

Since left canal system has higher duty, it is more efficient.

PROBLEM :4

A watercourse has a culturable commanded area of 1200 hectares. The intensity of

irrigation for crop A is 40% and for B is 35%, both the crops being Rabi crops. Crop A
has kor period of 20 days and crop B has a kor period of 15 days. Calculate the
discharge of the watercourse if the kor depth for crop A is 10 cm and for crop B is 16
cm.

Solution:

(a)For crop A:

Area under irrigation = 1200 x 0.40 = 480 hectares

Kor period = b = 20 days; Kor depth = δ = 10 cm = 0.1 m

Duty = (8.64 x b) / δ = (8.64 x 20) / 0.1 = 1728 hectares/cumec

Hence discharge required = Area / duty = 480/1728 = 0.278 cumecs

(b) For crop B:

Area under irrigation = 1200 x 0.35 = 420 hectares

Kor period = b = 15 days; Kor depth = δ = 16 cm = 0.16 m

Duty = (8.64 x b) / δ = (8.64 x 15) / 0.16 = 810 hectares/cumec

Hence discharge required = 420/810 = 0.518 cumecs

Thus the design discharge of watercourse = 0.278 + 0.518 = 0.796 say 0.8 cumecs

PROBLEM 5:

A watercourse commands an irrigated area of 600 hectares. The intensity of irrigation of

rice in this area is 60%. The transplantation of rice takes 12 days, and total depth of
water required by the crop is 50cm on the field during the transplantation period. During
the transplantation period, the useful rain falling on the field is 10 cm. Find the duty of
irrigation water for the crop on the field during transplantation, at the head of the field,
and also at the head of the distributary, assuming losses of water to be 20% in the
watercourse. Also

calculate the discharge required in the watercourse.

Solution:

Note:

Rice seed is initially germinated in separate seed beds.

Afterwards, Seedlings (young plants) of rice are thrust (transplanted) by hand

in another previously prepared land.

Preparation of land for rice crop includes its thorough saturation before

ploughing, so as to puddle and soften the surface soil.

Transplantation takes about 10-15 days; requires large quantity of water, i.e.

30-60 cm on the field.

We know that Δ = 8.64 B / D

Where

B = transplantation period = 12 days

Δ = Depth of irrigation water actually applied in the field

= 50 – 10 = 40 cm = 0.40 m

D = Duty of the irrigation water on the field in hectares/cumec

D = 8.64 B / Δ = (8.64 x 12) / 0.40 = 259.5 hectares/cumec

This duty is on the field.

Since the losses in the canal are 20%, 1 cumec of water discharge at the head

of watercourse will become 0.8 cumecs at the head of field and hence will

irrigate 259.5 x 0.8 = 207.6 hectares only.

Hence the duty of water at the head of watercourse will be 207.6 ha/cumec.

Now total area under rice plantation = 600 x 0.6 = 360 hectares

Discharge at the head of watercourse = 360/207.6 = 1.735 cumecs

PROBLEM :7

Table below gives the necessary data about the crop, their duty and the area under
each crop commanded by a canal taking off from a storage reservoir. Taking a time
factor for

the canal to be 13/20. calculate the discharge required at the head of the canal. If the
capacity factor is 0.8, determine the design discharge

Solution: Discharge required for crops:

Discharge for sugar-cane = 850/580 = 1.465 cumecs

Discharge for overlap sugar-cane = 120/580 = 0.207 cumecs

Discharge for wheat = 600/1600 = 0.375 cumecs

Discharge for Bajri = 500/2000 = 0.250 cumecs

Discharge for vegetables = 360/600 = 0.600 cumecs

Since sugar-cane has a base period of 320 days, it will require water in all seasons i.e.
Rabi, Monsoon & Hot weather.

Discharge required in Rabi = 1.465 + 0.375 = 1.84 cumecs

Discharge required in Monsoon = 1.465 + 0.25 = 1.685 cumecs

Discharge required in hot weather = 1.465 + 0.207 + 0.600 = 2.272 cumecs

Thus the maximum demand of 2.272(actual discharge)

cusecs is in the hot weather.

The time factor = 13/20 , ( actual discharge / design discharge)

Therefore,

Full supply discharge at the head of the canal will be

= 2.272 x 20/13 = 3.49 cumecs

Since, Capacity factor = 0.8 (average discharge/design discharge)

Hence, Design discharge = full supply discharge / capacity factor

= 3.32 / 0.8 = 4.15 cumecs

PROBLEM :8 The base period, intensity of irrigation and duty of various crops under a
canal system are given in the table below. Find the reservoir capacity if the canal losses
are 20% and the reservoir losses are 12%.
Solution:

(i) Wheat

Discharge required = 4800 / 1800 cumecs

Volume of water required = (4800 / 1800) x 120 = 320 cumec-days

(ii)Sugar-cane

Discharge required = 5600 / 800 cumecs

Volume of water required = (5600 / 800) x 360 = 2520 cumec-days

(iii) Cotton

Discharge required = 2400 / 1400 cumecs

Volume of water required = (2400 / 1400) x 200 = 342 cumec-days

(iv) Rice

Discharge required = 3200 / 900 cumecs

Volume of water required = (3200 / 900) x 120 = 426 cumec-days

(v)Vegetables

Discharge required = 1400 / 700 cumecs

Volume of water required = (1400 / 700) x 120 = 240 cumec-days

Hence, total volume of water required on the field for all crops = 320 + 2520 +

342 + 426 + 240 = 3848 cumec-days

1 cumec-day = 1 cumec flowing for a whole day

= 1 x 24 x 60 x 60 m3

1 hectare meter = 1 x 104 m2

Hence, 1 cumec-day = (1 x 24 x 60 x 60) / (1 x 104) hectare-meters

= 8.64 hectare-meters

Hence, total volume of water required on the field = 3848 x 8.64

= 33300 hectare-meters

Since losses in the canal system are 20%, the volume of water required at the

head of canal = 33300 x (100/80) = 41600 ha-m

Allowing 12 % reservoir losses,

The capacity of the reservoir = 41600 x (100/88) = 47300 ha-m

Note: Alternatively this problem can also be solved in a tabular form. (Next slide)
Therefore, capacity of the reservoir = 33290 / (0.8 x 0.88) = 47,300 ha-m

PROBLEM: The root zone of a certain soil has a field capacity of 30% and permanent
wilting percentage is 10% (i)What is the depth of moisture in the root zone at field
capacity and permanent wilting point? ii) How much water is available if the root zone
depth is 1.2 m . The dry weight of the soil is 13.73kN/m3 (June2013, July 2015)

Solution:

(i) The depth of moisture in root zone at field capacity per metre depth of soil 1
=Sp. gr. of soil x Field capacity = (13.73x 10 3/9810) X 30/100
= 0.42 m/m
= 420 mm/m

The depth of moisture in root zone at permanent wilting point per metre depth of soil =
Sp. gr. of soil x Permanent wilting point =(13.73x 10 3/9810) X 10/100

= 0.14 m/m

= 40 mm/m

(ii ) Depth of available water per metre depth of soil. = Ws/w (Field capacity—
Permanent wilting point) = (13.73x 10 3 /9810) X (30/100 – 10/100) = 0.28m/m

= 280mm/m

Total water available in the root zone = 280 x 1.2 = 336 mm

PROBLEM :field capacity of a certain soils is 18.3% and its specific gravity is 1.25. A
wet sample of the soil taken before irrigation weighs 153gm and weight after drying in
the oven is 138gm. What depth of water must be applied to irrigate the soil to a depth of
1.2m (June2013, July 2015)

Solution:

The moisture content before irrigation = ( 153-138/ 138 ) x 100= 10.9% by weight

Depth of water required to be applied to bring the moisture upto its field capacity = 1.25
x 1.2 ( 18.3100− 10.9100) = 0.111m = 111mm
IRRIGATION EFFICIENCIES:

Efficiency is the ratio of the water output to the water input, and is usually expressed as
percentage. Input minus output is nothing but losses, and hence, if losses are more,
output is es and, therefore, efficiency is less. Hence, efficiency is inversely proportional
to the losses. Water is lost in irrigation during various processes and, therefore, The
following are the various types of irrigation efficiencies : (i) water conveyance efficiency,
water application efficiency, water use efficiency, (iv) water storage efficiency, (v) water
distribution efficiency and (vi) consumptive use efficiency.

(i) water conveyance efficiency: It is the ratio of amount of water applied to the
land to the amount of water supplied from reservoir or canal
ηc = (wf / wr ) x100
ii) water application efficiency : it is the ratio of amount of water stored in the
rootzone of the plant to the amount of water applied to the land
ηa = (wrz / wf ) x100
iii) water use efficiency : it is the ratio of amount of water used to the amount of
water applied to the land
ηu = (wu / wf ) x100
iv) water storage efficiency: It is the ratio of the amount of water stored in the root
zone during irrigation to the amount of water needed in the root zone prior to
irrigation
ηs = (wsrz / wnrz ) x100

v) distribution efficiency : it is the effectiveness with which the amount of water is

distributed to the land
ηd = (1- d / D) x100
where d= Average of the absolute values of deviations from the mean
D= Mean depth of water stored during irrigation

PROBLEM: 1
 PROBLEM :2
A stream of 135 litres per second was diverted from a canal and 100 litres per second
were delivered to the field. An area of 1.6 hectares was irrigated in 8 hours. The
effective depth of root zone was 1.8 m. the runoff loss in the field was 432 cu.m. The
depth of water penetration varied linearly from 1.8 m at the head end of the field to 1.2
m at the tail end. Available moisture holding capacity of the soil is 20 cm per meter
depth of soil. Determine the water conveyance efficiency, water application
efficiency,water storage efficiency and water distribution efficiency.Irrigation was started
at a moisture extraction level of 50 percent of the available moisture.
FREQUENCY OF IRRIGATION:

The amount of irrigation water applied should be such that the moisture content is
raised to the field capacity. The moisture content in soil reduces due to consumptive
use by plants. However, the moisture content should not be allowed to fall below lower
limit of readily available moisture. When the moisture content reaches the lower limit of
readily available moisture, water should be supplied by irrigation method to rise it to the
field capacity or optimum moisture content.
The minimum depth of water to be applied during irrigation to maintain field capacity is
given by,

Dw= (ϒs / ϒw ) x drz [ FC – OMC]

Where ϒs = weight density of soil , ϒw = weight density of water

drz = depth of root zone, FC = field capacity , OMC = optimum moisture content

Dw = depth of water to be applied to the land in each watering

Then, The frequency of irrigation (Fi ) is given by,

Fi= Dw / Cu (days) ,Where Cu = comsumptive use of water

Where Cu represents the consumptive use of water by crops expressed as depth of

water in cm/day

MODULE 5 :

CANALS

A canal is an artificial waterway. We use the canal for irrigation, land

drainage, urban water supply, hydroelectric power generation,
transportation of cargo and people, power generation, the canal is also
used to connect industrial centers with ports to speed movement of raw
materials. Water filled canals at high levels can deliver water to any place
where there is a water crisis.

TYPES OF CANALS

Based on the Nature of Supply Source

1. Permanent Canal

2. Inundation Canal

1. Permanent Canal

A Permanent canal is a type of canal in which water is available throughout the year.
This type of canal is generally directed from a permanent source of supply water bodies.
Several Permanent hydraulic structures are constructed in this type of canal for water
regulation and distribution. A Permanent canal can also be called as a perennial canal.

2. Inundation Canal

Inundation canal is a type of canal in which water is available only during the flood
periods. These type of canals are taken off from rivers to control the water level in rivers
during floods. A canal head regulator is provided to regulate the flow into the canal.

Based on Functions of Canal

1. Irrigation canal

2. Power canal

3. Feeder canal

4. Carrier canal

5. Navigation canal

1. Irrigation canal

A canal aligned along the boundaries of cultivatable areas in order to supply water for
the purpose of agriculture is said to be an irrigation canal.
2. Power canal

A canal constructed especially for the generation of hydraulic power is termed as power
canal.

3. Feeder canal

As the name says, a feeder canal is constructed to feed two or more other canals or
branch canals.

4. Carrier canal

A carrier canal is multi-function canal which serves the purposes of both irrigation canal
and feeder canal. It means the carrier canal feeds the other canals as well as provides
water for direct irrigation.
5. Navigation canal

A canal which is constructed especially for navigational purposes is known as

navigation canal. The water level required in a navigation canal is generally a lot higher
to accommodate large ships, vessels, etc.

Based on Type of Boundary Surface of Canal

1. Alluvial canal

2. Non-alluvial canal and 3. Rigid Surface canal

1. Alluvial canal

If the canal is excavated in alluvial soils such as silt, sand, gravel, etc. then it is said to
be an alluvial canal

2. Non-alluvial canal

If the boundary surface of the canal is of non-alluvial soils such as loam, clay, rock, etc.
then it is said to be a non-alluvial canal.
3. Rigid Surface canal

Rigid surface canals also come under non-alluvial canals but here the boundary surface
of the canal is lined artificially with a hard layer of lining material such as cement,
concrete, stones, etc.

Based on Financial Output

1. Protective canal 2. Productive canal

1. Protective Canal

Protective canals are relief work projects which are constructed to protect a particular
area from the shortage of water. The main objective of a protective canal is to fulfill the
requirements of cultivators during the period of famine.

2. Productive Canal

Productive canals are those which will produce enough revenue for its maintenance and
running costs and also to recover the initial investment made on the construction of the
canal. It is said to be good if it recovers 6% of its initial investment per annum.
Based on Discharge

1. Main canal

2. Branch canal

3. Major distributary canal

4. Minor distributary canal

5. Field canal

. Main canal

The main canal takes off directly from a river or reservoir. It carries water in large
amounts to feed the branch and distributary canals. Due to conveying of very high
discharge through the main canal it is not recommended to do direct irrigation from it.

2. Branch Canal

The branch canal takes off from main canals at regular intervals. These canals supply
water to major and minor distributary canals. The discharge of the branch canal is
generally over 5 m3/sec. In the case of branch canals also, direct irrigation is not
recommended unless their water carrying capacity is very low.
3. Major Distributary Canal

Major distributary canal takes off from the branch canal or in some cases from the main
canal. They supply water to minor distributaries and field channels. A canal is said to be
major distributary when its discharge lies between 0.25 to 5 m3/sec.

4. Minor Distributary Canal

Minor distributary canal takes off from major distributaries and sometimes directly from
branch canals depending upon the discharge of canals. Their discharge is generally
below 0.25 m3/sec. These canals supply water to the field channels.

5. Field Channels

Field channels also known as watercourses are small channels excavated by cultivators
in the irrigation field. These channels are fed by the distributary canals and branch
canals through canal outlets.

Based on Canal Alignment

1. Ridge canal

2. Contour canal

3. Side-slope canal

1. Ridge Canal

A canal aligned along the ridgeline or watershed line of an area is said to be ridge canal
or watershed canal. Since it is running at the peak altitude of the area, irrigation on both
sides of the canal up to a larger extent of the area is possible. There is no interception
of natural drains on ridge lines hence, no cross drainage works are required for this type
of canal.
2. Contour Canal

A canal aligned roughly parallel to the contours of the area is called a contour canal.
This type of canal can be seen in hilly regions. Since it is parallel to the contour line, the
ground on one side of the canal is higher and hence irrigation is possible only on the
other side of the canal. A contour canal has to pass the drainage and hence cross
drainage works are required to be provided.

3. Side-slope Canal

A canal aligned nearly perpendicular to the contour of the area is called a side-slope
canal. It is located neither on the ridgeline nor on the valley line but is approximately in
between them. It is parallel to the natural drainage line and hence no cross drainage
works are required. The bed slope of side slope canal is very steep.

DEFINATION OF SOME IMPORTANT TECHNICAL TERMS:

GROSS COMMAND AREA: (GCA) is the total area which can be economically irrigated
from irrigation system without considering the limitation on the quantity of available
water

CULTURABLE COMMAND AREA (CCA): The cultivable area in the Gross Command
Area of an irrigation system is called Culturable Command Area or The area on which
crops can be grown satisfactory is known as culturable command area

INTENSITY OF IRRIGATION : It is defined as the percentage of CCA which is

proposed to be irrigated in a particular season or year

TIME FACTOR: It is the ratio between the number of days the canals has actually run to
the number of days the canals was supposed to run for a particular period pf watering
as per calculation and design.

CROP FACTOR or CROP RATIO: It is the ratio of the area under the crops
of two main seasons.
CAPACITY FACTOR: It is the ratio between the average discharge of a
canals or channels at a point and the full supply discharge of the canals or
channels at the same point.

HEAD WATER :The depth of water upstream from a structure or source of

stream.

Crop Period or Base Period

The time period that elapses from the instant of its sowing to the instant of its harvesting
is called the crop-period.

The time between the first watering of a crop at the time of its sowing to its last watering
before harvesting is called the Base period.

Crop period is slightly more than the base period, but for all practical purposes, they are
taken as one and the same thing, and generally expressed in B days.

Intensity of Irrigation (I.I)

Percentage of CCA that is cultivated in a particular season.

Kor depth and kor period

The distribution of water during the base period is not uniform, since crops require

maximum water during first watering after the crops have grown a few centimeters.

During the subsequent watering the quantity of water needed by crops gradually

decreases and is least when crop gains maturity.

The first watering is known as kor watering, and the depth applied is known as kor

depth.

The portion of the base period in which kor watering is needed is known as kor period.

While designing the capacity of a channel, kor water must be taken into account since

discharge in the canal has to be maximum during this time.

Crop ratio
The ratio of area irrigated in Rabi season to that irrigated in Kharif season is known as

crop ratio.

Example 1

If rice requires about 10 cm depth of water at an average interval of about 10 days. and
the crop period for rice is 120 days, find out the delta for rice.

Solution.

Water is required at an interval of 10 days for a period of 120 days.

Hence, No. of required waterings = 120/10 = 12

Therefore, Total depth of water required = No. of waterings x Depth of watering

= 12 x 10 cm = 120 cm.

Hence, Δ for rice =120 cm. Ans.

Example 2

If wheat requires about 7.5 cm of water after every 28 days, and the base period for
wheat is 140 days, find out the value of delta for wheat.

Solution.

No. of required waterings = 140/28 = 5

The depth of water required each time = 7.5 cm.

:. Total depth of water reqd. in 140 days = 5 x 7.5 cm = 37.5 cm

Hence, Δ for wheat = 37.5 cm. Ans.

DESIGN OF CANALS BY KENNEDY’S AND LACEY’S METHOD:

Lacey’s Silt Theory of Canals

Lacey stated that a channel may not be in regime condition even if it is flowing with non-
scouring and non-silting velocity. Therefore, he distinguished three regime conditions as
follows :
 1. True regime

2. Initial Regime

3. Final Regime

1. True regime

A channel is said to be in regime condition if it is transporting water and sediment in

equilibrium such that there is neither silting nor scouring of the channel. But according
to Lacey, the channel should satisfy the following conditions to be in regime condition.

1. Canal discharge should be constant.

2. The channel should flow through incoherent alluvium soil, which can be scoured
as easily as it can be deposited and this sediment should be of the same grade
as is transported.

3. Silt grade should be constant.

4. Silt charge, which is the minimum transported load should be constant.

If the above conditions are satisfied, then the channel is said to be in true regime
condition. But this is not possible in actual practice. Hence lacey defined two other
conditions which are initial and final regime conditions.

2. Initial Regime

A channel is said to be in initial regime condition when only the bed slope of channel
gets affected by silting and scouring and other parameters are independent even in
non-silting and non-scouring velocity condition. It may be due to the absence of
incoherent alluvium. According to Lacey’s, regime theory is not applicable to initial
regime condition

3. Final Regime

If the channel parameters such as sides, bed slope, depth etc. are changing according
to the flow rate and silt grade then it is said to be in final regime condition. The channel
shape may vary according to silt grade as shown in the figure below :
 Fig 2: Channel Shape
vs Silt Grade

Lacey’s specified that the regime theory is valid for final regime condition only and he
also specified that semi-ellipse is the ideal shape of regime channels.

Canal design using Lacey’s Silt Theory

According to lacey’s, the design procedure to build canal is as follows :

o Canal discharge (Q) and mean particle size (dm) should be known.

o From the mean size or diameter of the particle (d m), silt factor is first calculated
using the below expression :

o Silt factor values for different types of soils are tabulated here.

S.No Soil Type Silt Factor, f

1 Fine silt 0.5 – 0.7

2 Medium silt 0.85

3 Standard silt 1

4 Medium sand 1.25

5 Coarse sand 1.5

o Using discharge and silt factor, velocity (V) can be calculated by the expression
as

follows :

After attaining the velocity of canal flow, find the area of the canal by dividing discharge
with velocity. Also, find the mean hydraulic depth (R) of the canal and wetted perimeter
(P) of the canal.

o Assume the bed slope (S) value or find by substituting the values of silt factor
and canal discharge in the following formula :

Drawbacks of Lacey’s Silt Theory

o Lacey did not explain the properties that govern the alluvial channel.

o In general, flow is different at bed and sides of the channel which requires two
different silt factors but Lacey derived only one silt factor.

o The semi-elliptical shape proposed by Lacey as the ideal shape of the channel is
not convincing.

o Lacey did not consider the silt concentration in his equations.

 o Attrition of silt particles is ignored by Lacey.

o Lacey did not give proper definitions for the silt grade and silt charge consisting
of sandy silt or same grade of silt

KENNEDY’S METHOD:

RG Kennedy investigated canals systems for twenty years and come up with a
Kennedy’s silt theory. The theory says that, the silt carried by flowing water in a channel
is kept in suspension by the eddy current rising to the surface.

The vertical component of the eddy current tries to move sediment up whereas
sediment weight tries to bring it down. Therefore, if adequate velocity available to create
eddies so as to keep the sediment just in suspension silting will be prevented.

Fig.1: Eddies force according to Kennedy’s silt theory

Assumptions regarding Kennedy’s Silt Theory

o The eddy current is generated because of friction between flowing water and the

o roughness of the canal bed.

o The quality of the suspended silt is proportional to bed width.

o The theory is applicable to those channels which are flowing through the bed consisting of
sandy silt or same grade of silt.
Critical velocity based on Kennedy’s Silt Theory

Critical velocity is the mean velocity which will just make the channel free from
silting and scouring. The velocity is based on the depth of the water in the channel.
The general form of critical velocity is as follow:
Where

Vo = Critical velocity

D = full supply depth as illustrated in fig.2.

C & n: Constants which found to be 0.546 and 0.64, respectively.

Thus, Equation 1 rewritten as follow: Moreover, Equation 2

further improved upon realization that silt grade influences critical velocity. So, a factor
termed as critical velocity ratio introduced and the equation became as follows:

Where

m: critical velocity ratio which equal to actual velocity (V) divided by critical velocity (Vo),
value of m provided in Table 1.

Table 1 Values of m based on the type of silt

Channel lining N values

Earth 0.0225

Masonry 0.02

Concrete 0.013 to 0.018

Limitations of Kennedy’s Silt Theory

o Trial and error method used for the canal design using Kennedy’s Silt Theory.

o There is no equation for bed slope assessment, so the equation developed by

Kutter used to compute bed slope.

o The ratio of channel width (B) to its depth (D) has no significance in Kennedy’s
Silt Theory.

o There is not perfect definition for salt grade and salt charge.

o Complex phenomenon of silt transportation is not fully accounted and only critical
velocity ratio (m) concept is considered sufficient.

PROCEDURE OF CANAL DESIGN USING KENNEDY’S SILT

THEORY
o There are two cases of canal design using Kennedy’s Silt Theory dependent
on the given data. Both cases presented below:

Case 1
o The following data shall be available before hand:

o discharge (Q), rugosity coefficient (N), Critical velocity ratio (m) and bed
slope of the channel (s).

o 1. Assume suitable full supply depth (D).

o 2. Then, find the mean velocity by using Kennedy’s equation (Equation 3).

o 3. After that, find the area of cross section by using continuity equation:

Where:
Q: Discharge
A: cross section area
V: mean velocity computed in step 2
 o 4. Assume the shape of channel section with side slopes (0. 5V:1H)
o 5. Find out the value of base width of channel (B).
o 6. Then, find the perimeter of the channel (P). Which helps to find out the
hydraulic mean depth of channel (R). Where:
R: hydraulic mean depth
A: canal cross section area
P: perimeter of the section
o 7. Finally, calculate the mean velocity (V) using kutter’s formula:

Where:
N: rugosity coefficient based on type of canal lining material. Table 2 provide
N values for different lining condition. S: bed slope as 1 in ‘n’.

Both the values of V computed using equation 3 and V computed employing

equation 6 must be the same. Otherwise repeat the above procedure by assuming
another value of D.

Generally, the trial depth is assumed between 1 m to 2 m. If the condition is not

satisfied within this limit, then it may be assumed accordingly.

Table 2 N values based on the channel lining material

Channel lining N values

Earth 0.0225

Masonry 0.02

Concrete 0.013 to 0.018

Case 2

When discharge (Q), rugosity coefficient (N), Critical velocity ration (m) and B/D
ratio are given.

1. Assume B/D = X

2. By using the Kennedy’s equation find “V” in terms of D.

3. Find the area of cross section of the channel in terms of D2.

4. By using continuity Equation 4, find the value of D. and then Find the base width
(B).
5. Find hydraulic mean depth (R) with Equation 5.

6. Finally, find the value of “V” using Equation 3.

7. Substitute the value of V in step 6 in Equation 6 will gives the longitudinal slope of
the channel (S). This case will done by trial and error method.

RESERVOIR:

A reservoir is a man-made lake or large freshwater body of water formed on the

upstream side due to the construction of a dam /weir /barrage. The water is collected
and stored for use, especially water for supplying a community, irrigating land,
hydropower generation, industries

Selection of Site for a Reservoir:

Based on planning and other considerations, the guidelines for selection of site
for a reservoir are as follows:

(i) Availability of a suitable site for construction of dam.

(ii) The hills surrounding the reservoir and the bed of the reservoir should be
impervious.

(iii) Availability of good storage capacity with minimum submergence of the adjacent
land.

(iv) A reservoir should not be sited downstream of such tributaries which bring-in excess
sediment into the river.

(v) Availability of deep gorge which results in larger capacity with lesser water surface
area and, therefore, lesser evaporation loss.

(vi) The cost of other associated works is less.

(vii) The site with the possibility of land slides into the reservoir must be avoided.

(viii) The site should not be, as far as possible, on valuable land being used for some
other purposes, such as agriculture, forestry, communication and habitation by people,

(ix) Sites with mineral deposits in and around the reservoir area should also be avoided.
STORAGE ZONES IN A RESERVOIR:

Full Reservoir Level ( FRL )

It includes both active and inactive storage and also flood storage, if provided for. This
is the highest reservoir level that can be maintained without spillway discharge or
through sluice ways.

Dead Storage Level ( DSL )

Below this level, there are no outlets to drain the water in the reservoir by gravity. Below
this level silt will get accumulated during the design lifespan.

Maximum Water Level ( MWL)

The level that is ever likely to be attained during the passage of the design flood.
Sometimes called as high flood level ( HFL) or high reservoir level ( HRL )

Live Storage

This is the volume of water actually available at any time between the dead storage
level and full supply level. The minimum operating level must be sufficiently above the
lowest discharge outlet to avoid vortex formation and air entrainment.
Dead Storage

It is the total storage below the inverted level of the lowest discharge outlet. It is not
useful and cannot be used for any purpose under ordinary operating condition.

Surcharge or Flood Storage

This is required storage between FRL and maximum water level to contain the peaks of
flood that might occur when there is insufficient storage capacity for them below FRL.

RESERVOIR STORAGE CAPACITY USING MASS CURVE:

The capacity of a storage reservoir is determined on the basis of the inflow to the
reservoir and the demand of the consumers (or the yield of the reservoir).

Mass Curve of Inflow:

A mass curve of inflow (or mass curve) is a plot of accumulated flow in a stream against
time. As indicated below a mass curve of inflow can be prepared from the flow
hydrograph of a stream for a large number of consecutive previous years. A mass
curve continuously rises as it shows accumulated flows.
Mass Curve of Demand:

A mass curve of demand (or demand curve) is a plot between accumulated demand
and time (Fig. 3.14). If the demand is at a constant rate then the demand curve is a
straight line [Fig. 3.14 (a)] having its slope equal to the demand rate. However, if the
demand is not constant then the demand curve will be curved [Fig. 3.14 (b)] indicating a
variable rate of demand.

DETERMINATION OF STORAGE CAPASITY OF A RESERVOIR FOR A

SPECIFIED YIELD OR DEMAND USING MASS CURVE:

The capacity of a storage reservoir required for a specified yield or demand may
be determined by using mass curve of inflow and mass curve of demand or
demand curve as indicated below:

(1) A mass curve of inflow is prepared from the flow hydrograph for a number of
consecutive years selected from the available stream flow record such that it includes
the most critical or the driest period. Figure 3.15 shows a mass curve of inflow for a
typical stream for a 6 year period.
(2) Corresponding to the given rate of demand, a demand curve is prepared. If the rate
of demand is constant then the corresponding demand curve is a straight line as shown
in Fig. 3.15.

(3) Lines such as GH, FJ, etc., are drawn parallel to the demand curve and tangential to
the high points G, F, etc., of the mass curve of inflow (or the points at the beginning of
the dry periods).

(4) The maximum vertical intercepts X1, Y1 X2Y2 etc., between the tangential lines
drawn in step (3) and mass curve are measured. The vertical intercepts indicate the
volume by which the total flow in the stream falls short of the demand and hence
required to be provided from the reservoir storage. For example assuming the reservoir
to be full at G, for a period corresponding to points G and Z 1, there is a total flow in the
stream represented by Y1Z1 and there is a total demand represented by X 1Z1 leaving a
gap of volume represented by X1Y1 which must be met with from the reservoir storage.
(5) The largest of the maximum vertical intercepts X 1Y1, X2Y2, etc., determined in step
(4) represents the reservoir capacity required to satisfy the given demand. However, the
requirement of storage so obtained would be the net storage which must be available
for utilization and it must be increased by the amount of water lost by evaporation and
percolation.

As shown in Fig. 3.15 the vertical distance between the successive tangential lines such
as GH and FJ represents the quantity of water which could spill over from the reservoir
through the spillway and go as a waste to the downstream side. This is so because
between H and F the reservoir would remain full and all inflow in excess of demand
would flow through the spill-way to the downstream side.

PROBLEM: corresponding to a demand of 1.76 × 10 5 ha-m per year (or 55.8 cumec)
calculate the capacity of the reservoir

the following results are obtained by mass curve method:

(i) The required capacity of the reservoir is given by X 1Y1 = 1.0 × 105 ha-m

(ii) Assuming the reservoir to be full at G, it would be empty at Y 1 and would be full
again at H.

(iii) Between H and F the reservoir would remain full and all inflow in excess of the
demand would be discharged through the spillway to the downstream side. The spill
over from the reservoir would be 1.2 × 10 5 ha-m.

(iv) Assuming the reservoir to be full at F, it would be depleted to (1.0 × 10 5-0.64 × 105)
= 0.36 × 105ha-m of storage at Y2 and would be full again at J.

The rate of demand has been assumed to be constant. However, the rate of demand
may not be always constant, in which case the demand curve will be a curve with its
slope varying from point to point in accordance with the variable rate of demand at
different times.