Professional Documents
Culture Documents
FLENDER Technical Handbook PDF
FLENDER Technical Handbook PDF
FLENDER Technical Handbook PDF
Contents
Section 1 Page
Technical Drawings
Surface Texture 23/24
Geometrical Tolerancing 25-38
Sheet Sizes, Title Block, Non-standard Formats 39
Drawings Suitable for Microfilming 40/41
Section 2
Standardization
ISO Metric Screw Threads (Coarse Pitch Threads) 43
ISO Metric Screw Threads (Coarse and Fine Pitch Threads) 44
Cylindrical Shaft Ends 45
ISO Tolerance Zones, Allowances, Fit Tolerances 46/47
Parallel Keys, Taper Keys, and Centre Holes 48
Section 3
Physics
Internationally Determined Prefixes 50
Basic SI Units 50
Derived SI Units 51
Legal Units Outside the SI 51
Physical Quantities and Units of Lengths and Their Powers 52
Physical Quantities and Units of Time 53
Physical Quantities and Units of Mechanics 53/55
Physical Quantities and Units of Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer 55/56
Physical Quantities and Units of Electrical Engineering 56
Physical Quantities and Units of Lighting Engineering 57
Different Measuring Units of Temperature 57
Measures of Length and Square Measures 58
Cubic Measures and Weights 59
Energy, Work, Quantity of Heat 59
Power, Energy Flow, Heat Flow 60
Pressure and Tension 60
Velocity 60
Equations for Linear Motion and Rotary Motion 61
Section 4
Mathematics/Geometry
Calculation of Areas 63
Calculation of Volumes 64
Section 5
Mechanics/Strength of Materials
Axial Section Moduli and Axial Second Moments of Area
(Moments of Inertia) of Different Profiles 66
Deflections in Beams 67
Values for Circular Sections 68
Stresses on Structural Members and Fatigue Strength of Structures 69
18 19
Contents Contents
Section 9
Lubricating Oils
Viscosity-Temperature-Diagram for Mineral Oils 100
Viscosity-Temperature-Diagram for Synthetic Oils of Poly-α-Olefine Base 101
Viscosity-Temperature-Diagram for Synthetic Oils of Polyglycole Base 102
Kinematic Viscosity and Dynamic Viscosity 103
Viscosity Table for Mineral Oils 104
20 21
Table of Contents Section 1 Technical Drawings
Surface Texture
Technical Drawings Page 1. Method of indicating surface texture on drawings acc. to DIN 1302
2. Explanation of the usual surface rough- ces y between the profile heights and the centre
ness parameters line within the measuring length. This is equiva-
lent to the height of a rectangle (Ag) with a length
2.1 Centre line average height Ra acc. to DIN equal to the evaluation length lm and with an area
4768 equal to the sum of the areas enclosed between
The centre line average height Ra is the arithme- the roughness profile and the centre line (Aoi and
tic average of the absolute values of the distan- Aui) (see figure 1).
22 23
Technical Drawings Technical Drawings
Surface Texture Geometrical Tolerancing
Remarks referred to the tolerance, for example If it is necessary to specify more than one tol- 5.9 Toleranced features
”6 holes”, ”4 surfaces”, or ”6 x” shall be written erance characteristic for a feature, the tolerance The tolerance frame is connected to the toler-an- the points of a geometric feature (point, line, sur-
above the frame (see figures 6 and 7). specifications are given in tolerance frames one ced feature by a leader line terminating with an face, median plane) must lie. The width of the
below the other (see figure 8). arrow in the following way: tolerance zone is in the direction of the arrow of
- on the outline of the feature or an extension of the leader line joining the tolerance frame to the
6 holes 6x the outline (but clearly separated from the feature which is toleranced, unless the tolerance
dimension line) when the tolerance refers to value is preceded by the sign ∅ (see figures 15
the line or surface itself (see figures 9 and 10). and 16).
Toleranced
Tolerances Symbols Included tolerances
characteristics Figure 9 Figure 10
Angularity Flatness
Tolerances Position –
of Figure 17
position 1) Location to- Figure 13
Concentricity, Coaxiality –
lerances
Straightness, Flatness, - on the axis or the median plane when the tol- 5.11 Datums and datum systems
Symmetry erance refers to the common axis or median Datum features are features according to which
Parallelism
plane of two features (see figure 14). a workpiece is aligned for recording the tolerated
Runout Circular runout, deviations.
Circularity, Coaxiality
tolerances Axial runout
5.11.1 When a toleranced feature is referred to a
1) Tolerances of position always refer to a datum feature or theoretically exact dimensions. datum, this is generally shown by datum letters.
The same letter which defines the datum is re-
Table 2: Additional symbols peated in the tolerance frame.
To identify the datum, a capital letter enclosed in
Description Symbols a frame is connected to a solid datum triangle
Figure 14 (see figure 18).
Toleranced feature indications direct
Note:
direct Whether a tolerance should be applied to the
contour of a cylindrical or symmetrical feature or
Dat m indications
Datum to its axis or median plane, depends on the func-
by capital letter tional requirements.
26 27
Technical Drawings Technical Drawings
Geometrical Tolerancing Geometrical Tolerancing
The datum triangle with the datum letter is A single datum is identified by a capital letter (see Datum system formed by one plane and one per- larity tolerance specified within the tolerance
placed: figure 25). pendicular axis of a cylinder: frame (see figures 31 and 32).
- on the outline of the feature or an extension of A common datum formed by two datum features Datum ”A” is the plane formed by the plane con-
the outline (but clearly separated from the di- is identified by two datum letters separated by a tact surface. Datum ”B” is the axis of the largest
mension line), when the datum feature is the hyphen (see figures 26 and 28). inscribed cylinder, the axis being at right angles
line or surface itself (see figure 19). In a datum system (see also 5.11.2) the se- with datum ”A” (see figure 30).
quence of two or more datum features is impor-
tant. The datum letters are to be placed in differ-
ent compartments, where the sequence from left
to right shows the order of priority, and the datum
letter placed first should refer to the directional
datum feature (see figures 27, 29 and 30).
Figure 19
Figure 30 Figure 31
- as an extension of the dimension line when
the datum feature is the axis or median plane Figure 25 Figure 26
5.12 Theoretically exact dimensions
(see figures 20 and 21).
Secondary datum If tolerances of position or angularity are pre-
scribed for a feature, the dimensions determining
Note:
the theoretically exact position or angle shall not
If there is not enough space for two arrows, one
be toleranced.
of them may be replaced by the datum triangle Primary datum Tertiary datum These dimensions are enclosed, for example 30 .
(see figure 21).
The corresponding actual dimensions of the part Figure 32
Figure 27 are subject only to the position tolerance or angu-
Figure 33
Figure 28 Figure 34
Figure 22 Datum system formed by two datums (short axis Any portion of length 200 of any generator of
”A” and directional datum ”B”): the cylindrical surface indicated by the arrow
If the tolerance frame can be directly connected shall be contained between two parallel
with the datum feature by a leader line, the datum straight lines 0.1 apart in a plane containing
letter may be omitted (see figures 23 and 24). the axis.
28 29
Technical Drawings Technical Drawings
Geometrical Tolerancing Geometrical Tolerancing
Symbol Definition of the tolerance zone Indication and interpretation Symbol Definition of the tolerance zone Indication and interpretation
The tolerance zone is limited by a parallel- The axis of the bar shall be contained within 5.13.4 Cylindricity tolerance
epiped of section t1 ⋅ t2 if the tolerance is a parallelepipedic zone of width 0.1 in the
specified in two directions perpendicular vertical and 0.2 in the horizontal direction. The tolerance zone is limited by two The considered surface area shall be
to each other. coaxial cylinders a distance t apart. contained between two coaxial cylinders
0.1 apart.
The tolerance zone is limited by a cylinder The axis of the cylinder to which the toler- 5.13.5 Parallelism tolerance
of diameter t if the tolerance value is ance frame is connected shall be contained
preceded by the sign ∅. in a cylindrical zone of diameter 0.08. Parallelism tolerance of a line with reference to a datum line
The tolerance zone when projected in a The toleranced axis shall be contained
plane is limited by two parallel straight between two straight lines 0.1 apart, which
lines a distance t apart and parallel to the are parallel to the datum axis A and lie in the
datum line, if the tolerance zone is only vertical direction (see figures 48 and 49).
specified in one direction.
Figure 38 Figure 39
Figure 51
The tolerance zone is limited by a parallel- The toleranced axis shall be contained in a
epiped of section t1 ⋅ t2 and parallel to the parallelepipedic tolerance zone having a
Figure 42 datum line if the tolerance is specified in width of 0.2 in the horizontal and 0.1 in the
Figure 43 two planes perpendicular to each other. vertical direction and which is parallel to the
datum axis A (see figures 53 and 54).
The circumference of each cross-section
shall be contained between two co-planar
concentric circles 0.1 apart.
Figure 52
Figure 44 Figure 53 Figure 54
30 31
Technical Drawings Technical Drawings
Geometrical Tolerancing Geometrical Tolerancing
Symbol Definition of the tolerance zone Indication and interpretation Symbol Definition of the tolerance zone Indication and interpretation
Parallelism tolerance of a line with reference to a datum line 5.13.6 Perpendicularity tolerance
The tolerance zone is limited by a cylinder The toleranced axis shall be contained in a Perpendicularity tolerance of a line with reference to a datum line
of diameter t parallel to the datum line if cylindrical zone of diameter 0.03 parallel to
the tolerance value is preceded by the the datum axis A (datum line). The tolerance zone when projected in a The toleranced axis of the inclined hole shall
sign ∅. plane is limited by two parallel straight be contained between two parallel planes
lines a distance t apart and perpendicular 0.06 apart and perpendicular to the axis of
to the datum line. the horizontal hole A (datum line).
Figure 55 Figure 56
Parallelism tolerance of a line with reference to a datum surface
Figure 64 Figure 65
The tolerance zone is limited by two paral- The toleranced axis of the hole shall be con-
lel planes a distance t apart and parallel tained between two planes 0.01 apart and Perpendicularity tolerance of a line with reference to a datum surface
to the datum surface. parallel to the datum surface B.
The tolerance zone when projected in a The toleranced axis of the cylinder, to which
plane is limited by two parallel straight the tolerance frame is connected, shall be
lines a distance t apart and perpendicular contained between two parallel planes 0.1
to the datum plane if the tolerance is spec- apart, perpendicular to the datum surface.
ified only in one direction.
Figure 57 Figure 58
Parallelism tolerance of a surface with reference to a datum line
The tolerance zone is limited by two paral- The toleranced surface shall be contained
Figure 66 Figure 67
lel planes a distance t apart and parallel between two planes 0.1 apart and parallel to
to the datum line. the datum axis C of the hole. The tolerance zone is limited by a parallel- The toleranced axis of the cylinder shall be
epiped of section t1 ⋅ t2 and perpendicular contained in a parallelepipedic tolerance
to the datum surface if the tolerance is zone of 0.1 ⋅ 0.2 which is perpendicular to the
specified in two directions perpendicular datum surface.
to each other.
Figure 59 Figure 60
Figure 62 Figure 63
Figure 61 All the points of the toleranced surface in a
length of 100, placed anywhere on this
surface, shall be contained between two
parallel planes 0.01 apart and parallel to the
datum surface A (figure 63). Figure 70 Figure 71
32 33
Technical Drawings Technical Drawings
Geometrical Tolerancing Geometrical Tolerancing
Symbol Definition of the tolerance zone Indication and interpretation Symbol Definition of the tolerance zone Indication and interpretation
Perpendicularity tolerance of a surface with reference to a datum line 5.13.8 Positional tolerance
The tolerance zone is limited by two The toleranced face of the workpiece shall Positional tolerance of a line
parallel planes a distance t apart and be contained between two parallel planes
perpendicular to the datum line. 0.08 apart and perpendicular to the axis A The tolerance zone when projected in a Each of the toleranced lines shall be
(datum line). plane is limited by two parallel straight contained between two parallel straight lines
lines a distance t apart and disposed sym- 0.05 apart which are symmetrically disposed
metrically with respect to the theoretically about the theoretically exact position of the
exact position of the considered line if the considered line, with reference to the surface
tolerance is specified only in one direc- A (datum surface).
tion.
Figure 72 Figure 73
Perpendicularity tolerance of a surface with reference to a datum surface
The tolerance zone is limited by two The toleranced surface shall be contained Figure 81
parallel planes a distance t apart and between two parallel planes 0.08 apart and
Figure 80 The axis of the hole shall be contained within
perpendicular to the datum surface. perpendicular to the horizontal datum sur-
a cylindrical zone of diameter 0.08 the axis of
face A.
which is in the theoretically exact position of
the considered line, with reference to the sur-
faces A and B (datum surfaces).
Figure 74 Figure 75
Figure 82
Figure 84
Angularity tolerance of a surface with reference to a datum surface The tolerance zone is limited by two paral- The inclined surface shall be contained
lel planes a distance t apart and disposed between two parallel planes which are 0.05
The tolerance zone is limited by two paral- The toleranced surface shall be contained symmetrically with respect to the theoreti- apart and which are symmetrically disposed
lel planes a distance t apart and inclined between two parallel planes 0.08 apart which cally exact position of the considered sur- with respect to the theoretically exact posi-
at the specified angle to the datum are inclined at 40° to the datum surface A. face. tion of the considered surface with reference
surface. to the datum surface A and the axis of the
datum cylinder B (datum line).
34 35
Technical Drawings Technical Drawings
Geometrical Tolerancing Geometrical Tolerancing
Symbol Definition of the tolerance zone Indication and interpretation Symbol Definition of the tolerance zone Indication and interpretation
5.13.9 Concentricity and coaxiality tolerance Symmetry tolerance of a line or an axis
Concentricity tolerance of a point The tolerance zone is limited by a parallel- The axis of the hole shall be contained in a
epiped of section t1 . t2, the axis of which parallelepipedic zone of width 0.1 in the hori-
The tolerance zone is limited by a circle of The centre of the circle, to which the toler- coincides with the datum axis if the toler- zontal and 0.05 in the vertical direction and
diameter t the centre of which coincides ance frame is connected, shall be contained ance is specified in two directions perpen- the axis of which coincides with the datum
with the datum point. in a circle of diameter 0.01 concentric with dicular to each other. axis formed by the intersection of the two me-
the centre of the datum circle A. dian planes of the datum slots A-B and C-D.
Figure 87 Figure 88
Figure 95 Figure 96
Coaxiality tolerance of an axis
The tolerance zone is limited by a cylinder The axis of the cylinder, to which the toler- 5.13.11 Circular runout tolerance
of diameter t, the axis of which coincides ance frame is connected, shall be contained Circular runout tolerance - radial
with the datum axis if the tolerance value in a cylindrical zone of diameter 0.08 coaxial
is preceded by the sign ∅. with the datum axis A-B. The tolerance zone is limited within any The radial runout shall not be greater than
plane of measurement perpendicular to 0.1 in any plane of measurement during one
the axis by two concentric circles a revolution about the datum axis A-B.
distance t apart, the centre of which coin-
cides with the datum axis.
The tolerance zone when projected in a The axis of the hole shall be contained be- The tolerance zone is limited at any radial The axial runout shall not be greater than 0.1
plane is limited by two parallel straight tween two parallel planes which are 0.08 position by two circles a distance t apart at any position of measurement during one
lines a distance t apart and disposed sym- apart and symmetrically disposed with lying in a cylinder of measurement, the revolution about the datum axis D.
metrically with respect to the datum axis respect to the actual common median plane axis of which coincides with the datum
(or datum plane) if the tolerance is speci- of the datum slots A and B. axis.
Cylinder of measurement
fied only in one direction.
Figure 102
36 37
Technical Drawings Technical Drawings
Geometrical Tolerancing Sheet Sizes, Title Block,
Non-standard Formats
Symbol Definition of the tolerance zone Indication and interpretation Technical drawings [extract from DIN 476 sentation of drawing forms even if they are
(10.76) and DIN 6671 Part 6 (04.88)] created by CAD. This standard may also be used
Circular runout tolerance in any direction for other technical documents. The sheet sizes
6. Sheet sizes listed below have been taken from DIN 476 and
The tolerance zone is limited within any The runout in the direction indicated by the The DIN 6771 standard Part 6 applies to the pre- DIN 6771 Part 6.
cone of measurement, the axis of which arrow shall not be greater than 0.1 in any
coincides with the datum axis by two cir- cone of measurement during one revolution
cles a distance t apart. Unless otherwise about the datum axis C. Table 3
specified the measuring direction is nor-
mal to the surface. Trimmed sheet Drawing area Untrimmed sheet
Sheet sizes acc. to
1)
Cone of measurement DIN 476, A series
axb a1 x b1 a2 x b2
Figure 106
Title block
38 39
Technical Drawings Technical Drawings
Drawings Suitable for Drawings Suitable for
Microfilming Microfilming
7. General 8. Lettering 10.1 Line groups 0.5 and 0.7 with the pertaining 11. Indian ink fountain pen
In order to obtain perfect microfilm prints the fol- For the lettering - especially with stencil - the ver- line width according to table 5 may only be used. The use of the type sizes according to table 4 and
lowing recommendations should be adhered to: tical style standard lettering has to be used acc. Assignment to the drawing formats A1 and A0 is the lines according to table 5 permits a restricted
7.1 Indian ink drawings and CAD drawings to DIN 6776 Part 1, lettering style B, vertical (ISO prescribed. For the A4, A3 and A2 formats, line number of 5 different fountain pens (line widths
show the best contrasts and should be preferred 3098). In case of manual lettering the vertical group 0.7 may be used as well. 0.25; 0.35; 0.5; 0.7; 1 mm).
for this reason. style or sloping style standard lettering may be
used according to DIN 6776 Part 1, lettering style
7.2 Pencil drawings should be made in special B (ISO 3098). 12. Lettering examples for stenciling and
cases only, for example for drafts. handwritten entries
Recommendation: 8.1 The minimum space between two lines in a
2H-lead pencils for visible edges, letters and drawing as well as for lettering should be at least 12.1 Example for formats A4 to A2
dimensions; once, but better twice the width of a line in order
3H-lead pencils for hatching, dimension lines to avoid merging of letters and lines in case of
and hidden edges. reductions.
9. Type sizes
Table 4: Type sizes for drawing formats (h = type height, b = line width)
Paper sizes
Application range
g for lettering
g A0 and A1 A2, A3 and A4
h b h b
9.1 The type sizes as assigned to the paper si- also permissible. Type heights smaller by ap-
zes in table 4 must be adhered to with regard to prox. 20% will be accepted if this is required in a
their application range. Larger type heights are drawing because of restricted circumstances.
40 41
Table of Contents Section 2 Standardization
ISO Metric Screw Threads
(Coarse Pitch Threads)
Standardization Page ISO metric screw threads (coarse pitch threads) following DIN 13 Part 1, 12.86 edition
R H 0.14434 P
Parallel Keys, Taper Keys, and Centre Holes 48 6
Nut thread diameter Bolt thread diameter
Diameters of series 1 should be preferred to those of series 2, and these again to those of series 3.
Tensile
Nominal thread Pitch stress
Pitch Core diameter Depth of thread Round cross-
diameter diameter
section
d=D P d2 = D2 d3 D1 h3 H1 R As 1)
Series 1 Series 2 Series 3 mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm2
3 0.5 2.675 2.387 2.459 0.307 0.271 0.072 5.03
3.5 0.6 3.110 2.764 2.850 0.368 0.325 0.087 6.78
4 0.7 3.545 3.141 3.242 0.429 0.379 0.101 8.78
4.5 0.75 4.013 3.580 3.688 0.460 0.406 0.108 11.3
5 0.8 4.480 4.019 4.134 0.491 0.433 0.115 14.2
6 1 5.350 4.773 4.917 0.613 0.541 0.144 20.1
7 1 6.350 5.773 5.917 0.613 0.541 0.144 28.9
8 1.25 7.188 6.466 6.647 0.767 0.677 0.180 36.6
9 1.25 8.188 7.466 7.647 0.767 0.677 0.180 48.1
10 1.5 9.026 8.160 8.376 0.920 0.812 0.217 58.0
11 1.5 10.026 9.160 9.376 0.920 0.812 0.217 72.3
12 1.75 10.863 9.853 10.106 1.074 0.947 0.253 84.3
14 2 12.701 11.546 11.835 1.227 1.083 0.289 115
16 2 14.701 13.546 13.835 1.227 1.083 0.289 157
18 2.5 16.376 14.933 15.294 1.534 1.353 0.361 193
20 2.5 18.376 16.933 17.294 1.534 1.353 0.361 245
22 2.5 20.376 18.933 19.294 1.534 1.353 0.361 303
24 3 22.051 20.319 20.752 1.840 1.624 0.433 353
27 3 25.051 23.319 23.752 1.840 1.624 0.433 459
30 3.5 27.727 25.706 26.211 2.147 1.894 0.505 561
33 3.5 30.727 28.706 29.211 2.147 1.894 0.505 694
36 4 33.402 31.093 31.670 2.454 2.165 0.577 817
39 4 36.402 34.093 34.670 2.454 2.165 0.577 976
42 4.5 39.077 36.479 37.129 2.760 2.436 0.650 1121
45 4.5 42.077 39.479 40.129 2.760 2.436 0.650 1306
48 5 44.752 41.866 42.587 3.067 2.706 0.722 1473
52 5 48.752 45.866 46.587 3.067 2.706 0.722 1758
56 5.5 52.428 49.252 50.046 3.374 2.977 0.794 2030
60 5.5 56.428 53.252 54.046 3.374 2.977 0.794 2362
64 6 60.103 56.639 57.505 3.681 3.248 0.866 2676
68 6 64.103 60.639 61.505 3.681 3.248 0.866 3055
2
1) The tensile stress cross-section is calculated d2 ) d3
acc. to DIN 13 Part 28 with formula As
4 2
42 43
Standardization Standardization
ISO Metric Screw Threads Cylindrical Shaft Ends
(Coarse and Fine Pitch Threads)
Selection of nominal thread diameters and pitches for coarse and fine pitch threads from Cylindrical shaft ends Cylindrical shaft ends
1 mm to 68 mm diameter, following DIN 13 Part 12, 10.88 edition FLENDER FLENDER
Nominal thread Acc. to DIN 748/1, works standard Acc. to DIN 748/1, works standard
diameter Coarse Pitches P for fine pitch threads 1.70 edition W 0470, 1.70 edition W 0470,
d=D itch
pitch 5.82 edition 5.82 edition
Series Series Series thread Diameter ISO Length ISO Diameter ISO Length ISO
4 3 2 1.5 1.25 1 0.75 0.5
1 2 3 Series toler- Dia- toler-
Length ance Series toler- Dia- toler-
Length ance
ance meter ance meter
1 0.25 1 2 Long Short 1 2 Long Short
zone zone zone zone
1.2 0.25
1.4 0.3 mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm
1.6 0.35 6 16 100 210 165 100 m6
1.8 0.35 180
2 0.4 7 16 110 210 165 110
2.2 0.45 8 20
2.5 0.45 120 210 165 120
210
3 0.5 9 20 130 250 200 130
3.5 0.6 140 250 200 140
10 23 15
4 0.7 0.5 240
150 250 200 150
5 0.8 0.5 11 23 15
6 1 0.75 0.5 160 300 240 160
8 1.25 1 0.75 0.5 12 30 18 270
170 300 240 170
10 1.5 1.25 1 0.75 14 30 18 14
12 1.75 1.5 1.25 1 30 180 300 240 180
16 40 28 16
14 2 1.5 1.25 1 190 350 280 190 310
15 1.5 1 19 40 28 19 200 350 280 200
16 2 1.5 1 20 50 36 20 35 k6
17 1 22 k6 50 36 22 220 350 280 220 350
18 2.5 2 1.5 1
24 50 36 24 240 410 330 240
20 2.5 2 1.5 1 40
22 2.5 2 1.5 1 25 60 42 25 250 410 330 250 400
24 3 2 1.5 1 260 410 330 260
28 60 42 28 n6
25 1.5 50
26 1.5 30 80 58 30 280 470 380 280 450
m6
27 3 2 1.5 32 80 58 32 300 470 380 300
28 1.5 35 80 58 35 60 500
320 470 380 320
30 3.5 2 1.5 38 80 58 38
32 1.5 340 550 450 340 550
33 3.5 2 1.5 40 110 82 40
35 1.5 70 360 550 450 360
42 110 82 42 590
36 4 3 2 1.5 380 550 450 380
38 1.5 45 110 82 45
39 4 3 2 48 110 82 48 80 400 650 540 400
650
40 1.5 50 110 82 50 420 650 540 420
m6
42 4.5 3 2 1.5
45 4.5 3 2 1.5 55 110 82 55 90 440 650 540 440 690
48 5 3 2 1.5 60 140 105 60
105 450 650 540 450
50 1.5 65 140 105 65 750
460 650 540 460
52 5 3 2 1.5
55 2 1.5 70 140 105 70 480 650 540 480
120 790
56 5.5 4 3 2 1.5 75 m6 140 105 75 500 650 540 500
58 1.5
60 5.5 4 3 2 1.5 80 170 130 80 530 800 680
140
64 6 4 3 2 85 170 130 85 560 800 680
65 2 600 800 680
90 170 130 90
68 6 4 3 2 160
95 170 130 95 630 800 680
44 45
Standardization Standardization
ISO Tolerance Zones, Allowances, Fit Tolerances ISO Tolerance Zones, Allowances, Fit Tolerances
Inside Dimensions (Holes) Outside Dimensions (Shafts)
ISO tolerance zones, allowances, fit tolerances; Inside dimensions (holes) ISO tolerance zones, allowances, fit tolerances; Outside dimensions (shafts)
acc. to DIN 7157, 1.66 edition; DIN ISO 286 Part 2, 11.90 edition acc. to DIN 7157, 1.66 edition; DIN ISO 286 Part 2, 11.90 edition
µm µm
+ 500 + 500
Tolerance zones shown for + 400 Tolerance zones shown for
+ 400
nominal dimension 60 mm nominal dimension 60 mm
+ 300 + 300
+ 200 + 200
+ 100 + 100
0 0
– 100 – 100
– 200 – 200
– 300 – 300
– 400 – 400
– 500 – 500
above 65 –51 –39 –74 –30 –21 – 6 –12 0 0 0 +10 + 30 + 60 +100 +100 +340 +550 above 65 +148 + 78 + 56 + 62
Nominal dimensions in mm
to 80 +150 +360 to 80 +102 + 59 + 43 + 43 –340 –550
above 80 +390 +600 above 80 +178 + 93 + 66 + 73 –170 –380
to 100 –24 –10 0 0 +10 +16 +22 +35 +54 +220 +47 + 90 +159 +207 +260 +170 +380 to 100 +124 + 71 + 51 + 51 +45 +28 +35 +18 +25 +13 +11 0 0 0 0 0 –12 – 36 – 72 –120 –390 –600
–59 –45 –87 –35 –25 – 6 –13 0 0 0 +12 + 36 + 72 +120 +120 +400 above 100 +198 +101 + 69 + 76 +23 +13 +13 + 3 + 3 – 9 –11 –22 –35 –54 – 87 –220 –34 – 71 –126 –207 –180 –410
above 100 +630
to 120 +180 +410 to 120 +144 + 79 + 54 + 54 –400 –630
above 120 +450 +710 above 120 +233 +117 + 81 + 88 –200 –460
to 140 +200 +460 to 140 +170 + 92 + 63 + 63 –450 –710
above 140 –28 –12 0 0 +12 +18 +26 +40 +63 +250 +54 +106 +185 +245 +305 +460 +770 above 140 +253 +125 + 83 + 90 +52 +33 +40 +21 +28 +14 +12.5 0 0 0 0 0 –14 – 43 – 85 –145 –210 –520
to 160 –68
68 –52
52 –100
100 –40
40 –28
28 – 7 –14
14 0 0 0 +14 + 43 + 85 +145 +145 +210 +520 to 160 +190 +100 + 65 + 65 +27 +15 +15 + 3 + 3 –11
11 –12.5
12.5 25 –40
–25 40 –63
63 –100
100 –250
250 –39
39 – 83 –148
148 –245
245 –460 –770
above 160 +480 +830 above 160 +273 +133 + 86 + 93 –230 –580
to 180 +230 +580 to 180 +210 +108 + 68 + 68 –480 –830
above 180 +530 +950 above 180 +308 +151 + 97 +106 –240 –660
to 200 +240 +660 to 200 +236 +122 + 77 + 77 –530 –950
above 200 –33 –14 0 0 +13 +22 +30 +46 +72 +290 +61 +122 +215 +285 +355 +550 +1030 above 200 +330 +159 +100 +109 +60 +37 +46 +24 +33 +16 +14.5 0 0 0 0 0 –15 – 50 –100 –170 –260 – 740
to 225 79
–79 60
–60 115
–115 46
–46 33
–33 – 7 16
–16 0 0 0 +15 + 50 +100 +170 +170 +260 + 740 to 225 +258 +130 + 80 + 80 +31 +17 +17 + 4 + 4 –13
13 –14.5
14.5 29 –46
–29 46 –72
72 –115
115 –290
290 –44
44 – 96 –172
172 –285
285 –550 –1030
above 225 +570 +1110 above 225 +356 +169 +104 +113 –280 – 820
to 250 +280 + 820 to 250 +284 +140 + 84 + 84 –570 –1100
above 250 +620 +1240 above 250 +396 +190 +117 +126 –300 – 920
to 280 –36 –14 0 0 +16 +25 +36 +52 +81 +320 +69 +137 +240 +320 +400 +300 + 920 to 280 +315 +158 + 94 + 94 +66 +43 +52 +27 +36 +16 +16 0 0 0 0 0 –17 – 56 –110 –190 –620 –1240
–88 –66 –130 –52 –36 – 7 –16 0 0 0 +17 + 56 +110 +190 +190 +650 above 280 +431 +202 +121 +130 +34 +20 +20 + 4 + 4 –16 –16 –32 –52 –81 –130 –320 –49 –108 –191 –320 –330 –1050
above 280 +1370
to 315 +330 +1050 to 315 +350 +170 + 98 + 98 –650 –1370
above 315 +720 +1560 above 315 +479 +226 +133 +144 –360 –1200
to 355 –41 –16 0 0 +17 +29 +39 +57 +89 +360 +75 +151 +265 +350 +440 +360 +1200 to 355 +390 +190 +108 +108 +73 +46 +57 +29 +40 +18 +18 0 0 0 0 0 –18 – 62 –125 –210 –720 –1560
–98 –73 –140 –57 –40 – 7 –18 0 0 0 +18 + 62 +125 +210 +210 +760 above 355 +524 +244 +139 +150 +37 +21 +21 + 4 + 4 –18 –18 –36 –57 –89 –140 –360 –54 –119 –214 –350 –400 –1350
above 355 +1710
to 400 +400 +1350 to 400 +435 +208 +114 +114 –760 –1710
above 400 +840 +1900 above 400 +587 +272 +153 +166 –440 –1500
to 450 – 45 –17 0 0 +18 +33 +43 +63 +97 +400 +83 +165 +290 +385 +480 +440 +1500 to 450 +490 +232 +126 +126 +80 +50 +63 +32 +45 +20 +20 0 0 0 0 0 –20 – 68 –135 –230 –840 –1900
–108 –80 –155 –63 –45 – 7 –20 0 0 0 +20 + 68 +135 +230 +230 +880 above 450 +637 +292 +159 +172 +40 +23 +23 + 5 + 5 –20 –20 –40 –63 –97 –155 –400 –60 –131 –232 –385 –480 –1650
above 450 +2050
to 500 +480 +1650 to 500 +540 +252 +132 +132 –880 –2050
ISO Series 1 x8/u8 r6 n6 h6 h9 f7
ISO Series 1 H7 H8 F8 E9 D10 C11
abbrev. Series 2 1) s6 r5 m5 m6 k5 k6 j6 js6 h7 h8 h11 g6 e8 d9 c11 a11
abbrev. Series 2 P7 N7 N9 M7 K7 J6 J7 H11 G7 D9 A11
1) Up to nominal dimension 24 mm: x8; above nominal dimension 24 mm: u8
46 47
Standardization Table of Contents Section 3
Parallel Keys, Taper Keys,
and Centre Holes
48 49
Physics Physics
Internationally Determined Prefixes Derived SI Units
Basic SI Units Legal Units Outside the SI
Internationally determined prefixes Derived SI units having special names and special unit symbols
Decimal multiples and sub-multiples of units are represented with prefixes and symbols. SI unit
Prefixes and symbols are used only in combination with unit names and unit symbols. Physical quantity Relation
Name Symbol
Factor by which the unit Factor by which the unit
Prefix Symbol Prefix Symbol Plane angle Radian rad 1 rad = 1 m/m
is multiplied is multiplied
Solid angle Steradian sr 1 sr = 1 m2/m2
10–18 Atto a 101 Deka da
Frequency, cycles per
10–15 Femto f 102 Hecto h Hertz Hz 1 Hz = 1 s–1
second
– Prefix symbols and unit symbols are written – When giving sizes by using prefix symbols and Electric capacitance Farad F 1 F = 1 C/V = 1 (A2 . s4)/(kg . m2)
without blanks and together they form the unit symbols, the prefixes should be chosen in
symbol for a new unit. An exponent on the unit such a way that the numerical values are Electric resistance Ohm Ω 1 Ω = 1 V/A = 1 (kg . m2)/A2 . s3)
symbol also applies to the prefix symbol. between 0.1 and 1000.
Electric conductance Siemens S 1 S = 1 Ω–1 = 1 (A2 . s3)/(kg . m2)
Example: Example: degrees
12 kN instead of 1.2 ⋅ 104N Celsius temperature °C 1 °C = 1 K
1 cm3 = 1 . (10–2m)3 = 1 . 10–6m3 Celsius
3.94 mm instead of 0.00394 m
1 µs = 1 . 10–6s Inductance Henry H 1 H = 1 V . s/A
1.401 kPa instead of 1401 Pa
106s–1 = 106Hz = 1 MHz 31 ns instead of 3.1 . 10–8s
Legal units outside the SI
– Prefixes are not used with the basic SI unit kilo- – Combinations of prefixes and the following
gram (kg) but with the unit gram (g). units are not allowed: Physical quantity Unit name Unit symbol Definition
Units of angularity: degree, minute, second
Example: Units of time: minute, hour, year, day Round angle 1) 1 perigon = 2 π rad
Milligram (mg), NOT microkilogram (µkg). Unit of temperature: degree Celsius Gon gon 1 gon = (π/200)rad
Plane angle Degree ° 2) 1° = (π/180)rad
Minute ’ 2) 1’ = (1/60)°
Basic SI units Second ’’ 2) 1’’ = (1/60)’
Basic SI unit Basic SI unit Volume Litre l 1 l = 1 dm3 = (1/1000) m3
Physical quantity Physical quantity
Name Symbol Name Symbol Minute min 2) 1 min = 60 s
Hour h 2) 1 h = 60 min = 3600 s
Time
Length Metre m Day d 2) 1 d = 24 h = 86 400 s
Thermodynamic Year a 2) 1 a = 365 d = 8 760 h
Kelvin K
Kilo- temperature
Mass kg Mass Ton t 1 t = 103 kg = 1 Mg
gram
Pressure Bar bar 1 bar = 105 Pa
Time Second s Amount of substance Mole mol
1) A symbol for the round angle has not yet been internationally determined
Electric current Ampere A Luminous intensity Candela cd 2) Do not use with prefixes
50 51
Physics Physics
Physical Quantities and Units of Physical Quantities and Units
Lengths and Their Powers of Time and of Mechanics
Physical quantities and units of lengths and their powers Physical quantities and units of time
SI unit N.: Note SI unit N.: Note
Physical Physical
Symbol Symbol L.U.: Further legal units Symbol Symbol L.U.: Further legal units
quantity quantity
Name N.A.: Units no longer allowed Name N.A.: Units no longer allowed
N.: Basic unit
N.: Basic unit L.U.: ns; µs; ms; ks
m L.U.: µm; mm; cm; dm; km; etc. Minute (min): 1 min = 60 s
l Length
(metre) N.A.: micron (µ): 1 µ = 1 µm Time,
s Hour (h): 1 h = 60 min
Ångström unit (Å): 1 Å = 10–10 m t Period,
(second) Day (d): 1 d = 24 h
Duration
Year (a): 1 a = 365 d
L.U.: mm2; cm2; dm2; km2
m2 (Do not use prefixes for decimal multiples
A Area are (a): 1 a = 102 m2 and sub-multiples of min, h, d, a)
(square metre)
hectare (ha): 1 ha = 104 m2
Frequency,
Hz L.U.: kHz; MHz; GHz; THz
m3 L.U.: mm3; cm3; dm3 f Periodic
V Volume (Hertz) Hertz (Hz): 1 Hz = 1/s
(cubic metre) litre (l): 1 l = dm3 frequency
Moment of N.: moment of a force; moment of resistance Rotational N.: Reciprocal value of the duration of one
H m3 n frequency s–1 revolution
area L.U.: mm3; cm3
(speed) L.U.: min–1 = 1/min
Second mo- N.: formerly: geometrical moment of inertia
Ι m4 L.U.: cm/s; m/h; km/s; km/h
ment of area L.U.: mm4; cm4 v Velocity m/s
1 km h ) 1 m s
3.6
1 m (arc) 1m
N. : 1 rad ) ) ) 1m m Accelera- N.: Time-related velocity
1 m (radius) 1m a m/s2
tion, linear L.U.: cm/s2
N.: Gravity varies locally.
g Gravity m/s2 Normal gravity (gn):
1 rad gn = 9.80665 m/s2 ≈ 9.81 m/s2
Angular
1 degree ) 1 o ) rad ω
velocity
rad/s L.U.: rad/min
180
90 o ) rad
Angular
α rad/s2 L.U.: °/s2
2 acceleration
. Volume
V m3/s L.U.: l/s; l/min; dm3/s; l/h; m3/h; etc.
L.U. : rad, mrad flow rate
52 53
Physics Physics
Physical Quantities and Physical Quantities and Units of Mechanics,
Units of Mechanics Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer
Physical quantities and units of mechanics (continued) Physical quantities and units of mechanics (continued)
SI unit N.: Note SI unit N.: Note
Physical Physical
Symbol Symbol L.U.: Further legal units Symbol Symbol L.U.: Further legal units
quantity quantity
Name N.A.: Units no longer allowed Name N.A.: Units no longer allowed
Mass N.: 1 W = 1 J/s = 1 Nm/s
N.: Instead of the former flywheel effect GD2
moment of P .Power L.U.: µW; mW; kW; MW; etc.
kg . m2 2
J inertia; sec- GD 2 in kpm 2 now : J ) GD kJ/s; kJ/h; MJ/h, etc.
ond mass 4 N.A.: PS
PS; kkpm/s;
m/s kcal/h
L.U.: g ⋅ m2; t ⋅ m2 W
moment 1 PS = 735.49875 W
Watt)
. 1 kpm/s = 9.81 W
. Rate of Q Heat flow
m kg/s L.U.: kg/h; t/h 1 kcal/h = 1.16 W
mass flow 1 hp = 745.70 W
N L.U.: µN; mN; kN; MN; etc.; 1 N = 1 kg m/s2 N.: 1 Pa . s = 1 Ns/m2
F Force Dynamic
(Newton) N.A.: kp (1 kp = 9.80665 N) η Pa . s L.U.: dPa . s, mPa . s
viscosity
N N.: Weight = mass acceleration due to gravity N.A.: Poise (P): 1 P = 0.1 Pa . s
G Weight
(Newton) L.U.: kN; MN; GN; etc. L.U.: mm2/s; cm2/s
L.U.: µNm; mNm; kNm; MNm; etc. ν
Kinematic
m2/s
N.A.: Stokes (St):
M, T Torque Nm viscosity 1 St = 1/10000 m2/s
N.A.: kpm; pcm; pmm; etc.
1cSt = 1 mm2/s
Bending L.U.: Nmm; Ncm; kNm etc.
Mb Nm
moment N.A.: kpm; kpcm; kpmm etc.
Physical quantities and units of thermodynamics and heat transfer
N.: 1 Pa = 1 N/m2
L.U.: Bar (bar): 1 bar = 100 000 Pa = 105 Pa SI unit N.: Note
Physical
µbar, mbar Symbol
quantity
Symbol L.U.: Further legal units
N.A.: kp/cm2; at; ata; atü; mmWS; mmHg; Torr Name N.A.: Units no longer allowed
Pa 1kp/cm2 = 1 at = 0.980665 bar N.: Basic unit
p Pressure Thermody-
(Pascal) 1 atm = 101 325 Pa = 1.01325 bar K 273.15 K = 0 °C
T namic
1 Torr ) 101325 Pa ) 133.322 Pa temperature
(Kelvin) 373.15 K = 100 °C
760 L.U.: mK
1 mWS = 9806.65 Pa = 9806.65 N/m2
1 mmHg = 133.322 Pa = 133.322 N/m2 N.: The degrees Celsius (°C) is a special name for
Celsius the degrees Kelvin (K) when stating Celsius
Absolute Pa t °C
pabs temperature temperatures. The temperature interval of
pressure (Pascal) 1 K equals that of 1 °C.
Ambient Heat 1 J = 1 Nm = 1 Ws
Pa
pamb atmospher- Q Quantity of J L.U.: mJ; kJ; MJ; GJ; TJ
(Pascal)
ic pressure heat N.A.: cal; kcal
Pressure
a)
above Pa +c p
pe pe = pabs - pamb
atmos- (Pascal) Tempera-
pheric a m2/s λ [ W/(m . K)] = thermal conductivity
ture
conductivity [kg/m3] = density of the body
Direct
stress cp [J/(kg ⋅ K)] = specific heat capacity
L.U.: N/mm2
σ (tensile and N/m2 at constant pressure
1 N/mm2 = 106 N/m2
compres- N.: Quantity of heat absorbed under certain
sive stress) Enthalpy
conditions
H (Heat con- J
Shearing L.U.: kJ; MJ; etc.
τ N/m2 L.U.: N/mm2 tent)
N.A.: kcal; Mcal; etc.
stress
N.: ∆l / l 1 J/K = 1 Ws/K = 1 Nm/K
ε Extension m/m s Entropy J/K L.U.: kJ/K
L.U.: µm/m; cm/m; mm/m
N.A.: kcal/deg; kcal/°K
N.: 1 J = 1 Nm = 1 Ws
W, A Work L.U.: mJ; kJ; MJ; GJ; TJ; kWh Heat L.U.: W/(cm2 . K); kJ/(m2 . h . K)
J 1 kWh = 3.6
3 6 MJ α,h transfer W/(m2 . K) N.A.: cal/(cm2 . s . grd)
(Joule)
N.A.: kpm; cal; kcal coefficient kal/(m2 . h . grd) ≈ 4.2 kJ/(m2 . h . K)
E, W Energy
1 cal = 4.1868 J; 860 kcal = 1 kWh
54 55
Physics Physics
Physical Quantities and Units of Thermodynamics, Physical Quantities and Units of Lighting Engineering,
Heat Transfer and Electrical Engineering Different Measuring Units of Temperature
Physical quantities and units of thermodynamics and heat transfer (continued) Physical quantities and units of lighting engineering
SI unit N.: Note SI unit N.: Note
Physical Physical
Symbol Symbol L.U.: Further legal units Symbol Symbol L.U.: Further legal units
quantity quantity
Name N.A.: Units no longer allowed Name N.A.: Units no longer allowed
Specific 1 J/(K . kg) = W . s / (kg . K) N.: Basic unit
J/(K . kg) Luminous cd
c heat N.: Heat capacity referred to mass I 1 cd = 1 lm (lumen)/sr (Steradian)
intensity (Candela)
capacity N.A.: cal / (g . deg); kcal / (kg . deg); etc. L.U.: mcd; kcd
Coefficient L.U.: cd / cm2; mcd/m2; etc.
m / (m . K) = K–1 Luminous 1 2
of linear cd / m2 N.A.: Apostilb (asb); 1 asb cd m
αl K–1 N.: Temperature unit/length unit ratio L density;
thermal Nit (nt): 1 nt = 1 cd / m2
L.U.: µm / (m . K); cm / (m . K); mm / (m . K) Luminance
expansion Stilb (sb): 1 sb = 104 cd / m2
Coefficient 1 Im = 1 cd . sr
m3 / (m3 . K) = K–1 Φ
Luminous lm
of
αv, γ K–1 N.: Temperature unit/volume ratio flux (Lumen) L.U.: klm
volumetric
N.A.: m3 / (m3 . deg) lx
expansion E Illuminance 1 lx = 1 lm / m2
(Lux)
Physical quantities and units of electrical engineering Different measuring units of temperature
SI unit N.: Note
Physical Kelvin K Degrees Celsius °C Degrees Fahrenheit °F Degrees Rankine °R
Symbol Symbol L.U.: Further legal units
quantity TK tC tF TR
Name N.A.: Units no longer allowed
Current A N.: Basic unit 9 9
I TK 273.15 ) t c tC T K + 273.15 tF T K + 459.67 TR TK
strength (Ampere) L.U.: pA; nA; µA; mA; kA; etc. 5 5
Electric-
1C=1A.s 5 t + 32
charge; C TK 255.38 ) 5 tF tC tF 32 ) 9 tC TR 9 t ) 273.15
Q
Quantity of (Coloumb)
1 Ah = 3600 As 9 9 F 5 5 c
L.U.: pC; nC; µC; kC
electricity
TK 5 TR tC 5 T + 273.15 tF T R + 459.67 TR 459.67 ) t F
1 V = 1 W / A = 1 J / (s . A) 9 9 R
Electric V
U = 1 A . Ω = 1 N . m / (s . A)
voltage (Volt)
L.U.: µV; mV; kV; MV; etc.
Comparison of some temperatures
1 Ω = 1 V / A = 1 W / A2
Electric Ω 0.00 – 273.15 – 459.67 0.00
R 1 J / (s . A2) = 1 N . m / (s . A2)
resistance (Ohm) + 255.37 – 17.78 0.00 + 459.67
L.U.: µΩ; mΩ; kΩ; etc.
+ 273.15 0.00 + 32.00 + 491.67
N.: Reciprocal of electric resistance + 273.16 1) + 0.01 1) + 32.02 + 491.69
Electric S
G 1 S = 1 Ω–1 = 1 / Ω; G = 1 / R + 373.15 + 100.00 + 212.00 + 671.67
conductance (Siemens)
L.U.: µS; mS; kS
1) The triple point of water is +0.01 °C. The triple point of pure water is the equilibrium point
1F=1C/V=1A.s/V between pure ice, air-free water and water vapour (at 1013.25 hPa).
Electrostatic F = 1 A2 . s / W = 1 A 2 . s2 / J
C
capacitance (Farad) = 1 A2 . s2/ (N . m)
Temperature
L.U.: pF; µF; etc. comparison
of °F with °C
56 57
Physics Physics
Measures of Length Cubic Measures and Weights;
and Square Measures Energy, Work, Quantity of Heat
}
1 Imp gill = 5 ft oz = 0.142 l
3.26 l.y. 1 US liquid pint = 4 gills = 0.4732 l 1 Imp pint = 4 gills = 0.5682 l
1 internat. nautical mile =1852 m = 1 arc 1 astronomical unit (mean distance of the earth from 1 US liquid quart = 2 liquid pints = 0.9464 l
1 German nautical mile minute at the degree of 1 Imp quart = 2 pints = 1.1365 l
the sun) = 1.496 .108 km 1 US gallon = 4 liquid quarts = 3.785 l
(sm) longitude (1° at the me- 1 US dry pint = 0.5506 l 1 imp gallon = 4 quarts = 4.5461 l
Typographical unit of measure: 1 point (p) = 0.376 mm 1 iImp pottle = 2 quarts = 2.273 l
1 mille marin (French) ridian = 111.121 km) 1 US dry quart = 2 dry pints = 1.101 l
1 US peck = 8 dry quarts = 8.811 l 1 Imp peck = 4 pottles = 9.092 l
1 US bushel = 4 pecks = 35.24 l 1 Imp bushel = 4 pecks = 36.37 l
Other measures of length of the Imperial system Other measures of length of the metric system 1 US liquid barrel = 31.5 gallons = 119.2 l 1 Imp quarter = 8 bushels = 64 gallons = 290.94 l
1 micro-in = 10–6 in = 0.0254 µm France: 1 US barrel = 42 gallons = 158.8 l (for crude oil)
1 mil = 1 thou = 0.001 in = 0.0254 mm 1 toise = 1.949 m 1 myriametre = 10 000 m 1 US cord = 128 cu ft = 3.625 m2
1 line = 0.1 in = 2,54 mm Russia:
1 fathom = 2 yd = 1.829 m 1 werschok = 44.45 mm 1 saschen = 2.1336 m Weights
1 engineer’s chain = 100 eng link = 100 ft = 30.48 m 1 arschin = 0.7112 m 1 werst = 1.0668 km
short short
1 rod = 1 perch = 1 pole = 25 surv link = 5.029 m Japan: Unit dram oz lb long cwt long ton g kg t
cwt ton
1 surveyor’s chain = 100 surv link = 20.12 m 1 shaku = 0.3030 m
1 ken = 1.818 m 1 dram = 1 0.0625 0.003906 – – – – 1.772 0.00177 –
1 furlong = 1000 surv link = 201.2 m 1 oz (ounze) = 16 1 0.0625 – – – – 28.35 0.02835 –
1 stat league = 3 stat miles = 4.828 km 1 ri = 3.927 km
1 lb (pound) = 256 16 1 0.01 0.008929 – – 453.6 0.4536 –
1 short cwt (US) = 25600 1600 100 1 0.8929 0.05 0.04464 45359 45.36 0.04536
1 long cwt (GB/US) = 28672 1792 112 1.12 1 0.056 0.05 50802 50.8 0.0508
Square measures
1 short ton (US) = – 32000 2000 20 17.87 1 0.8929 – 907.2 0.9072
sq sq sq sq 1 long ton (GB/US) = – 35840 2240 22.4 20 1.12 1 – 1016 1.016
Unit cm2 dm2 m2 a ha km2
in ft yd mile 1g = 0.5643 0.03527 0.002205 – – – – 1 0.001 10–6
1kg = 564.3 35.27 2.205 0.02205 0.01968 – – 1000 1 0.001
1 square inch = 1 – – – 6.452 0.06452 – – – – 1t = – 35270 2205 22.05 19.68 1.102 0.9842 106 1000 1
1 square foot = 144 1 0.1111 – 929 9.29 0.0929 – – –
1 grain = 1 / 7000 lb = 0.0648 g (GB) 1 solotnik = 96 dol = 4.2659 g (CIS)
1 square yard = 1296 9 1 – 8361 83.61 0.8361 – – –
1 stone = 14 lb = 6.35 kg (GB) 1 lot = 3 solotnik = 12.7978 g (CIS)
1 square mile = – – – 1 – – – – 259 2.59
1 short quarter = 1/4 short cwt = 11.34 kg (USA) 1 funt = 32 lot = 0.409 kg (CIS)
1 cm2 = 0.155 – – – 1 0.01 – – – – 1 long quarter = 1/4 long cwt = 12.7 kg (GB / USA) 1 pud = 40 funt = 16.38 kg (CIS)
1 dm2 = 15.5 0.1076 0.01196 – 100 1 0.01 – – – 1 quintal or 1 cental = 100 lb = 45.36 kg (USA) 1 berkowetz = 163.8 kg (CIS)
1 m2 = 1550 10.76 1.196 – 10000 100 1 0.01 – – 1 quintal = 100 livres = 48.95 kg (F) 1 kwan = 100 tael = 1000 momme = 10000 fun =
1 kilopound = 1kp = 1000 lb = 453.6 kg (USA) 3.75 kg (J) (J)
1a = – 1076 119.6 – – 10000 100 1 0.01 – 1 hyaku kin = 1 picul = 16 kwan = 60 kg (J)
1 ha = – – – – – – 10000 100 1 0.01
1 km2 = – – – 0.3861 – – – 10000 100 1 tdw = tons dead weight = lading capacity of a cargo vessel (cargo + ballast + fuel + stores), mostly given in
long tons, i.e. 1 tdw = 1016 kg
Other square measures of the Imperial system Other square measures of the metric
1 sq mil = 1 S 10–6 sq in = 0.0006452 mm2 system
Energy, work, quantity of heat
1 sq line = 0.01 sq in = 6.452 mm2 Russia: J = Nm
1 sq surveyor’s link = 0.04047 m2 Work ft lb erg kpm PSh hph kWh kcal Btu
1 kwadr. archin = 0.5058 m2 = Ws
1 sq rod = 1 sq perch = 1 sq pole = 625 sq surv link 1 kwadr. saschen = 4.5522 m2 1 ft lb = 1 1.356 . 107 1.356 0.1383 0.5121 . 10–6 0.505 . 10–6 0.3768 . 10–6 0.324 . 10–3 1.286 . 10–3
= 25.29 m2 1 dessjatine = 1.0925 ha 1 erg = 0.7376 . 107 1 10–7 0.102 . 10–7 37.77 . 10–15 37.25 . 1015 27.78 . 10–15 23.9 . 10–12 94.84 . 10–12
1 sq chain = 16 sq rod = 4.047 a 1 kwadr. werst = 1.138 km2 1 Joule (WS) = 0.7376 107 1 0.102 377.7 . 10–9 372.5 . 10–9 277.8 . 10–9 238 . 10–6 948.4 . 10–6
1 kpm = 7.233 9.807 . 107 9.807 1 3.704 . 10–6 3.653 . 10–6 2.725 . 10–6 2.344 . 10–3 9.301 . 10–3
1 acre = 4 rood = 40.47 a 1 PSh = 1.953 . 106 . 12
26.48 10 2.648 10 . 6 270 10. 3 1 0.9863 0.7355 632.5 2510
1 township (US) = 36 sq miles = 3.24 km2 Japan: 1 hph = 1.98 . 106 26.85 . 1012 2.685 . 106 273.8 . 103 1.014 1 0.7457 641.3 2545
1 tsubo = 3.306 m2 1 kWh = 2.655 . 106 36 . 1012 3.6 . 106 367.1 . 103 1.36 1.341 1 860 3413
1 circular in + sq in + 5.067cm 2(circular area with 1 in dia.) 1 se = 0.9917a 1 kcal = 3.087 . 103 41.87 . 109 4186.8 426.9 1.581 . 10–3 1.559 . 10–3 1.163 . 103 1 3.968
4 1 Btu = 778.6 10.55 . 109 1055 107.6 398.4 . 10–6 392.9 . 10–6 293 . 10–6 0.252 1
1 ho-ri = 15.42 km2
1 circular mil + sq mil + 0.0005067mm2(circular area with 1 mil dia.) 1 in oz = 0.072 kpcm; 1 in lb = 0.0833ft lb = 0.113 Nm, 1 thermi (French) = 4.1855 . 106 J; 1 therm (English) = 105.51 . 106 J
4 Common in case of piston engines: 1 litre-atmosphere (litre . atmosphere ) = 98.067 J
58 59
Physics Physics
Power, Energy Flow, Heat Flow, Equations for Linear Motion
Pressure and Tension, Velocity and Rotary Motion
Parallelogram Circle
d2
A r2
A a h 4
0.785 d2
a A
h
U 2r d
(d ) b) b
{a ) b}
m {D + d}
2 b
2
62 63
Mathematics / Geometry Table of Contents Section 5
Calculation of Volumes
d a2 ) b2 ) c2 O 4 r2 d2
{h } {h }
V (D 2 + d 2 ) V ( 2D 2 ) d 2 )
4 12
Cone r2 h Prismatoid
V
3
M r m
V h ( A ) A ) 4A )
O r ( r ) m) 6 1 2
2
d
m h2 )
2
64 65
Mechanics / Strength of Materials Mechanics / Strength of Materials
Axial Section Moduli and Axial Second Moments of Area Deflections in Beams
(Moments of Inertia) of Different Profiles
Cross-sectional area Section modulus Second moment of area f, fmax, fm, w, w1, w2 Deflection (mm) α, α1, α2, αA, αB, Angle (°)
a, b, l, x1, x1max, x2 Lengths (mm) F, FA, FB Forces (N)
E Modulus of elasticity (N/mm2) Ι Second moment of area (mm4)
W1 bh 2 6 1 bh 3 12 q, qo Line load (N/mm) (moment of inertia)
W2 hb 2 6 2 hb 3 12
F 3 3 x 1 x
3 F 3 F 2
w(x) 1+ ) f tan
{3E } 2 2 {3E } {2 E }
F F
W1 W2 a3 6 1 2 a4 12
q 4 4 q 4 q 3
w(x) 1+
4 x)1 x f tan
{8E } 3 3 {8E } {6 E }
bh 2 24 for e 2 h 1 bh 3 F q
W1 36
3
W2 hb 2 24 2 hb 3 48 qo 4 5 qo 4 qo 3
w(x) 4+5
x) x f tan
{120E } {30E } {24 E }
5 3 qo
W1 R 0.625 R 3 F
8 5
1 2 3 R4 0.5413 R 4 2
16
W2 0.5413 R 3 F 2
F 3 2 F 3
w(x)
x 1+
4 x x f tan
{16E } 3 l 2 {48 E } {16 E }
6b 2 ) 6bb 1 ) b 2 1
W1 h2 F F
F
12( 3b ) 2b 1 ) 6b 2 ) 6bb 1 ) b 2 1 A B 2
1 h3
for e 1 3b ) 2b 1 h 36 (2b ) b1 )
F 3 2 x x2 F 3 2 2
3 2b ) b a b 1 l+ 1 a b f 1)
w (x ) 1) x a f tan
1 1 1 {6E } b ab 1 {3E } 1 2a b
F 3 2x x2 { ) b} ) b f 1)
BH 3 + bh 3 BH 3 + bh 3 b a 2 2 fmax f tan
w (x ) 1) + x
2
b 2 2b a
W1 1 2 2 {6E } a ab 3b 3a
6H 12
x1max a (l ) b) 3a for a > b b a
F F F F
change a and b for a < b A B
F 3 x a a 1 x
2 F 3 a
2
4 a F 2 a a
w(x) 1+ + f 1+ tan 1+
{2E } 3 {2E } l 3 1 {2E }
W1 W2 D3 32 D3 10 1 2 D 4 64 D 4 20 x a 2
F 3 a x 1+ x + 1 a
2 F 3 a 4 a
2 F 2 a a
w(x) fm 1+ tan 1+2
{2E } 3 {8E } 3 2 {2E }
D4 + d4
W1 W2 1 2 ( D4 + d4 ) a x 2
32 D 64 FA = FB = F
or in case of thin wall thickness s: 3
F 3 2 F 2 a
1 x1 a a x1 a 2 a a
W1 W2 (r ) s 2) sr 2 1 2 sr 3 1 ) (s 2r) 2 x
1
a w (x )
1 1
+ 1) ) 1) tan
1 {2E }
1)
{2E } 3 3
sr 3 F 3
a
2
2 a
f 1)
{2E } 3
W1 a 2b 4 1 a 3b 4 F 3 F 3 F 2
a x2 x2 a tan
a
x w (x ) 1+ fm 2 {2E }
2 2 2 {2E } {8E }
W2 b 2a 4 2 b 3a 4 FA = FB = F
2 F 3 2 F 2
F 3 a x1 x1 a a a
1+ x f 1) tan
3 w (x )
1 1 1 {3E }
W1 1 a1 1 (a 1b 1 + a 3 2b 2 ) {6E } A {6E } l
4
or if the wall thickness is F 3 x2
2 F 3
2a 3a x 2 x2
fmax
a
tan 2 tan
s a1 + a2 b1 + b2 2 (a + a 2) 2 (b + b2) thin w (x ) ) + x
2
a B A
2 2 {6E } 9 3 E
F 2
2 a a tan
a
2)3
a
W1 a (a ) 3b) s 1 a (a ) 3b) s F
A
F F
B
F 1) {6E }
4 4
W1 1 e 0.1908 r 3 q 4 x x
2
x
3 5q 4 q 3
w(x) 1+2 ) 0 x fm tan
{24E } {384E } {24E }
with e r 1+ 4 0.5756 r 1 [ 8+8 (9 ) r 4 0.1098 r 4
{3} q q
F F
axis 1-1 = axis of centre of gravity A 2 B 2
66 67
Mechanics / Strength of Materials Mechanics / Strength of Materials
Values for Circular Sections Stresses on Structural Members
and Fatigue Strength of Structures
Stress σ
15. 1.767 0.3313 0.2485 1.387 0.000039 160. 201.062 402.1239 3216.9909 157.834 0.505068 Yield point Re
16. 2.011 0.4021 0.3217 1.578 0.000051 165. 213.825 441.0133 3638.3601 167.852 0.571223 Damage curve
17. 2.270 0.4823 0.4100 1.782 0.000064 170. 226.980 482.3326 4099.8275 178.179 0.643673
Endurance limit
18. 2.545 0.5726 0.5153 1.998 0.000081 175. 240.528 526.1554 4603.8598 188.815 0.722806
19. 2.835 0.6734 0.6397 2.226 0.000100 180. 254.469 572.5553 5152.9973 199.758 0.809021 Fatigue limit
20. 3.142 0.7854 0.7854 2.466 0.000123 185. 268.803 621.6058 5749.8539 211.010 0.902727 Resistance to
alternating stresses σW
Fatigue strength under
21. 3.464 0.9092 0.9547 2.719 0.000150 190. 283.529 673.3807 6397.1171 222.570 1.004347 deflection σA
22. 3.801 1.0454 1.1499 2.984 0.000181 195. 298.648 727.9537 7097.5481 234.438 1.114315
23. 4.155 1.1945 1.3737 3.261 0.000216 200. 314.159 785.3982 7853.9816 246.615 1.233075 Fatigue strength under
fluctuating stresses σSch
24. 4.524 1.3572 1.6286 3.551 0.000256 210. 346.361 909.1965 9546.5638 271.893 1.498811
25. 4.909 1.5340 1.9175 3.853 0.000301 220. 380.133 1045.3650 11499.0145 298.404 1.805345 Number of cycles to failure N Mean stress σm
26. 5.309 1.7255 2.2432 4.168 0.000352 230. 415.476 1194.4924 13736.6629 326.148 2.156656
27. 5.726 1.9324 2.6087 4.495 0.000410 240. 452.389 1357.1680 16286.0163 355.126 2.556905 In case of stresses below the
28. 6.158 2.1551 3.0172 4.834 0.000474 250. 490.874 1533.9808 19174.7598 385.336 3.010437 damage curve initial damage
29. 6.605 2.3944 3.4719 5.185 0.000545 260. 530.929 1725.5198 22431.7569 416.779 3.521786
will not occur to the material. Alternate area/Area of fluctuation
30. 7.069 2.6507 3.9761 5.549 0.000624 270. 572.555 1932.3740 26087.0491 449.456 4.095667
32.
34.
8.042
9.079
3.2170
3.8587
5.1472
6.5597
6.313
7.127
0.000808
0.001030
280. 615.752
300. 706.858
2155.1326
2650.7188
30171.8558
39760.7820
483.365
554.884
4.736981
6.242443
Reduced stress Permissible Design strength with: σD = ruling fatigue strength value of
36. 10.179 4.5804 8.2448 7.990 0.001294 320. 804.248 3216.9909 51471.8540 631.334 8.081081 on the member stress of the member the material
38. 11.341 5.3870 10.2354 8.903 0.001607 340. 907.920 3858.6612 65597.2399 712.717 10.298767 bο = surface number (≤ 1)
40. 12.566 6.2832 12.5664 9.865 0.001973 360. 1017.876 4580.4421 82447.9575 799.033 12.944329
D bo bd bd = size number (≤ 1)
42. 13.854 7.2736 15.2745 10.876 0.002398 380. 1134.115 5387.0460 102353.8739 890.280 16.069558
44. 15.205 8.3629 18.3984 11.936 0.002889 400. 1256.637 6283.1853 125663.7060 986.460 19.729202
v perm. ßk = stress concentration factor (≥ 1)
S ßk
46. 16.619 9.5559 21.9787 13.046 0.003451 420. 1385.442 7273.5724 152745.0200 1087.572 23.980968 S = safety (1.2 ... 2)
48. 18.096 10.8573 26.0576 14.205 0.004091 440. 1520.531 8362.9196 183984.2320 1193.617 28.885524
50. 19.635 12.2718 30.6796 15.413 0.004817 460. 1661.903 9555.9364 219786.6072 1304.593 34.506497 Reduced stress σv with:
52. 21.237 13.9042 35.8908 16.671 0.005635 480. 1809.557 10857.3442 260576.2608 1420.503 40.910473
For the frequently occurring case of com- σ = single axis bending stress
54. 22.902 15.4590 41.7393 17.978 0.006553 500. 1693.495 12271.8463 306796.1572 1541.344 48.166997
56. 24.630 17.2411 48.2750 19.335 0.007579 520. 2123.717 13804.1581 358908.1107 1667.118 56.348573 bined bending and torsion, according to τ = torsional stress
58. 26.421 19.1551 55.5497 20.740 0.008721 540. 2290.221 15458.9920 417392.7849 1797.824 65.530667 the distortion energy theory: α0 = constraint ratio according to Bach
60. 28.274 21.2058 63.6173 22.195 0.009988 560. 2463.009 17241.0605 482749.6930 1933.462 75.791702
62. 30.191 23.3978 72.5332 23.700 0.011388 580. 2642.079 19155.0758 555497.1978 2074.032 87.213060 Alternating bending, dynamic torsion: α0 ≈ 0.7
64. 32.170 25.7359 82.3550 25.253 0.012930 600. 2827.433 21205.7504 636172.5116 2219.535 99.879084 v
2
) 3 ( o ) 2 Alternating bending, alternating torsion: α0 ≈ 1.0
66. 34.212 28.2249 93.1420 26.856 0.014623 620. 3019.071 23397.7967 725331.6994 2369.970 113.877076 Static bending, alternating torsion: α0 ≈ 1.6
68. 36.317 30.8693 104.9556 28.509 0.016478 640. 3216.991 25735.9270 823549.6636 2525.338 129.297297
70. 38.485 33.6739 117.8588 30.210 0.018504 660. 3421.194 28224.8538 931420.1743 2685.638 146.232967
72. 40.715 36.6435 131.9167 31.961 0.020711 680. 3631.681 30869.2894 1049555.8389 2850.870 164.780267 For bending and torsion
74. 43.008 39.7828 147.1963 33.762 0.023110 700. 3848.451 33673.9462 1178588.1176 3021.034 185.038334
Surface roughness
76. 45.365 43.0964 163.7662 35.611 0.025711 720. 4071.504 36643.5367 1319167.3201 3196.131 207.109269
78. 47.784 46.5890 181.6972 37.510 0.028526 740. 4300.840 39782.7731 1471962.6056 3376.160 231.098129
80. 50.265 50.2655 201.0619 39.458 0.031567 760. 4536.460 43096.3680 1637661.9830 3561.121 257.112931
Surface number bo
Size number bd
82. 52.810 54.1304 221.9347 41.456 0.034844 780. 4778.362 46589.0336 1816972.3105 3751.015 285.264653
84. 55.418 58.1886 244.3920 43.503 0.038370 800. 5026.548 50265.4824 2010619.2960 3945.840 315.667229
Rt in µm
86. 58.088 62.4447 268.5120 45.599 0.042156 820. 5281.017 54130.4268 2219347.4971 4145.599 348.437557
88. 60.821 66.9034 294.3748 47.745 0.046217 840. 5541.769 58188.5791 2443920.3207 4350.289 383.695490
90. 63.617 71.5694 322.0623 49.940 0.050564 860. 5808.805 62444.6517 2685120.0234 4559.912 421.563844 for tension
92. 66.476 76.4475 351.6586 52.184 0.055210 880. 6082.123 66903.3571 2943747.7113 4774.467 462.168391 compression
95. 70.882 84.1726 399.8198 55.643 0.062772 900. 6361.725 71569.4076 3220623.3401 4993.954 505.637864 bd = 1.0
100. 78.540 98.1748 490.8739 61.654 0.077067 920. 6647.610 76447.5155 3516585.7151 5218.374 552.103957
Surfaces with
105. 86.590 113.6496 596.6602 67.973 0.093676 940. 6939.778 81542.3934 3832492.4910 5447.726 601.701321 rolling skin
110. 95.033 130.6706 718.6884 74.601 0.112834 960. 7238.229 86858.7536 4169220.1722 5682.010 654.567567
980. 7542.964 92401.3084 4527664.1126 5921.227 710.843266
1000. 7853.982 98174.7703 4908738.5156 6165.376 770.671947 Diameter of component d Resistance to breaking of the material Rm
68 69
Table of Contents Section 6 Hydraulics
Hydrostatics
Hydrostatics 71
(Source: K. Gieck, Technische Formelsammlung, 29th Edition, Gieck Verlag,
D-7100 Heilbronn) p1 po ) g h1
P2 p 1 ) g (h 2 + h 1) p 1 ) g h
Hydrodynamics 72 Linear pressure
(Source: K. Gieck, Technische Formelsammlung, 29th Edition, Gieck Verlag,
D-7100 Heilbronn)
F g y s A cos g hs A
x s xy
yD ys ) ; xD m, mm
y sA y sA y sA
Buoyance
}
> k the body floats
= k the body is suspended in a heavy liquid
< k the body sinks
70 71
Hydraulics Table of Contents Section 7
Hydrodynamics
.
V 2 b 2 g (H 3 2
+ H1 3 2
)
3 2
pü
v 2 (gH ) )
. pü
V A 2 (gH ) )
pü
v 2
. pü
V A 2
v: discharge velocity
g: gravity
: density
pü: excess pressure compared to external pressure
ϕ: coefficient of friction (for water ϕ = 0.97)
ε: coefficient of contraction (ε = 0.62 for sharp-edged openings)
(ε = 0.97 for smooth-rounded openings)
F:
.
force of reaction
V : volume flow rate
b: width of opening
72 73
Electrical Engineering Electrical Engineering
Basic Formulae Speed, Power Rating and Efficiency
of Electric Motors
on the load
b) Alloys
P
P U U
Aldrey (AlMgSi) 30.0 0.033
Bronze I 48 0.02083
Bronze II 36 0.02778 Power factor cos ϕ Efficiency η
Bronze III 18 0.05556
Constantan (WM 50) 2.0 0.50
Manganin 2.32 0.43
alternating current
132-kW motor
Nickel silver (WM 30) 3.33 0.30
P
P U cos Nickel chromium 0.92 1.09
U cos
Niccolite (WM 43) 2.32 0.43
Platinum rhodium 5.0 0.20 1.1-kW motor
Steel wire (WM 13) 7.7 0.13
Wood’s metal 1.85 0.54
Three-phase current
c) Other conductors
Graphite 0.046 22
P
P 1.73 U cos Carbon, homog. 0.015 65
1.73 U cos Retort graphite 0.014 70
Resistance of a conductor:
l l Power output P / PN
R
A A
R = resistance (Ω)
l = length of conductor (m)
γ = electric conductivity (m/Ω mm2)
1) Pab = mechanical output power on the motor shaft
A = cross section of conductor (mm2)
Pzu = absorbed electric power
= specific electrical resistance (Ω mm2)/m)
74 75
Electrical Engineering Electrical Engineering
Types of Construction and Mounting Arrangements Types of Protection for Electrical Equipment
of Rotating Electrical Machinery (Protection Against Contact and Foreign Bodies)
Types of construction and mounting arrangements of rotating electrical machinery Types of protection for electrical equipment
[Extract from DIN/IEC 34, Part 7 (4.83)] [Extract from DIN 40050 (7.80)]
Machines with end shields, horizontal arrangement
Example of designation Type of protection DIN 40050 IP 4 4
Design Explanation
Design/Explanation Designation
Sym- Stator General
Figure Bearings Shaft Fastening or DIN number
bol (Housing) design
Installation
Code letters
2
with free shaft installation on First type number
B3 end –
feet end substructure
shields
Second type number
mounting flange
2 free An enclosure with this designation is protected against the ingress of solid foreign bodies
without close to bearing,
B5 end shaft flanged
shields
feet
end
access from having a diameter above 1 mm and of splashing water.
housing side
Degrees of protection for protection against contact and foreign bodies
design B3, if
2 free
necessary end
wall fastening, feet on (first type number)
with
B6 end shaft LH side when looking at
feet shields turned
shields end input side First type Degree of protection
through -90°
number (Protection against contact and foreign bodies)
design B3, if
2 free wall fastening, feet on
with necessary end 0 No special protection
B7 end shaft RH side when looking at
feet shields turned
shields end input side
through 90° 1 Protection against the ingress of solid foreign bodies having a diameter above
design B3, if 50 mm (large foreign bodies) 1)
2 free
with necessary end No protection against intended access, e.g. by hand, however, protection of
B8 end shaft fastening on ceiling
feet shields turned persons against contact with live parts
shields end
through 180°
2 free
mounting flange
installation on
2 Protection against the ingress of solid foreign bodies having a diameter above
with close to bearing, 12 mm (medium-sized foreign bodies) 1)
B 35 end shaft substructure with
feet access from Keeping away of fingers or similar objects
shields end additional flange
housing side
3 Protection against the ingress of solid foreign bodies having a diameter above
Machines with end shields, vertical arrangement 2.5 mm (small foreign bodies) 1) 2)
Keeping away tools, wires or similar objects having a thickness above 2.5 mm
Design Explanation
Design/Explanation 4 Protection against the ingress of solid foreign bodies having a diameter above
Sym- Stator General
Figure Bearings Shaft Fastening or 1 mm (grain sized foreign bodies) 1) 2)
bol (Housing) design
Installation Keeping away tools, wires or similar objects having a thickness above 1 mm
mounting flange
free
2 close to bearing 5 Protection against harmful dust covers. The ingress of dust is not entirely
without shaft end
V1 end on input side, flanged at the bottom prevented, however, dust may not enter to such an amount that operation of the
feet at the
shields access from
bottom equipment is impaired (dustproof). 3)
housing side
Complete protection against contact
mounting flange
2 free close to bearing
without 6 Protection against the ingress of dust (dust-tight)
V3 end shaft end on input side, flanged at the top
feet Complete protection against contact
shields at the top access from
housing side
free 1) For equipment with degrees of protection from 1 to 4, uniformly or non-uniformly shaped
2 foreign bodies with three dimensions perpendicular to each other and above the correspond-
with shaft end fastening to wall or
V5 end –
shields
feet at the on substructure ing diameter values are prevented from ingress.
bottom 2) For degrees of protection 3 and 4, the respective expert commission is responsible for the
2 free application of this table for equipment with drain holes or cooling air slots.
with fastening to wall or 3) For degree of protection 5, the respective expert commission is responsible for the applica-
V6 end shaft end –
feet on substructure
shields at the top tion of this table for equipment with drain holes.
76 77
Electrical Engineering Electrical Engineering
Types of Protection for Electrical Equipment Explosion Protection of Electrical Switchgear
(Protection Against Water)
Degrees of protection for protection against water (second type number) Types of protection
78 79
Electrical Engineering Table of Contents Section 8
Explosion Protection of Electrical Switchgear
Classification according to Explosion class Explosion group Fatigue Strength Diagrams of General-Purpose Structural Steels 86
gases and vapours
Case Hardening Steels 87
For flame For intrinsically
proof safe circuits: mi- Fatigue Strength Diagrams of Case Hardening Steels 88
enclosures: nimum ignition
maximum current ratio re- Cold Rolled Steel Strips for Springs 89
width of gap ferred to me-
thane 1) Cast Steels for General Engineering Purposes 89
> 0.9 mm > 0.8 mm 1 A
≥ 0.5 - 0.9mm ≥ 0.45 - 0.8mm 2 B Round Steel Wire for Springs 90
< 0.5 mm < 0.45 mm 3a ... 3n C
Lamellar Graphite Cast Iron 91
Ignition temperature of gases Ignition group Temperature class
and vapours in °C Ignition Permissible Ignition Maximum Nodular Graphite Cast Iron 91
temperature limiting tem- temperature surface
perature temperature Copper-Tin- and Copper-Zinc-Tin Casting Alloys 92
°C °C °C °C
G1> 450 360 T1 > 450 450 Copper-Aluminium Casting Alloys 92
G2> 300...450 240 T2 > 300 300
G3> 200...300 160 T3 > 200 200 Aluminium Casting Alloys 93
1) For definition, see G4> 135...200 110 T4 > 135 135
EN 50014, Annex A G5 from 100...135 80 T5 > 100 100 Lead and Tin Casting Alloys for Babbit Sleeve Bearings 94
T6 > 85 85
Comparison of Tensile Strength and Miscellaneous Hardness Values 95
Classification of areas according to gases and vapours
Zone 0 Zone 1 Zone 2 Values of Solids and Liquids 96
Areas with permanent or Areas where potentially ex- Areas where potentially ex-
long-term potentially explo- plosive atmospheres are ex- plosive atmospheres are ex- Coefficient of Linear Expansion 97
sive atmospheres. pected to occur occasio- pected to occur only rarely
nally. and then only for short pe- Iron-Carbon Diagram 97
riods.
Fatigue Strength Values for Gear Materials 97
ZONE Safe area Heat Treatment During Case Hardening of Case Hardening Steels 98
Potentially
explosive
atmosphere
Ignition sources
(n) additionally
80 81
Materials Materials
Conversion of Fatigue Strength Values Mechanical Properties of
of Miscellaneous Materials Quenched and Tempered Steels
Conversion of fatigue strength values of miscellaneous materials Quenched and tempered steels [Extract from DIN 17200 (3.87)]
Mechanical properties of steels in quenched and tempered condition (Code letter V)
Tension 3) Bending 1) Torsion 1)
Material Diameter
σW σSch σbW σbSch σbF τtW τtSch τF Steel grade above 16 above 40 above 100 above 160
up to 16 mm
up to 40 mm up to 100 mm up to 160 mm up to 250 mm
Structural
0.45 Rm 1.3 σW 0.49 Rm 1.5 σbW 1.5 Re 0.35 Rm 1.1 τtW 0.7 Re Yield Yield Yield Yield Yield
steel
point point point point point
(0.2 Tensile (0.2 Tensile (0.2 Tensile (0.2 Tensile (0.2 Tensile
Quenched Mate-
Gr) strength Gr) strength Gr) strength Gr) strength Gr) strength
and temper- 0.41 Rm 1.7 σW 0.44 Rm 1.7 σbW 1.4 Re 0.30 Rm 1.6τtW 0.7 Re Symbol rial
N/mm2 N/mm2 N/mm2 N/mm2 N/mm2 N/mm2 N/mm2 N/mm2 N/mm2 N/mm2
no. min. min. min. min. min.
ed steel Rm Rm Rm Rm Rm
R e, Re, R e, R e, R e,
Rp 0.2 Rp 0.2 Rp 0.2 Rp 0.2 Rp 0.2
Case harden-
0.40 Rm 1.6 σW 0.41 Rm 1.7 σbW 1.4 Re 0.30 Rm 1.4τtW 0.7 Re
ing steel 2) C 22 1.0402 350 550– 700 300 500– 650 – – – – – –
C 35 1.0501 430 630– 780 370 600– 750 320 550– 700 – – – –
Grey cast iron 0.25 Rm 1.6 σW 0.37 Rm 1.8 σbW – 0.36 Rm 1.6τtW –
C 45 1.0503 500 700– 850 430 650– 800 370 630– 780 – – – –
Light metal 0.30 Rm – 0.40 Rm – – 0.25 Rm – – C 55 1.0535 550 800– 950 500 750– 900 430 700– 850 – – – –
C 60 1.0601 580 850–1000 520 800– 950 450 750– 900 – – – –
1) For polished round section test piece of about 10 mm diameter. Ck 22 1.1151 350 550– 700 300 500– 650 – – – –
– –
2) Case-hardened; determined on round section test piece of about 30 mm diameter. Rm and Re of Ck 35 1.1181 430 630– 780 370 600– 750 320 550– 700 – –
core material. – –
Cm 35 1.1180 430 630– 780 370 600– 750 320 550– 700 – –
– –
3) For compression, σSch is larger, e.g. for spring steel σdSch ≈ 1.3 ⋅ σSch Ck 45 1.1191 500 700– 850 430 650– 800 370 630– 780 – –
– –
For grey cast iron σdSch ≈ 3 . σSch Cm 45 1.1201 500 700– 850 430 650– 800 370 630– 780 – –
– –
Ck 55 1.1203 550 800– 950 500 750– 900 430 700– 850 – –
– –
Cm 55 1.1209 550 800– 950 500 750– 900 430 700– 850 – –
Ultimate stress values Type of load – –
Ck 60 1.1221 580 850–1000 520 800– 950 450 750– 900 – –
– –
Rm Tensile strength Tension Cm 60 1.1223 580 850–1000 520 800– 950 450 750– 900 – –
28 Mn 6 1.1170 590 780– 930 490 690– 840 440 640– 790 – – – –
Re Yield point Tension
38 Cr 2 1.7003 550 800– 950 450 700– 850 350 600– 750 – – – –
σW Fatigue strength under 46 Cr 2 1.7006 650 900–1100 550 800– 950 400 650– 800 – – – –
Tension
alternating stresses 34 Cr 4 1.7033 700 900–1100 590 800– 950 460 700– 850 – – – –
34 Cr S4 1.7037 700 900–1100 590 800– 950 460 700– 850 – – – –
σSch Fatigue strength under
Tension 37 Cr 4 1.7034 750 950–1150 630 850–1000 510 750– 900 – – – –
fluctuating stresses 37 Cr S4 1.7038 750 950–1150 630 850–1000 510 750– 900 – – – –
σbW Fatigue strength under 41 Cr 4 1.7035 800 1000–1200 660 900–1100 560 800– 950 – – – –
Bending 41 Cr S4 1.7039 800 1000–1200 660 900–1100 560 800– 950 – – – –
alternating stresses
25 CrMo 4 1.7218 700 900–1100 600 800– 950 450 700– 850 400 650– 800 – –
σbSch Fatigue strength under
Bending 34 CrMo 4 1.7220 800 1000–1200 650 900–1100 550 800– 950 500 750– 900 450 700– 850
fluctuating stresses
34 CrMo S4 1.7226 800 1000–1200 650 900–1100 550 800– 950 500 750– 900 450 700– 850
σbF Yield point Bending 42 CrMo 4 1.7225 900 1100–1300 750 1000–1200 650 900–1100 550 800– 950 500 750– 900
42 CrMo S4 1.7227 900 1100–1300 750 1000–1200 650 900–1100 550 800– 950 500 750– 900
τtW Fatigue strength under 50 CrMo 4 1.7228 900 1100–1300 780 1000–1200 700 900–1100 650 850–1000 550 800– 950
Torsion
alternating stresses
36 CrNiMo 4 1.6511 900 1100–1300 800 1000–1200 700 900–1100 600 800– 950 550 750– 900
τtSch Fatigue strength under 34 CrNiMo 6 1.6582 1000 1200–1400 900 1100–1300 800 1000–1200 700 900–1100 600 800– 950
Torsion 30 CrNiMo 6 1.6580 1050 1250–1450 1050 1250–1450 900 1100–1300 800 1000–1200 700 900–1100
fluctuating stresses
50 CrV 4 1.8159 900 1100–1300 800 1000–1200 700 900–1100 650 850–1000 600 800– 950
τtF Yield point Torsion
30 CrMoV9 1.7707 1050 1250–1450 1020 1200–1450 900 1100–1300 800 1000–1200 700 900–1100
82 83
Materials Materials
Fatigue Strength Diagrams of General-Purpose Structural Steels
Quenched and Tempered Steels
Fatigue strength diagrams of quenched and tempered steels, DIN 17200 General-purpose structural steels [Extract from DIN 17100 (1.80)]
(in quenched and tempered condition, test piece diameter d = 10 mm)
Treat-
Steel grade Similar steel Tensile strength Rm Upper yield point ReH in N/mm2
ment
grades in N/mm2 for product
roduct (minimum) for product
roduct thickness in
condi
condi-
EURON. 25 thickness in mm mm
tion
Symbol Mate
Mate-
rial no. ≥3 >16 >40 >63 >80
1) <3 >100 ≤16 >100
≤100 ≤40 ≤63 ≤80 ≤100
310... 175
St 33 1.0035 U, N Fe 310-0 290 185 – – –
540 2)
St 37-2 1.0037 U, N
–
235 225 215 205 195
Fe 360-BFU
U St 37-2 1.0036 U, N
360... 340...
360 340
R St 37-2 1.0038 U, N, Fe 360-BFN 510 470
235 225 215 215 215
To be agreed upon
U Fe 360-C
To be agreed upon
St 37-3 1.0116 N Fe 360-D
490... 470...
St 50-2 1.0050 U, N Fe 490-2 295 285 275 265 255
660 610
Quenched and tempered steels not
illustrated may be used as follows: 590... 570...
St 60-2 1.0060 U, N Fe 590-2 335 325 315 305 295
770 710
34 CrNiMo 6 like 30 CrNiMo 8
30 CrMoV 4 like 30 CrNiMo 8 690... 670...
St 70-2 1.0070 U, N Fe 690-2 365 355 345 335 325
900 830
42 CrMo 4 like 50 CrMo 4
36 CrNiMo 4 like 50 CrMo 4 1) N normalized; U hot-rolled, untreated
50 CrV 4 like 50 CrMo 4 2) This value applies to thicknesses up to 25 mm only
34 CrMo 4 like 41 Cr 4
28 Cr 4 like 46 Cr 2
C 45 like Ck 45
C 22 like Ck 22
C 60 and C 50 lie approximately
between Ck 45 and 46 Cr 2.
C 40, 32 Cr 2, C 35 , C 30 and
C 25 lie approximately between
Ck 22 and Ck 45.
84 85
Materials Materials
Fatigue Strength Diagrams of Case Hardening Steels
General-Purpose Structural Steels
Fatigue strength diagrams of general-purpose structural steels, DIN 17100 Case hardening steels; Quality specifications to DIN 17210 (12.69)
(test piece diameter d = 10 mm) from SI tables (2.1974) of VDEh
Steel grade For dia. 11 For dia. 30 For dia. 63
condition 1)
Yield Yield Yield
Treatment
Tensile Tensile Tensile
point point point
Material strength strength strength
Symbol Re Re Re
no. Rm Rm Rm
N/mm2 N/mm2 N/mm2
N/mm2 N/mm2 N/mm2
min. min. min.
G soft annealed
86 87
Materials Materials
Fatigue Strength Diagrams of Cold Rolled Steel Strips for Springs
Case Hardening Steels Cast Steels for General Engineering Purposes
Fatigue strength diagrams of case hardening steels, DIN 17210 Cold rolled steel strips for springs [Extract from DIN 17222 (8.79)]
(Core strength after case hardening, test piece diameter d = 10 mm)
Steel grade Comparable
Com arable grade Tensile strength Rm
Degree of 2)
Material acc. to
Symbol conformity 1)
no. EURONORM 132 N/mm2 maximum
C 55 1.0535 1 CS 55 F
610
Ck 55 1.1203 2 CS 55 F
C 60 1.0601 1 CS 60 F
620
Ck 60 1.1221 2 CS 60 F
C 67 1.0603 1 CS 67 F
640
Ck 67 1.1231 2 CS 67 F
C 75 1.0605 1 CS 75 F
640
CK75 1.1248 2 CS 75 F
Ck 85 1.1269 2 CS 85 F 670
CK 101 1.1274 CS 100 F 690
55 Si 7 1.0904 – – 740
71 Si 7 1.5029 – – 800
67 SiCr 5 1.7103 67 SiCr 5 f 800
50 CrV 4 1.8159 50 CrV 4 F 740
a) Tension/compression fatigue strength
c) Torsional fatigue strength
1) F = minor deviations
f = substantial deviations
2) Rm for cold rolled and soft-annealed condition; for strip thicknesses up to 3 mm
Cast steels for general engineering purposes [Extract from DIN 1681 (6.85)]
Notched bar impact work
Cast steel grade Yield point Tensile strength (ISO-V-notch specimens)
Av
Re,
e Rp 0
0.2
2 Rm
≤ 30 mm > 30 mm
Material Mean value 1)
Symbol N/mm2 N/mm2
no. J
min. min.
min.
The mechanical properties apply to specimens which are taken from test pieces with thicknesses up
Loading type I: static to 100 mm. Furthermore, the yield point values also apply to the casting itself, in so far as the wall
Loading type II: dynamic thickness is ≤ 100 mm.
b) Bending fatigue strength Loading type III: alternating 1) Determined from three individual values each.
88 89
Materials Materials
Round Steel Wire for Springs Lamellar Graphite Cast Iron
Nodular Graphite Cast Iron
Round steel wire for springs [Extract from DIN 17223, Part 1 (12.84)] Lamellar graphite cast iron [Extract from DIN 1691 (5.85)]
15 – 1110–1260 1270–1410 1270–1410 Nodular graphite cast iron [Extract from DIN 1693, Part 2 (10.77)]
Properties in cast-on test pieces
16 – 1090–1230 1240–1390 1240–1390
Wall thickness Thickness Tensile 0.2%
17 – 1070–1210 1220–1360 1220–1360 Grade
of casting of cast-on strength proof stress
Material
test piece Rm Rp0.2
18 – 1050–1190 1200–1340 1200–1340
Symbol Number mm mm mm N/mm2 N/mm2
19 – 1030–1170 1180–1320 1180–1320 from 30 up to 60 40 390 250
GGG-40.3 0.7043
above 60 up to 200 70 370 240
20 – 1020–1150 1160–1300 1160–1300
from 30 up to 60 40 390 250
GGG-40 0.7040
above 60 up to 200 70 370 240
from 30 up to 60 40 450 300
GGG-50 0.7050
above 60 up to 200 70 420 290
from 30 up to 60 40 600 360
GGG-60 0.7060
above 60 up to 200 70 550 340
from 30 up to 60 40 700 400
GGG-70 0.7070
above 60 up to 200 70 650 380
90 91
Materials Materials
Copper-Tin- and Copper-Zinc-Tin Casting Alloys Aluminium Casting Alloys
Copper-Aluminium Casting Alloys
Copper-tin- and copper-zinc-tin casting alloys [Extract from DIN 1705 (11.81)] Aluminium casting alloys [Extract from DIN 1725 (2.86)]
0.2% Tensile strength
0.2 proof stress Tensile strength
Material Condition on delivery proof stress 1) 1) Material Casting method and
Rp0.2 Rm
Rp0.2 Rm condition on delivery
Symbol Number min. in N/mm2 min. in N/mm2 Symbol Number in N/mm2 in N/mm2
G-CuSn 12 2.1052.01 Sand-mould cast iron 140 260 Sand-mould cast iron
G-AlSi 12 3.2581.01 70 up to 100 150 up to 200
GZ-CuSn 12 2.1052.03 Centrifugally cast iron 150 280 as cast
GC-CuSn12 2.1052.04 Continuously cast iron 140 280
Sand-mould cast iron
G-CuSn 12 Ni 2.1060.01 Sand-mould cast iron 160 280 G-AlSi 12 g 3.2581.44 70 up to 100 150 up to 200
annealed and quenched
GZ-CuSn 12 Ni 2.1060.03 Centrifugally cast iron 180 300
GC-CuSn 12 Ni 2.1060.04 Continuously cast iron 170 300 Chilled casting
GK-AlSi 12 3.2581.02 80 up to 110 170 up to 230
as cast
G-CuSn 12 Pb 2.1061.01 Sand-mould cast iron 140 260
GZ-CuSn 12 Pb 2.1061.03 Centrifugally cast iron 150 280 Chilled casting
GK-AlSi 12 g 3.2581.45 80 up to 110 170 up to 230
GC-CuSn 12 Pb 2.1061.04 Continuously cast iron 140 280 annealed and quenched
G-CuSn 10 2.1050.01 Sand-mould cast iron 130 270 Sand-mould cast iron
G-AlSi 10 Mg 3.2381.01 80 up to 110 160 up to 210
as cast
G-CuSn 10 Zn 2,1086.01 Sand-mould cast iron 130 260
Sand-mould cast iron
G-CuSn 7 ZnPb 2.1090.01 Sand-mould cast iron 120 240 G-AlSi 10 Mg wa 3.2381.61 180 up to 260 220 up to 320
temper-hardened
GZ-CuSn 7 ZnPb 2.1090.03 Centrifugally cast iron 130 270
GC-CuSn 7 ZnPb 2.1090.04 Continuously cast iron 120 270 Chilled casting
GK-AlSi 10 Mg 3.2381.02 90 up to 120 180 up to 240
G-CuSn 6 ZnNi 2.1093.01 Sand-mould cast iron 140 270 as cast
G-CuSn 5 ZnPb 2.1096.01 Sand-mould cast iron 90 220 GK-AlSi 10 Mg Chilled casting
3.2381.62 210 up to 280 240 up to 320
wa temper-hardened
G-CuSn 2 ZnPb 2.1098.01 Sand-mould cast iron 90 210
Sand-mould cast iron
G-AlSi 11 3.2211.01 70 up to 100 150 up to 200
1) Material properties in the test bar as cast
G-AlSi 11 g 3.2211.81 annealed 70 up to 100 150 up to 200
Copper-aluminium casting alloys [Extract from DIN 1714 (11.81)]
Chilled casting
0.2% Tensile strength GK-AlSi 11 3.2211.02 80 up to 110 170 up to 230
as cast
Material proof stress 1) 1)
Condition on delivery
Rp0.2 Rm GK-AlSi 11g 3.2211.82 annealed 80 up to 110 170 up to 230
Symbol Number min. in N/mm2 min. in N/mm2 Sand-mould cast iron
G-AlSi 7 Mg wa 3.2371.61 190 up to 240 230 up to 310
temper-hardened
G-CuAl 10 Fe 2.0940.01 Sand-mould cast iron 180 500
GK-CuAl 10 Fe 2.0940.02 Chilled casting 200 550 Chilled casting
GZ-CuAl 10 Fe 2.0940.03 Centrifugally cast iron 200 550 GK-AlSi 7 Mg wa 3.2371.62 200 up to 280 250 up to 340
temper-hardened
G-CuAl 9 Ni 2.0970.01 Sand-mould cast iron 200 500 High-quality casting
GK-CuAl 9 Ni 2.0970.02 Chilled casting 230 530 GF-AlSi 7 Mg wa 3.2371.63 200 up to 260 260 up to 320
temper-hardened
GZ-CuAl 9 Ni 2.0970.03 Centrifugally cast iron 250 600
Sand-mould cast iron
G-CuAl 10 Ni 2.0975.01 Sand-mould cast iron 270 600 G-AlMg 3 Si 3.3241.01 80 up to 100 140 up to 190
as cast
GK-CuAl 10 Ni 2.0975.02 Chilled casting 300 600
GZ-CuAl 10 Ni 2.0975.03 Centrifugally cast iron 300 700 Sand-mould cast iron
GC-CuAl 10 Ni 2.0975.04 Continuously cast iron 300 700 G-AlMg 3 Si wa 3.3241.61 120 up to 160 200 up to 280
temper-hardened
G-CuAl 11 Ni 2.0980.01 Sand-mould cast iron 320 680 Chilled casting
GK-CuAl 11 Ni 2.0980.02 Chilled casting 400 680 GK-AlMg 3 Si 3.3241.02 80 up to 100 150 up to 200
as cast
GZ-CuAl 11 Ni 2.0980.03 Centrifugally cast iron 400 750
Chilled casting
G-CuAl 8 Mn 2.0962.01 Sand-mould cast iron 180 440 GK-AlMg 3 Si wa 3.3241.62 120 up to 180 220 up to 300
temper-hardened
GK-CuAl 8 Mn 2.0962.02 Chilled casting 200 450
Chilled casting
1) Material properties in the test bar GF-AlMg 3 Si wa 3.3241.63 120 up to 160 200 up to 280
temper-hardened
92 93
Materials Materials
Lead and Tin Casting Alloys for Babbit Sleeve Bearings Comparison of Tensile Strength and
Miscellaneous Hardness Values
Lead and tin casting alloys for babbit sleeve bearings [Extract from DIN ISO 4381 (10.82)] Vickers Vickers Brinell
Tensile Brinell Rockwell Tensile Rockwell
hard- hard- hardness 2)
strength hardness 2) hardness strength hardness
ness ness
Grade Brinell hardness 1) 0.2% proof stress 1) F N F N
0.102 + ) 30 HRD 0.102 + ) 30 HRD
Material HB 10/250/180 Rp 0.2 in N/mm2 N/mm2 (F>98N)
D2 mm 2
HRB HRC HRA
1)
N/mm2 (F>98N) D2 mm 2
HRC HRA
1)
The figures in brackets are hardness values outside the domain of definition of standard hardness test
methods which, however, in practice are frequently used as approximate values. Furthermore, the Brinell
hardness values in brackets apply only if the test was carried out with a carbide ball.
1) Internationally usual, e.g. ASTM E 18-74 (American Society for Testing and Materials)
2) Calculated from HB = 0.95 HV (Vickers hardness)
Determination of Rockwell hardness HRA, HRB, HRC, and HRD acc. to DIN 50103 Part 1 and 2
Determination of Vickers hardness acc. to DIN 50133 Part 1
Determination of Brinell hardness acc. to DIN 50351
Determination of tensile strength acc. to DIN 50145
94 95
Materials Materials
Values of Solids and Liquids Coefficient of Linear Expansion; Iron-Carbon Diagram;
Fatigue Strength Values for Gear Materials
Values of solids and liquids Mean density of the earth = 5.517 g/cm3 Coefficients of linear expansion
Coefficient of linear expansion α of some substances at 0 ... 100 °C
Thermal Thermal
Density Melting conductivity Density Melting conducti-
λ vity λ The coefficient of linear expansion α gives α [10−6/K]
Substance (solid) Sym- point Substance (solid) Sym- point
bol at 20 °C bol at 20 °C Substance
the fractional expansion of the unit of length
g/cm3 t in °C W/(mK) g/cm3 t in °C W/(mK)
of a substance per 1 degree K rise in tempe-
Agate 2.5...2.8 ≈1600 11.20 Porcelain 2.2...2.5 ≈1650 ≈1 Aluminium alloys 21 ... 24
Aluminium Al 2.7 658 204 Pyranite 3.3 1800 8.14
rature. For the linear expansion of a body
Aluminium bronze 7.7 1040 128 Quartz-flint 2.5...2.8 1480 9.89 applies: Grey cast iron
Antimony Sb 6.67 630 22.5 Radium Ra 5 700 – (e.g. GG-20, GG-25) 10.5
Arsenic As 5.72 – – Rhenium Re 21 3175 71
Asbestos ≈2.5 ≈1300 – Rhodium Rh 12.3 1960 88 l ) l o + + T Steel, plain and
Asphaltum 1.1...1.5 80...100 0.698 Gunmetal (CuSn5ZnPb) 8.8 950 38 low-alloy 11.5
Barium Ba 3.59 704 – Rubidium Rb 1.52 39 58
Barium chloride 3.1 960 – Ruthenium Ru 12.2 2300 106 Steel, stainless
Basalt, natural 2.7...3.2 – 1.67 Sand, dry 1.4...1.6 1480 0.58 where (18Cr 8Ni) 16
≈1500
Beryllium
Concrete
Be 1.85
≈2
1280
–
1.65
≈1
Sandstone
Brick, fire
2.1...2.5
1.8...2.3 ≈2000
2.3
≈1.2 ∆l: change of length Steel, rapid machining steel 11.5
Lead Pb 11.3 327.4 34.7 Slate 2.6...2.7 ≈2000 ≈0.5 lο: original length Copper 17
Boron (amorph.)
Borax
B 1.73
1.72
2300
740
–
–
Emery
Sulphur, rhombic S
4
2.07
2200
112.8
11.6
0.27
α: coefficient of linear expansion Brass CuZn37 18.5
Limonite 3.4...3.9 1565 – Sulphur, monoclinic S 1.96 119 0.13 ∆T: rise of temperature
Bronze (CuSn6) 8.83 910 64 Barytes 4.5 1580 – Bronze CuSn8 17.5
Chlorine calcium 2.2 774 – Selenium, red Se 4.4 220 0.2
Chromium Cr 7.1 1800 69 Silver Ag 10.5 960 407
Chromium nickel (NiCr 8020) 7.4 1430 52.335 Silicon Si 2.33 1420 83
Delta metal 8.6 950 104.7 Silicon carbide 3.12 – 15.2
Diamond C 3.5 – – Sillimanite 2.4 1816 1.69 Iron-carbon diagram
Iron, pure Fe 7.86 1530 81 Soapstone (talcous) 2.7 – 3.26
Grease 0.92...0.94 30...175 0.209 Steel, plain + low-alloy 7.9 1460 47...58
Gallium Ga 5.9 29.75 – stainless 18Cr8Ni 7.9 1450 14
Germanium Ge 5.32 936 58.615 non-magnetic 15Ni7Mn 8 1450 16.28
Mixed crystals Melting + δ-mixed crystals
Gypsum 2.3 1200 0.45 Tungsten steel 18W 8.7 1450 26
Glass, window ≈2.5 ≈700 0.81 Steanit 2.6...2.7 ≈1520 1.63 (Cementite)
Mica ≈2.8 ≈1300 0.35 Hard coal 1.35 – 0.24 Mixed crystals Melting
Gold Au 19.29 1063 310 Strontium Sr 2.54 797 0.23
Granite 2.6...2.8 – 3.5 Tantalum Ta 16.6 2990 54
Temperature in °C
Graphite C 2.24 ≈3800 168 Tellurium Te 6.25 455 4.9
Grey cast iron 7.25 1200 58 Thorium Th 11.7 ≈1800 38
Laminated fabric 1.3...1.42 – 0.34...0.35 Titanium Ti 4.5 1670 15.5 Melting + Melting +
Hard rubber ≈1.4 – 0.17 Tombac 8.65 1000 159 γ-mixed crystals primary cementite
Hard metal K20 14.8 2000 81 Uranium 99.99% 1.8...2.6 1500..1700 0.93...1.28 γ-mixed crystals
Woods 0.45...0.85 – 0.12...0.17 Uranium 99.99% U 18.7 1133 28 (austenite)
Indium In 7.31 156 24 Vanadium V 6.1 1890 31.4 γ-mixed crystals Primary cementite
Iridium Ir 22.5 2450 59.3 Soft rubber 1...1.8 – 0.14...0.23 + sec. cementite + ledeburite
Cadmium Cd 8.64 321 92.1 White metal 7.5...10.1 300...400 34.9...69.8 + ledeburite
Potassium K 0.86 63.6 110 Bismuth Bi 9.8 271 8.1 (cubic face centered)
Limestone 2.6 – 2.2 Wolfram W 19.2 3410 130 Mixed crystals γ-m.c. +
Calcium Ca 1.55 850 – Cesium Cs 1.87 29 – sec.cem.
Calcium oxide (lime) 3.4 2572 – Cement, hard 2...2.2 – 0.9...1.2 Mixed crystals
Pearlite
Caoutchouc, crude 0.95 125 0.2 Cerium Ce 6.79 630 – (Ferrite)
Ledeburite
Cobalt Co 8.8 1490 69.4 Zinc Zn 6.86 419 110
Salt, common 2.15 802 – Tin Sn 7.2 232 65
Sec.cem. Sec.cem. + pear- Primary cementite
+ pearlite lite + ledeburite + ledeburite
Coke 1.6...1.9 – 0.184 Zirconium Zr 6.5 1850 22
Constantan 8.89 1600 23.3 Pearlite
Corundum (AL2O3) 3.9...4 2050 12...23
Chalk 1.8...2.6 – 0.92 Boiling Thermal
Copper Cu 8.9 1083 384 Density oint
point conducti- (cubic body centered) Carbon content in weight percentage
Leather, dry 0.9....1 – 0.15 Substance (liquid) Sym- at vity λ
Lithium Li 0.53 179 71 bol 1.013MPa
MP at 20 °CC
Magnesium Mg 1.74 657 157 g/cm3 at °C W/(mK)
°C Cementite content in weight percentage
Magnesium, alloyed 1.8...1.83 650 69.8..145.4 Ether 0.72 20 35 0.14
Manganese Mn 7.43 1250 30 Benzine ≈0.73 15 25...210 0.13
Marble 2.6...2.8 1290 2.8 Benzole, pure 0.83 15 80 0.14
Red lead oxide 8.6...9.1 – 0.7 Diesel oil 0.83 15 210...380 0.15
Brass (63Cu37Zn) 8.5 900 116 Glycerine 1.26 20 290 0.29
Molybdenum Mo 10.2 2600 145 Resin oil 0.96 20 150...300 0.15 Pitting and tooth root fatigue strength of case hardening steels, DIN 17210
Monel metal 8.8 ≈1300 19.7 Fuel oil EL ≈0.83 20 > 175 0.14
Sodium Na 0.98 97.5 126 Linseed oil 0.93 20 316 0.17
Nickel silver 8.7 1020 48 Machinery oil 0.91 15 380...400 0.125 Hardness on finished gear σHlim σFlim
Nickel Ni 8.9 1452 59 Methanol 0.8 15 65 0.21 Symbol
Niobium Nb 8.6 2415 54.43 Methyl chloride 0.95 15 24 0.16 HV1 N/mm2 N/mm2
Osmium Os 22.5 2500 – Mineral oil 0.91 20 > 360 0.13
Palladium Pd 12 1552 70.9 Petroleum ether 0.66 20 > 40 0.14
Paraffin 0.9 52 0.26 Petroleum 0.81 20 > 150 0.13 16 MnCr 5 720 1470 430
Pitch 1.25 – 0.13 Mercury Hg 13.55 20 357 10 15 CrNi 6 730 1490 460
Phosphorus (white) P 1.83 44 – Hydrochloric acid 10% 1.05 15 102 0.5
Platinum Pt 21.5 1770 70 Sulphuric acid, strong 1.84 15 338 0.47 17 CrNiMo 6 740 1510 500
Polyamide A, B 1.13 ≈250 0.34 Silicon fluid 0.94 20 – 0.22
96 97
Materials Table of Contents Section 9
Heat Treatment During Case Hardening
of Case Hardening Steels
Heat treatment during case hardening of case hardening steels acc. to DIN 17210 Lubricating Oils Page
Usual heat treatment during case hardening Viscosity-Temperature-Diagram for Mineral Oils 100
A. Direct hardening or double B. Single hardening C. Hardening after isothermal
hardening transformation Viscosity-Temperature-Diagram for Synthetic Oils of Polyglycole Base 101
Direct hardening from carburizing Single hardening from core or case Hardening after isothermal transfor- Viscosity Table for Mineral Oils 104
temperature hardening temperature mation in the pearlite stage (e)
Direct hardening after lowering to Single hardening after intermediate Hardening after isothermal transfor-
hardening temperature annealing (soft annealing) (d) mation in the pearlite stage (e) and
cooling-down to room temperature
a carburizing temperature
b hardening temperature
c tempering temperature
d temperature
intermediate annealing (soft annealing) tem erature
Double hardening e transformation temperature in the pearlite stage
1) Decisive criteria for the determination of the carburizing temperature are mainly the required time of carburizing, the
chosen carburizing agent, and the plant available, the provided course of process, as well as the required structural
constitution. For direct hardening, carburizing usually is carried out at temperatures below 950 °C. In special cases,
carburizing temperatures up to above 1000 °C are applied.
2) In case of direct hardening, quenching is carried out either from the carburizing temperature or any lower temperature. In
particular if there is a risk of warping, lower hardening temperatures are preferred.
98 99
Lubricating Oils Lubricating Oils
Viscosity-Temperature-Diagram for Mineral Oils Viscosity-Temperature-Diagram for Synthetic Oils of Poly-α-Olefine Base
Viscosity-temperature-diagram for mineral oils Viscosity-temperature-diagram for synthetic oils of poly-α-olefine base
Kinematic viscosity (mm2/s)
100 101
Lubricating Oils Lubricating Oils
Viscosity-Temperature-Diagram for Synthetic Oils of Polyglycole Base Kinematic Viscosity and Dynamic Viscosity
for Mineral Oils at any Temperature
m [-]: slope
T [K]: thermodynamic temperature 1)
W40 [-]: auxiliary quantity at 40 °C
W [-]: auxiliary quantity
υ [cSt]: kinematic viscosity
1) T = t + 273.15 [K]
Dynamic viscosity η
η = υ . 0.001
. (3)
= 15− (t – 15) . 0.0007 (4)
t [°C]: temperature
15 [kg/dm3]: density at 15 °C
[kg/dm3]: density
υ [cSt]: kinematic viscosity
η [Ns/m2]: dynamic viscosity
102 103
Lubricating Oils Table of Contents Section 10
Viscosity Table for Mineral Oils
Saybolt Approx.
Mean viscosity (40 °C) and approx. assignment
Cylindrical Gear Units Page
viscosities in mm2/s (cSt) at universal AGMA Symbols and Units 106/107
Approx.
A rox. seconds lubricant to
ISO-VG assignment General Introduction 108
(SSU) at motor-
DIN to previous 40 °C N° at motor car
51519 DIN 51502 20 C 40 C 50 C 100 C (mean 40 °C
Geometry of Involute Gears
oils gear
value)) 1) oils Concepts and Parameters Associated With Involute Teeth 108
cSt cSt cSt Engler cSt 1) SAE SAE Reference Profile 108
Module 109
8 Tool Profile 109
5 2 46
4.6 4 13
1.3 15
1.5
(1.7 E) Generating Tooth Flanks 110
12 Concepts and Parameters Associated With Cylindrical Gears 111
7 4 68
6.8 5 14
1.4 20
2.0 Geometric Definitions 111
(2 E)
Pitch 111
21
10 9 10 8 17
1.7 25
2.5 Addendum Modification 112
(3 E)
Concepts and Parameters Associated With a Cylindrical Gear Pair 113
15 – 34 15 11 19
1.9 35
3.5 5W Definitions 113
Mating Quantities 113
Contact Ratios 114
22 55 22 15 23
2.3 45
4.5 Summary of the Most Important Formulae 115-117
16
10 W 70 W Gear Teeth Modifications 118/119
32 88 32 21 3 55
5.5 75 W
Load Carrying Capacity of Involute Gears
25
Scope of Application and Purpose 119/120
46 137 46 30 4 65
6.5 214 1 EP 15 W Basic Details 120/121
36 20 W General Factors 122
68 219 68 43 6 85
8.5 316 2 2 EP
2.2 20 80 W Application Factor 122
49 Dynamic Factor 122
Face Load Factor 122
100 68 345 100 61 8 11 464 3.3 EP 30 Transverse Load Factor 122
85 W Tooth Flank Load Carrying Capacity 123
150 92 550 150 90 12 15 696 4 4 EP
4.4 40 Effective Hertzian Pressure 123
Permissible Hertzian Pressure 123/124
Tooth Root Load Carrying Capacity 124
114
220 865 220 125 16 19 1020 5 5 EP
5.5 50 90 Effective Tooth Root Stress 124/125
144 Permissible Tooth Root Stress 126
Safety Factors 126
320 169 1340 320 180 24 24 1484 6 6 EP
6.6 Calculation Example 126/127
104 105
Cylindrical Gear Units Cylindrical Gear Units
Symbols and units for cylindrical gear units Symbols and units for cylindrical gear units
106 107
Cylindrical Gear Units Cylindrical Gear Units
General Introduction Geometry of Involute Gears
Geometry of Involute Gears
1. Cylindrical gear units with gear units without load sharing. Load shar- 1.2.1.2 Module in a transverse section is mt = mn/cosβ. For a
ing gear units mostly have one input and one out- The module m of the standard basic rack tooth spur gear β = 0 and the module is m = mn = mt.
1.1 Introduction put shaft. Inside the gear unit the load is distri- profile is the module in the normal section mn of In order to limit the number of the required gear
In the industry, mainly gear units with case har- buted and then brought together again on the the gear teeth. For a helical gear with helix angle cutting tools, module m has been standardized in
dened and fine-machined gears are used for output shaft gear. The uniform sharing of the load β on the reference circle, the transverse module preferred series 1 and 2, see table 1.
torque and speed adaptation of prime movers between the individual branches is achieved by
and driven machines. After carburising and har- special design measures.
dening, the tooth flanks are fine-machined by Table 1 Selection of some modules m in mm (acc. to DIN 780)
hobbing or profile grinding or removing material 1.2 Geometry of involute gears
(by means of shaping or generating tools coated The most important concepts and parameters Series 1 1 1.25 1.5 2 2.5 3 4 5 6 8 10 12 16 20 25 32
with mechanically resistant material). In compar- associated with cylindrical gears and cylindrical
ison with other gear units, which, for example, gear pairs with involute teeth in accordance with Series 2 1.75 3.5 4.5 7 9 14 18 22 28
have quenched and tempered or nitrided gears, DIN 3960 are represented in sections 1.2.1 to
gear units with case hardened gears have higher 1.2.4. /1/
1.2.1.3 Tool reference profile Especially for cylindrical gears with a relatively
power capacities, i.e. they require less space for
1.2.1 Concepts and parameters associated The tool reference profile according to figure 2a large number of teeth or a small module there is a
the same speeds and torques. Further, gear
with involute teeth is the counter profile of the standard basic rack risk of generating a notch in the root on finish
units have the best efficiencies. Motion is trans-
tooth profile according to figure 1. For industrial machining. To avoid this, pre-machining tools are
mitted without slip at constant speed. As a rule, 1.2.1.1 Standard basic rack tooth profile gear units, the pressure angle at a point of the provided with protuberance flanks as shown in
an infinitely variable change-speed gear unit with The standard basic rack tooth profile is the tool reference profile αPO = αP is 20°, as a rule. figure 2b. They generate a root undercut on the
primary or secondary gear stages presents the normal section through the teeth of the basic rack The tooth thickness sPO of the tool on the tool gear, see figure 3b. On the tool, protuberance
most economical solution even in case of vari- which is produced from an external gear tooth datum line depends on the stage of machining. value prPO, protuberance pressure angle at a
able speed control. system with an infinitely large diameter and an The pre-machining tool leaves on both flanks of point αprPO, as well as the tip radius of curvature
In industrial gear units mainly involute gears are infinitely large number of teeth. From figure 1 a
the teeth a machining allowance q for finish- PO must be so dimensioned that the active
used. Compared with other tooth profiles, the follows: machining. Therefore, the tooth thickness for tooth profile on the gear will not be reduced and
technical and economical advantages are – The flanks of the standard basic rack tooth pre-machining tools is sPO < p/2, and for finish- the tooth root will not be weakened too much.
basically: profile are straight lines and are located machining tools sPO = p/2. On cylindrical gears with small modules one of-
H Simple manufacture with straight-sided symmetrically below the pressure angle at a The pre-machining tool generates the root dia- ten accepts on purpose a notch in the root if its
flanked tools; point αP to the tooth centre line; meter and the fillet on a cylindrical gear. The
H The same tool for all numbers of teeth; distance to the root circle is large enough and
– Between module m and pitch p the relation is finish-machining tool removes the machining
H Generating different tooth profiles and centre thus the tooth root load carrying capacity is not
p = πm; allowance on the flanks, however, normally it
distances with the same number of teeth impaired by a notch effect, figure 3c. In order to
– The nominal dimensions of tooth thickness does not touch the root circle - like on the tooth
by means of the same tool by addendum prevent the tip circle of the mating gear from
and spacewidth on the datum line are equal, profile in figure 3a.
modification; touching the fillet it is necessary that a check for
i.e. sP = eP = p/2; Between pre- and finish- machining, cylindrical
H Uniform transmission of motion even in case meshing interferences is carried out on the gear
– The bottom clearance cP between basic rack gears are subjected to a heat treatment which, as
of centre distance errors from the nominal pair. /1/
tooth profile and counter profile is 0.1 m up to a rule, leads to warping of the teeth and growing
value; 0.4 m; of the root and tip circles.
H The direction of the normal force of teeth – The addendum is fixed by haP = m, the deden-
remains constant during meshing; dum by hfP = m + cP and thus, the tooth depth
H Advanced stage of development; by hP = 2 m + cP;
H Good availability on the market. – The working depth of basic rack tooth profile
When load sharing gear units are used, output and counter profile is hwP = 2 m.
torques can be doubled or tripled in comparison
Datum line
Standard basic rack tooth profile
Root line
a) Tool datum line b) Protuberance flank
Fillet
Tooth root surface Figure 2 Reference profiles of gear cutting tools for involute teeth of cylindrical gears
Tooth centre line
a) For pre-machining and finish-machining
Figure 1 Basic rack tooth profiles for involute teeth of cylindrical gears (acc. to DIN 867) b) For pre-machining with root undercut (protuberance)
108 109
Cylindrical Gear Units Cylindrical Gear Units
Geometry of Involute Gears Geometry of Involute Gears
1.2.2 Concepts and parameters associated verse pressure angle at a point α in the trans-
Pre-machining Finish-machining with cylindrical gears verse section is termed transverse pressure
angle αt, see figures 5 and 7. If a tangent line is
1.2.2.1 Geometric definitions put against the involute surface in the normal
In figure 6 the most important geometric quanti- section at the point of intersection with the
Machining ties of a cylindrical gear are shown. reference circle, the corresponding angle is
allowance q The reference circle is the intersection of the re- termed normal pressure angle αn; this is equal to
ference cylinder with a plane of transverse sec- the pressure angle αPO of the tool. The interrela-
tion. When generating tooth flanks, the straight tionship with the helix angle β at the reference
pitch line of the tool rolls off at the reference circle is tanαn = cosβ tanαt. On a spur gear αn =
circle. Therefore, the reference circle periphery αt.
corresponds to the product of pitch p and number Between the base helix angle βb and the helix
Root undercut Notch of teeth z, i.e. π d = p z. Since mt = p/π, the equa- angle β on the reference circle the relationship is
tion for the reference diameter thus is d = mt z. sinβb = cosαn sinβ. The base diameter db is given
a) b) c) Many geometric quantities of the cylindrical gear by the reference diameter d, by db = d cosαt.
are referred to the reference circle. In the case of internal gears, the number of teeth
Figure 3 Tooth profiles of cylindrical gears during pre- and finish-machining For a helical gear, at the point of intersection of z and thus also the diameters d, db, da, df are
a) Pre- and finish-machining down to the root circle the involute with the reference circle, the trans- negative values.
b) Pre-machining with root undercut (protuberance)
c) Finish-machining with notch
Right flank
1.2.1.4 Generating tooth flanks Left flank Tooth trace
With the development of the envelope, an enve- pressure angle at a point α and radius r in the
lope line of the base cylinder with the base dia- equations Reference cylinder
meter db generates the involute surface of a spur
gear. invα = tanα − ^
(1) Reference circle
A straight line inclined by a base helix angle βb to r = rb / cosα (2)
the envelope line in the developed envelope is d Reference diameter
the generator of an involute surface (involute rb = db/2 is the base radius. The angle invα is
termed involute function, and the angle da Tip diameter
helicoid) of a helical gear, figure 4.
The involute which is always lying in a transverse df Root diameter
ζ = ^ + invα = tanα is termed working angle. b Facewidth
section, figure 5, is described by the transverse
h Tooth depth
ha Addendum
Base cylinder envelope line hf Dedendum
s Tooth thickness on the reference circle
Involute of base cylinder Base cylinder e Spacewidth on the reference circle
Involute p Pitch on the reference circle
Involute helicoid
Figure 6 Definitions on the cylindrical gear
Developed
involute 1.2.2.2 Pitches
line The pitch pt of a helical gear (p in the case of a
spur gear) lying in a transverse section is the
length of the reference circle arc between two
successive right or left flanks, see figures 6 and
7. With the number of teeth z results pt = πd/z =
πmt.
The normal transverse pitch pet of a helical gear
Generator is equal to the pitch on the basic circle pbt, thus
Involute of base pet = pbt = πdb/z. Hence, in the normal section the
cylinder normal base pitch at a point pen = pet cosβb is re-
sulting from it, and in the axial section the axial
Developed base cylinder envelope pitch pex = pet/tanβb, see figure 13.
110 111
Cylindrical Gear Units Cylindrical Gear Units
Geometry of Involute Gears Geometry of Involute Gears
112 113
Cylindrical Gear Units Cylindrical Gear Units
Geometry of Involute Gears Geometry of Involute Gears
Driving
Line of action
Figure 11 Length of path of contact AE in the
transverse section of an external gear pair
A Starting point of engagement
E Finishing point of engagement
C Pitch point Driving
Table 2 Parameters for a cylindrical gear *) Table 3 Parameters for a cylindrical gear pair *)
Output quantities:
mn mm normal module
αn degree normal pressure angle Output quantities:
β degree reference helix angle The parameters for pinion and wheel according to table 2 must be given, further the facewidths b1
z – number of teeth *) and b2, as well as either the centre distance a or the sum of the addendum modification coefficients
x – addendum modification coefficient x1 + x2.
xE – generating addendum modification coefficient, see equation (3)
haPO mm addendum of the tool
mn z2
Transverse module mt = Gear ratio u=
cosβ z1
mt
Root diameter df = d – 2 (haPO – mn xE) Reference centre distance ad = (z1 + z2)
2
a – ad
Base diameter db = d cos αt Addendum modification factor **) k= – (x1 + x2)
mn
2a cosαt
πd dw1 = = d1
Transverse pitch pt = = π mt Working pitch circle diameter of the pinion
u+1 cosαwt
z
2au cosαt
Transverse pitch on path of contact; π db Working pitch circle diameter of the gear dw2 = = d2
pet = pbt = = pt cosαt u+1 cosαwt
Transverse base pitch z
*) For an internal gear, z is to be used as a negative quantity. **) For invα, see equation (1).
116 117
Cylindrical Gear Units Cylindrical Gear Units
Geometry of Involute Gears Geometry of Involute Gears
Load Carrying Capacity of Involute Gears
1.2.5 Tooth corrections facewidth are achieved. This has to be taken into ting into engagement, and a load reduction on crowning. With it, uniform load carrying along the
The parameters given in the above subsections consideration especially in the case of checks of the tooth leaving the engagement. In the case of face width and a reduction in load concentration
1.2.1 to 1.2.4 refer to non-deviating cylindrical contact patterns carried out under low loads. Un- longitudinal correction, the tooth trace relief often at the tooth ends during axial displacements is
gears. Because of the high-tensile gear materi- der partial load, however, the local maximum is superposed by a symmetric longitudinal attained.
als, however, a high load utilization of the gear load rise is always lower than the theoretical uni-
units is possible. Noticeable deformations of the form load distribution under full load. In the case
elastic gear unit components result from it. of modified gear teeth, the contact ratio is re- Profile correction Longitudinal correction
The deflection at the tooth tips is, as a rule, a mul- duced under partial load because of incomplete
tiple of the manufacturing form errors. This leads carrying portions, making the noise generating
to meshing interferences at the entering and levels increase in the lower part load range. With
leaving sides, see figure 14. There is a negative increasing load, the carrying portions and thus
effect on the load carrying capacity and the contact ratio increase so that the generating
generation of noise. levels drop. Gear pairs which are only slightly
loaded do not require any modification.
Wheel
Line of
action
Pinion Figure 16
Tooth corrections designed for removing local load increases due to deformations
under nominal load
Bending 1.3 Load carrying capacity of involute gears It has to be expressly emphasized that for the
load carrying capacity of gear units the exact
Torsion 1.3.1 Scope of application and purpose calculation method - compared with the
Manufac- The calculation of the load carrying capacity of simplified one - is always more meaningful and
Figure 14 Cylindrical gear pair under load turing cylindrical gears is generally carried out in therefore is exclusively decisive in borderline
1 Driving gear deviation accordance with the calculation method accord- cases.
2 Driven gear ing to DIN 3990 /8/ (identical with ISO 6336) Design, selection of material, manufacture, heat
Bearing
a, b Tooth pair being in engagement which takes into account pitting, tooth root treatment and operation of industrial gear units
deformation
c, d Tooth pair getting into engagement bending stress and scoring as load carrying are subject to certain rules which lead to a long
Housing limits. Because of the relatively large scope of
deformation service life of the cylindrical gears. Those rules
standards, the calculation in accordance with are:
Further, the load causes bending and twisting of this method may be carried out only by using
pinion and wheel shaft, pinion and wheel body, – Gear teeth geometry acc. to DIN 3960;
Running-in wear EDP programs. As a rule, gear unit manufactur-
as well as settling of bearings, and housing de- ers have such a tool at hand. The standard work – Cylindrical gears out of case-hardened steel;
formations. This results in skewing of the tooth Effective tooth is the FVA-Stirnradprogramm /9/ which includes Tooth flanks in DIN quality 6 or better, fine
flanks which often amounts considerably higher trace deviation further calculation methods, for instance, machined;
than the tooth trace deviations caused by manu- Fβ = Σf-yβ according to Niemann, AGMA, British Standard, – Quality of material and heat treatment proved
facture, see figure 15. Non-uniform load carrying and other. by quality inspections acc. to DIN 3990 /11/;
Load distribution
occurs along the face width which also has a ne- In DIN 3990, different methods A, B, C ... are – Effective case depth after carburizing accord-
across the face-
gative effect on the load carrying capacity and suggested for the determination of individual ing to instructions /12/ with surface hardnes-
width w
generation of noise. factors, where method A is more exact but also ses of 58 ... 62 HRC;
The running-in wear of case hardened gears more time-consuming than method B, etc. The
amounts to a few micrometers only and cannot – Gears with required tooth corrections and
Figure 15 Deformations and manufacturing application standard /10/ according to DIN 3990 without harmful notches in the tooth root;
compensate the mentioned deviations. In order is based on simplified methods.
to restore the high load carrying capacity of case deviations on a gear unit shaft – Gear unit designed for fatigue strength, i.e.
Because of its - even though limited - universal
hardened gears and reduce the generation of validity it still is relatively time-consuming. life factors ZNT = YNT = 1.0;
noise, intentional deviations from the involute The following calculation method for pitting re- – Flank fatigue strength σHlim y 1,200 N/mm2;
(profile correction) and from the theoretical tooth In figure 16, usual profile and longitudinal correc- sistance and tooth strength of case-hardened – Subcritical operating range, i.e. pitch circle
trace (longitudinal correction) are produced in or- tions are illustrated. In the case of profile correc- cylindrical gears is a further simplification if velocity lower than approx. 35 m/s;
der to attain nearly ideal geometries with uniform tion, the flanks on pinion and wheel are relieved compared with the application standard, ho- – Sufficient supply of lubricating oil;
load distribution under load again. at the tips by an amount equal to the length they wever, without losing some of its meaning.
The load-related form corrections are calculated are protruding at the entering and leaving sides – Use of prescribed gear oils with sufficient
Certain conditions must be adhered to in order to scuffing load capacity (criteria stage ≥ 12) and
and made for one load only - as a rule for 70 ... due to the bending deflection of the teeth. Root attain high load carrying capacities which also
100% of the permanently acting nominal load - relief may be applied instead of tip relief which, grey staining load capacity (criteria stage
results in preventing scuffing. Therefore, a ≥ 10);
/5, 6, 7/. At low partial load, contact patterns however, is much more expensive. Thus, a gra- calculation of load carrying capacity for scuffing
which do not cover the entire tooth depth and dual load increase is achieved on the tooth get- will not be considered in the following. – Maximum operating temperature 95 °C.
118 119
Cylindrical Gear Units Cylindrical Gear Units
Load Carrying Capacity of Involute Gears Load Carrying Capacity of Involute Gears
If these requirements are met, a number of fac- 1.3.2 Basic details In the further course of the calculation, the quantities listed in table 5 are required. They are derived
tors can be definitely given for the calculation of The calculation of the load carrying capacity is from the basic details according to table 4.
the load carrying capacity according to DIN based on the nominal torque of the driven ma-
3990, so that the calculation procedure is partly chine. Alternatively, one can also start from the Table 5 Derived quantities
considerably simplified. Non-observance of the nominal torque of the prime mover if this corre-
above requirements, however, does not neces- sponds with the torque requirement of the driven
sarily mean that the load carrying capacity is re- machine.
Designation Relation Unit
duced. In case of doubt one should, however, In order to be able to carry out the calculation for
carry out the calculation in accordance with the a cylindrical gear stage, the details listed in table
more exact method. 4 must be given in the units mentioned in the
table. The geometric quantities are calculated Gear ratio u = z2/z1 –
according to tables 2 and 3. Usually, they are
contained in the workshop drawings for cylindri- Reference diameter
cal gears. d1 = z1 mn/cosβ mm
of the pinion
Table 4 Basic details
Transverse tangential force
Ft = 19.1 S 106 P/(d1 n1) N
at pinion reference circle
Abbreviation Meaning Unit
Circumferential speed
P Power rating kW v = π d1 n1/60 000 m/s
at reference circle
b2 Facewidth of the wheel mm Transverse pressure angle αt = arc tan (tanαn / cosβ) Degree
x2 Addendum modification coefficient of the wheel – Base diameter of the pinion db1 = z1mt cosαt mm
Rz2 Peak-to-valley height on wheel flank µm Overlap ratio εβ = b tanβb / pet b = min (b1, b2) –
120 121
Cylindrical Gear Units Cylindrical Gear Units
Load Carrying Capacity of Involute Gears Load Carrying Capacity of Involute Gears
1.3.3 General factors The application factor is determined by the 1.3.4 Tooth flank load carrying capacity 1.3.4.1 Effective Hertzian pressure
service classification of the individual gear. If The calculation of surface durability against pit- The effective Hertzian pressure is dependent on
1.3.3.1 Application factor possible, the factor KA should be determined by ting is based on the Hertzian pressure at the pitch the load, and for pinion and wheel is equally de-
With the application factor KA, all additional for- means of a careful measurement or a compre- circle. For pinion and wheel the same effective rived from the equation
ces acting on the gears from external sources hensive analysis of the system. Since very often Hertzian pressure σH is assumed. It must not ex-
are taken into consideration. It is dependent on it is not possible to carry out the one or other ceed the permissible Hertzian pressure σHp, i.e.
the characteristics of the driving and driven ma- method without great expenditure, reference σH ) σHp.
chines, as well as the couplings, the masses and values are given in table 6 which equally apply to
stiffness of the system, and the operating condi- all gears in a gear unit. u + 1 Ft
tions. σH = ZE ZH Zβ Zε KA Kv KHα KHβ (8)
u d1 b
Table 6 Application factor KA
Working mode of the driven machine σH Effective Hertzian pressure in N/mm2
Working mode
Moderate Average Heavy Further:
of prime mover Uniform
shock loads shock loads shock loads b is the smallest facewidth b1 or b2 of pinion
or wheel acc. to table 4
Uniform 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75 Ft, u, d1 acc. to table 5
KA Application factor acc. to table 6
Moderate shock loads 1.10 1.35 1.60 1.85
KV Dynamic factor acc. to equation (4)
Average shock loads 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.00 or higher KHβ Face load factor acc. to equ. (5)
KHα Transverse load factor acc. to equ. (7)
Heavy shock loads 1.50 1.75 2.00 2.25 or higher 2
ZE Elasticity factor; ZE = 190 N/mm
for gears out of steel
1.3.3.2 Dynamic factor attain uniform load carrying over the facewidth, ZH Zone factor acc. to figure 17
With the dynamic factor KV, additional dynamic see subsection 1.2.5. Under such conditions, the Zβ Helix angle factor acc. to equ. (9)
forces caused in the meshing itself are taken into face load factor lies within the range of KHβ = 1.1 Zε Contact ratio factor acc. to equ. (10)
consideration. Taking z1, v and u from tables 4 ... 1.25. As a rough rule applies: A sensibly or (11)
and 5, it is calculated from selected crowning symmetrical in length reduces
the amount of KHβ lying above 1.0 by approx. 40 With ß according to table 4 applies:
u2 to 50%, and a directly made longitudinal correc-
Kv = 1 + 0.0003 z1 v (4) tion by approx. 60 to 70%.
1 + u2 In the case of slim shafts with gears arranged on Zβ = cosβ (9)
one side, or in the case of lateral forces or mo-
1.3.3.3 Face load factor ments acting on the shafts from external
The face load factor KHβ takes into account the sources, for the face load factors for gears With εα and εβ according to table 5 applies:
increase in the load on the tooth flanks caused by without longitudinal correction the values may lie
non-uniform load distribution over the facewidth. between 1.5 and 2.0 and in extreme cases even ε
4 – εα
According to /8/, it can be determined by means at 2.5. Zε = (1 – εα) + β for εβ < 1 (10)
3 εα
of different methods. Exact methods based on Face load factor KFβ for the determination of in- Figure 17
comprehensive measurements or calculations creased tooth root stress can approximately be Zone factor ZH depending on helix angle β as
or on a combination of both are very expensive. deduced from face load factor KHβ according to well as on the numbers of teeth z1, z2, and
Simple methods, however, are not exact, as a the relation for εβ + 1 addendum modification coefficients x1, x2;
Zε = 1 (11)
consequence of which estimations made to be εα see table 4.
on the safe side mostly result in higher factors. KFβ = (KHβ )0.9 (6)
For normal cylindrical gear teeth without longitu-
dinal correction, the face load factor can be cal-
1.3.4.2 Permissible Hertzian pressure ZL, Zv, ZR, ZW and ZX are the same for pinion and
culated according to method D in accordance 1.3.3.4 Transverse load factors
The permissible Hertzian pressure is determined wheel and are determined in the following.
with /8/ dependent on facewidth b and reference The transverse load factors KHα and KFα take
by
diameter d1 of the pinion, as follows: into account the effect of the non-uniform distri-
The lubricant factor is computed from the
bution of load between several pairs of simulta-
σHlim lubricating oil viscosity V40 according to table 4
KHβ = 1.15 + 0.18 (b/d1)2 + 0.0003 b (5) neously contacting gear teeth. Under the condi- σHP = ZL Zv ZX ZR ZW (12) using the following formula:
tions as laid down in subsection 1.3.1, the result SH
for surface stress and for tooth root stress
with b = min (b1, b2). As a rule, the gear unit according to method B in accordance with /8/ is σHP permissible Hertzian pressure in N/mm2. It is 0.25
manufacturer carries out an analysis of the load ZL = 0.91 + (13)
distribution over the facewidth in accordance
of different size for pinion and wheel if the (1 + 112 ) 2
KHα = KFα = 1.0 (7) strengths of materials σHlim are different. Factors V40
with an exact calculation method /13/. If required,
he makes longitudinal corrections in order to
122 123
Cylindrical Gear Units Cylindrical Gear Units
Load Carrying Capacity of Involute Gears Load Carrying Capacity of Involute Gears
[ 0.513 ]
3 0.08
ZR = (1 + IuI) d1 (15) Figure 18
Rz Allowable stress number for contact stress
σHlim of alloyed case hardening steels, case
hardened, depending on the surface hard-
For a gear pair with the same tooth flank hard- ness HV1 of the tooth flanks and the material degree
ness on pinion and wheel, the work hardening quality.
factor is ML modest demands on the material quality
MQ normal demands on the material quality
ME high demands on the material quality,
(16) see /11/
ZW = 1.0
Ft
ZX = 1.05 – 0.005 mn (17) F = Yε Yβ YFS KA Kv KFα KFβ (18)
b mn
with the restriction 0.9 x ZX x 1. σF Effective tooth root stress in N/mm2 degree
σHlim Endurance strength of the gear material. The following factors are of equal size for pinion
For gears made out of case hardening and wheel:
steel, case hardened, figure 18 shows a mn, Ft acc. to tables 4 and 5
range from 1300 ... 1650 N/mm2 depend- KA Application factor acc. to table 6
ing on the surface hardness of the tooth KV Dynamic factor acc. to equation (4)
flanks and the quality of the material. Under KFβ Face load factor acc. to equation (6)
the conditions as described in subsection KFα Transverse load factor acc. to equ. (7)
1.3.1, material quality MQ may be selected
Yε Contact ratio factor acc. to equ. (19)
for pinion and wheel, see table on page 97.
Yβ Helix angle factor acc. to equ. (20)
SH required safety factor against pitting, see
subsection 1.3.6. The following factors are of different size for
pinion and wheel:
1.3.5 Tooth strength b1, b2 Facewidths of pinion and wheel acc. to
The maximum load in the root fillet at the 30-de- table 4. If the facewidths of pinion and
gree tangent is the basis for rating the tooth wheel are different, it may be assumed Figure 19
strength. For pinion and wheel it shall be shown that the load bearing width of the wider Tip factor YFS for external gears with standard basic rack tooth profile acc. to DIN 867
separately that the effective tooth root stress σF facewidth is equal to the smaller face- depending on the number of teeth z (or zn in case of helical gears) and addendum modification
does not exceed the permissible tooth root stress width plus such extension of the wider that coefficient x, see tables 4 and 5. The following only approximately applies to internal gears:
σFP, i.e. σF < σFP. does not exceed one times the module at YFS = YFS∞ (≈ value for x = 1.0 and z = 300).
each end of the teeth.
124 125
Cylindrical Gear Units Cylindrical Gear Units
Load Carrying Capacity of Involute Gears Load Carrying Capacity of Involute Gears
Gear Unit Types
YFS1, YFS2 Tip factors acc. to figure 19. They flanks and the material quality. Under the helix angle β = 10 degree; kinematic viscosity of into consideration the safety factor, the permis-
account for the complex stress condi- conditions according to subsection 1.3.1, the lubricating oil V40 = 320 cSt; mean peak-to- sible tooth root stresses for pinion and wheel
tion inclusive of the notch effect in the a strength pertaining to quality MQ may valley roughness Rz1 = Rz2 = 4.8 µm. σFP1 = σFP2 = 797 N/mm2 can be obtained from
root fillet. be used as a basis for pinion and wheel The cylindrical gears are made out of the mate- equation (21) with the bending stress number
With the helix angle β acc. to table 4 and the see table on page 97. rial 17 CrNiMo 6. They are case hardened and σFlim = 500 N/mm2.
overlap ratio εβ acc. to table 5 follows: ground with profile corrections and width-sym- The safety factors against tooth breakage refer-
SF Safety factor required against tooth metrical crowning. ring to the torque are SF = σFP/σF: for the pinion
breakage, see subsection 1.3.6. SF1 = 797/537 = 1.48 and for the wheel SF2 =
0.75
Yε = 0.25 + cos2β (19) Calculation (values partly rounded): 797/540 = 1.48.
εα Gear ratio u = 1.88; reference diameter of the pin-
ion d1 = 558.485 mm; nominal circumferential 1.4 Gear unit types
with the restriction 0.625 ) Yε ) 1 force on the reference circle Ft = 800,425 N; cir-
cumferential speed on the reference circle v = 1.4.1 Standard designs
εβ β 4.123 m/s; base helix angle βb = 9.391 degree; In the industrial practice, different types of gear
Yβ = 1 – (20) virtual numbers of teeth zn1 = 26.08 and zn2 = units are used. Preferably, standard helical and
120
49.03; transverse module mt = 22.339 mm; bevel-helical gear units with fixed transmission
with the restriction transverse pressure angle αt = 20.284 degree; ratio and size gradation are applied. These sin-
working transverse pressure angle αwt = 22.244 gle-stage to four-stage gear units according to
Yβ + max [(1 - 0.25 εβ); (1– β/120)]. the modular construction system cover a wide
degree; normal transverse pitch pet = 65.829;
1.3.5.2 Permissible tooth root stress base diameters db1 = 523.852 mm and db2 = range of speeds and torques required by the
The permissible tooth root stress for pinion and 984.842 mm; length of path of contact gα = driven machines. Combined with a standard
wheel is determined by Flank hardness HV1 98.041 mm; transverse contact ratio εα = 1.489; electric motor such gear units are, as a rule, the
overlap ratio εβ = 0.879. most economical drive solution.
Figure 20 Application factor KA = 1.50 (electric motor with But there are also cases where no standard
σFP = YST YδrelT YRrelT YX σFlim (21) Bending stress number σFlim of alloyed case uniform mode of operation, coal mill with medium drives are used. Among others, this is true for
(SF) hardening steel, case hardened, depending shock load); dynamic factor KV = 1.027; face load high torques above the range of standard gear
on the surface hardness HV1 of the tooth factor KHβ = 1.20 [acc. to equation (5) follows KHβ units. In such cases, special design gear units
σFP permissible tooth root stress in N/mm2. flanks and the material quality. = 1.326, however, because of symmetrical are used, load sharing gear units playing an im-
It is not equal for pinion and wheel if the material ML modest demands on the material quality crowning the calculation may be made with a portant role there.
strengths σFlim are not equal. Factors YST, YδrelT, MQ normal demands on the material quality smaller value]; KFβ = 1.178; KHα = KFα = 1.0.
YRrelT and YX may be approximately equal for 1.4.2 Load sharing gear units
ME high demands on the material quality,
pinion and wheel. Load carrying capacity of the tooth flanks: In principle, the highest output torques of gear
see /11/
units are limited by the manufacturing facilities,
YST is the stress correction factor of the refer- Elasticity factor ZE = 190 N mm 2; zone factor since gear cutting machines can make gears up
ence test gears for the determination of 1.3.6 Safety factors ZH = 2.342; helix angle factor Zβ = 0.992; contact to a maximum diameter only. Then, the output
the bending stress number σFlim. For The minimum required safety factors according ratio factor Zε = 0.832. According to equation (8), torque can be increased further only by means of
standard reference test gears, YST = 2.0 to DIN are: the Hertzian pressure for pinion and wheel is σH load sharing in the gear unit. Load sharing gear
has been fixed in the standard. against pitting SH = 1.0 = 1251 N/mm2. units are, however, also widely used for lower
YδrelT is the notch relative sensitivity factor against tooth breakage SF = 1.3. Lubricant factor ZL = 1.047; speed factor ZV = torques as they provide certain advantages in
(notch sensitivity of the material) refer- In practice, higher safety factors are usual. For 0.978; roughness factor ZR = 1.018; work spite of the larger number of internal
ring to the standard reference test gear. multistage gear units, the safety factors are de- hardening factor ZW = 1.0; size factor ZX = 0.94. components, among others they are also used in
By approximation YδrelT = 1.0. termined about 10 to 20% higher for the expen- With the allowable stress number for contact standard design. Some typical features of the
sive final stages, and in most cases even higher stress (pitting) σHlim = 1500 N/mm2, first the one or other type are described in the following.
For the relative surface factor (surface rough- permissible Hertzian pressure σHP = 1470
ness factor of the tooth root fillet) referring to the for the cheaper preliminary stages.
N/mm2 is determined from equation (12) without 1.4.3 Comparisons
standard reference test gear the following Also for risky applications a higher safety factor is In the following, single-stage and two-stage gear
given. taking into account the safety factor.
applies by approximation, depending on module The safety factor against pitting is found by SH = units up to a ratio of i = 16 are examined. For
mn : σHP/σH = 1470/1251 = 1.18. The safety factor re- common gear units the last or the last and the last
1.3.7 Calculation example
YRrelT = 1.00 for mn ) 8 mm An electric motor drives a coal mill via a multi- ferring to the torque is SH2 = 1.38. but one gear stage usually come to approx. 70 to
= 0.98 for 8 mm < mn ) 16 mm (22) stage cylindrical gear unit. The low speed gear 80% of the total weight and also of the manufac-
= 0.96 for mn > 16 mm Load carrying capacity of the tooth root: turing expenditure. Adding further gear stages in
stage is to be calculated. Contact ratio factor Yε = 0.738; helix angle factor order to achieve higher transmission ratios thus
and for the size factor Given: Nominal power rating P = 3300 kW; Yβ = 0.927; tip factors YFS1 = 4.28 and YFS2 = does not change anything about the following
YX = 1.05 – 0.01 mn (23) pinion speed n1 = 141 1/min.; centre distance a = 4.18 (for ha0 = 1.4 mn; ϕa0 = 0.3 mn; αpro = 10 de- fundamental description.
815 mm; normal module mn = 22 mm; tip diame- gree; prO = 0.0205 mn). The effective tooth root In figure 21, gear units without and with load
with the restriction 0.8 ) YX ) 1. ter da1 = 615.5 mm and da2 = 1100 mm; pinion stresses σF1 = 537 N/mm2 for the pinion and σF2 sharing are shown, shaft 1 each being the HSS
σFlim Bending stress number of the gear mate- and wheel widths b1 = 360 mm and b2 = 350 mm; = 540 N/mm2 for the wheel can be obtained from and shaft 2 being the LSS. With speeds n1 and
rial. For gears out of case hardening steel, numbers of teeth z1 = 25 and z2 = 47; addendum equation (18). n2, the transmission ratio can be obtained from
case hardened, a range from 310 ... 520 modification coefficients x1 = 0.310 and x2 = Stress correction factor YST = 2.0; relative sensi- the formula
N/mm2 is shown in figure 20 depending 0.203; normal pressure angle αn = 20 degree; tivity factor YδrelT = 1.0; relative surface factor
on the surface hardness of the tooth YRelT = 0.96; size factor YX = 0.83. Without taking i = n1 / n2 (24)
126 127
Cylindrical Gear Units Cylindrical Gear Units
Gear Unit Types Gear Unit Types
The diameter ratios of the gears shown in figure In gear unit D the load of the high-speed gear 1.4.3.2 Referred torques
21 correspond to the transmission ratio i = 7. The stage is equally shared between three interme- In figure 22, referred torques for the gear units surface A of the pitch circle cylinders when
gear units have the same output torques, so that diate gears which is achieved by the radial mova- shown in figure 21 are represented, dependent comparing the gear teeth surfaces. Gear unit
in figure 21 a size comparison to scale is illustrat- bility of the sun gear on shaft 1. In the low-speed on the transmission ratio i. Further explanations weight G and gear teeth surface A (= generated
ed. Gear units A, B, and C are with offset shaft ar- gear stage the load is shared six times altogether are given in table 7. The torque T2 is referred to surface) are one measure for the manufacturing
rangement, and gear units D, E, F, and G with by means of the double helical teeth and the axial the construction dimension D when comparing cost. The higher a curve, in figure 22, the better
coaxial shaft arrangement. movability of the intermediate shaft. the sizes, to the weight of the gear unit G when the respective gear unit in comparison with the
In order to achieve equal load distribution be- comparing the weights, and to the generated others.
tween the three intermediate gears of gear units
E, F, and G the sun gear on shaft 1 mostly is ra- Table 7 Referred Torques
dially movable. The large internal gear is an an-
nulus gear which in the case of gear unit E is con- Units of the
Comparison criteria Definition Dimension
nected with shaft 2, and in the case of gear units basic details
F and G with the housing. In gear units F and G, T2 m
web and shaft 2 form an integrated whole. The id- Size δ= T2 in mm
ler gears rotate as planets around the central D3 BL mm
BL in N/mm2
axle. In gear unit G, double helical teeth and axial T2 m mm2
Weight γ= D in mm
movability of the idler gears guarantee equal G BL kg
load distribution between six branches. G in kg
T2 mm2
Gear teeth surface α= A in m2
1.4.3.1 Load value A3/2 BL m2
By means of load value BL, it is possible to com-
pare cylindrical gear units with different ultimate
stress values of the gear materials with each
other in the following examinations.
According to /14/, the load value is the tooth peri-
pheral force Fu referred to the pinion pitch diame-
ter dw and the carrying facewidth b, i.e.
Fu
BL = (25)
b dw
128 129
Cylindrical Gear Units Cylindrical Gear Units
Gear Unit Types Noise Emitted by Gear Units
For all gear units explained in figures 21 and 22, from the following relation with the input power at
the same prerequisites are valid. For all gear shaft 1 and the torques T1 and T2
units, the construction dimension D is larger than
the sum of the pitch diameters by the factor 1.15.
Similar definitions are valid for gear unit height
and width. Also the wall thickness of the housing
) 1
i
+TT + 2
(27)
range) is a single-number rating. The total level is The results correspond to the sound power lev- distinction is made between cylindrical gear units
the common logical value for gear unit noises. els as determined in accordance with DIN 45635. with rolling bearings, see figure 28, cylindrical
The pressure level is valid for a certain distance, This procedure requires a larger number of de- gear units with sliding bearings (high-speed gear
in general 1 m from the housing surface as an vices to be used, however, it is a very quick one. units), bevel gear and bevel-helical gear units,
ideal parallelepiped. Above all, foreign influences are eliminated in the planetary gear units and worm gear units.
simplest way. Furthermore, information on speed variators can
1.5.2 Measurements be found in the guidelines.
(Frequency) The main noise emission parameter is the sound 1.5.3 Prediction Figure 28 exemplary illustrates a characteristic
Figure 24 power level. It is not possible to exactly calculate in advance diagram of emissions for cylindrical gear units.
Narrow band frequency spectrum for LpA the sound power level of a gear unit to be made. Similar characteristic diagrams are also avail-
1.5.2.1 Determination via sound pressure However, one can base the calculations on expe-
(A-weighted sound pressure level) at a di- DIN 45635 Part 1 and Part 23 describe how to de- able for the other gear unit types mentioned.
stance of 1 m from a gear unit. rience. In the VDI guidelines 2159 /17/, for exam- Within the characteristic diagrams, 50%- and
termine the sound power levels of a given gear ple, reference values are given. Gear unit manu- 80%-lines are drawn. The 80%-line means, for
unit /16/. For this purpose, sound pressure levels facturers, too, mostly have own records.
Histograms occur in the one-third octave spectrum example, that 80% of the recorded industrial
LpA are measured at fixed points surrounding the The VDI guidelines are based on measurements
and in the octave spectrum, see figures 25 and 26. gear units radiate lower noises.
gear unit and converted to sound power levels carried out on a large number of industrial gear
In the one-third octave spectrum (spectrum with 1/3 The lines are determined by mathematical equa-
LWA. The measurement surface ratio LS is an units. Main influence parameters for gear unit
octaves), the bandwidth results from tions. For the 80%-lines, the equations according
3 auxiliary quantity which is dependent on the sum noises are gear unit type, transmitted power,
fo / fu = 2, i.e. fo / fu = 1.26, of the measurement surfaces. When the gear to VDI 2159 are:
manufacturing quality and speed. In VDI 2159, a
fo = fm . 1.12 and fu = fm / 1.12; unit is placed on a reverberant base, the bottom
is not taken into consideration, see example in Gear units Total sound power level LWA
fm = mean band frequency, fo = upper band fre-
figure 27. Cylindrical gear units (rolling bearings) 77.1 + 12.3 . log P / kW (dB)
quency, fu = lower band frequency. In case of oc-
taves, the upper frequency is as twice as big as the Cylindrical gear units (sliding bearings) 85.6 + 6.4 . log P / kW (dB)
lower one, or fo = fm . 1.41 and fu = fm / 1.41. Machine enclosing reference box
Measure-
Bevel gear and bevel-helical gear units 71.7 + 15.9 . log P / kW (dB)
ment Planetary gear units 87.7 + 4.4 . log P / kW (dB)
Bandwidth surface
65.0 + 15.9 . log P / kW (dB)
Sound intensity
Type: Cylindrical gear units with external teeth mainly (> 80%) having the following characteristic
features:
Housing:
Cast iron housing
Bearing arrangement: Logarithmic regression
Frequency (HZ) Rolling bearings LWA = 77.1 + 12.3 x log P/kW dB
Lubrication: (80%-line)
Figure 27
The measurement surface sound pressure level 1.5.4 Possibilities of influencing Shaft Couplings Page
LpA at a distance of 1 m is calculated from the to- With the selection of other than standard geome-
tal sound power level tries and with special tooth modifications (see General Fundamental Principles 136
section 1.2.5), gear unit noises can be positively
LpA = LWA – Ls (dB) (28) influenced. In some cases, such a procedure re- Rigid Couplings 136
sults in a reduction in the performance (e.g. mo-
Ls = 10 . log S (dB) (29) dule reduction) for the same size, in any case, Torsionally Flexible Couplings 136-138
however, in special design and manufacturing
S = Sum of the hypothetical surfaces (m2) expenditure. Housing design, distribution of Torsionally Rigid Couplings 138
enveloping the gear unit at a distance of 1 m masses, type of rolling bearing, lubrication and
(ideal parallelepiped) cooling are also important. Positive Clutches 138
Example of information for P = 100 kW in a Sometimes, the only way is to enclose the gear Friction Clutches 138
2-stage cylindrical gear unit of size 200 (centre units which makes possible that the total level is
distance in the 2nd gear stage in mm), with rolling reduced by 10 to 25 dB, dependent on the condi- Synoptical Table of Torsionally Flexible and Torsionally Rigid Couplings 139
bearings, of standard quality: tions.
Attention has to be paid to it, that no structure- Positive Clutches and Friction Clutches 140
“The sound power level, determined in accord-
ance with DIN 45635 (sound pressure measure- borne noise is radiated via coupled elements
ment) or according to the sound intensity meas- (couplings, connections) to other places from
urement method, is 102 + 2 dB (A). Room and where then airborne noise will be emitted.
connection influences have not been taken into A sound screen does not only hinder the propa-
consideration. If it is agreed that measurements gation of airborne noise but also the heat dissipa-
are to be made they will be carried out on the ma- tion of a gear unit, and it requires more space.
nufacturer’s test stand.”
Note:
For this example, a measurement surface sound
pressure level of 102 - 13.2 ≈ 89 db (A), tolerance
+ 2 dB, is calculated at a distance of 1 m with a
measurement surface S = 21 m2 and a measure-
ment surface ratio LS = 13.2 dB.
Individual levels in a frequency spectrum cannot
safely be predicted for gear units because of the
multitude of influence parameters.
134 135
Shaft Couplings Shaft Couplings
General Fundamental Principles Torsionally Flexible Couplings
Rigid and Torsionally Flexible Couplings
2. Shaft couplings - Damping torque and speed impulses; The flexible properties of the couplings are gen- The N-EUPEX coupling is a wear-resistant pin
- Interrupting the motion of rotation (clutches); erated by means of metal springs (coil springs, coupling for universal use (figure 30) absorbing
2.1 General fundamental principles leaf springs) or by means of elastomers (rubber, large misalignments. The coupling is available
In mechanical equipment, drives are consisting - Limiting the torque;
- Sound isolation; plastics). For couplings incorporating flexible as fail-safe coupling and as coupling without fail-
of components like prime mover, gear unit, shafts metal elements, the torsional flexibility is be- safe device. In its three-part design it is suitable
and driven machine. Such components are con- - Electrical insulation.
tween 2 and 25 degree, depending on the type. for simple assembly and simple replacement of
nected by couplings which have the following The stiffness characteristics, as a rule, show a flexible elements. The coupling is made in differ-
tasks: The diversity of possible coupling variants is
shown in the overview in figure 29. A distinction is linear behaviour, unless a progressive character- ent types and sizes for torques up to 62,000 Nm.
- Transmitting an as slip-free as possible motion istic has intentionally been aimed for by design
of rotation, and torques; made between the two main groups couplings The BIPEX coupling is a flexible fail-safe claw
and clutches, and the subgroups rigid/flexible measures. Damping is achieved by means of
- Compensating shaft misalignments (radial, coupling in compact design for high power
couplings and positive/friction clutches. friction and viscous damping means.
axial, angular); capacity and is offered in different sizes for
In case of couplings incorporating elastomer ele- maximum torques up to 3,700 Nm. The coupling
- Reducing the torsional vibration load, influenc-
ments, a distinction is made between couplings is especially suitable for plug-in assembly and
ing and displacing the resonant ranges;
of average flexibility with torsion angles of 2 up to fitting into bell housings.
5 degree and couplings of high flexibility with tor-
Shaft couplings The RUPEX coupling is a flexible fail-safe pin
sion angles of 5 up to 30 degree. Depending on
and bush coupling which as a universal coupling
the type, the flexible elements of the coupling are
is made in different sizes for low up to very high
subjected to compression (tension), bending and
torques (106 Nm) (figure 31). The coupling is
shearing, or to a combined form of stressing. In suitable for plug-in assembly and capable of
some couplings (e.g. tyre couplings), the flexible absorbing large misalignments. The optimized
Couplings Clutches elements are reinforced by fabric or thread in- shape of the barrelled buffers and the conical
serts. Such inserts absorb the coupling forces seat of the buffer bolts facilitate assembly and
and prevent the elastic-viscous flow of the ela- guarantee maintenance-free operation.
stomer. Because of their capability to transmit high
Couplings with elastomer elements primarily torques, large RUPEX couplings are often used
subjected to compression and bending have on the output side between gear unit and driven
Rigid Flexible Positive Friction non-linear progressive stiffness characteristics, machine. Since the coupling hubs are not only
while flexible elements (without fabric insert) offered in grey cast iron but also in steel, the
merely subjected to shearing generate linear couplings are also suitable for high speeds.
stiffness characteristics. The quasi-statical Examples of highly flexible couplings incorporat-
torsional stiffness of an elastomer coupling ing elastomer elements are tyre couplings,
Torsionally Rigid,
Friction Hydrodyn. Electrodyn. increases at dynamic load (up to approximately flange couplings, ring couplings, and large-vol-
flexible universal joint
30 Hz, test frequency 10 Hz) by approximately 30 ume claw couplings with cellular elastic materi-
to 50%. The dynamic stiffness of a coupling is als. Examples of flexible couplings incorporating
Clamp, Pin and bush, Gear, Claw, Cone, Foettinger Eddy current influenced [(+) increased; (–) reduced] by the metal elements are coil spring and leaf spring
Flange, Claw, Steel plate, Pin and Plate, average load (+), the oscillation amplitude (–), couplings.
Radial tooth Tyre, Membrane, bush, Multiple disk, temperature (–), oscillation frequency (+), and
Flange, Universal joint, Gear Centrifugal period of use (–). The ELPEX coupling (figure 32) is a highly flex-
Coil spring, Rolling contact force, ible ring coupling without torsional backlash
Leaf spring, joint, (*) Overrunning, For rubber-flexible couplings, the achievable which is suitable for high dynamic loads and has
Air bag Oldham coupling Automatic damping values are around ψ = 0.8 up to 2 good damping properties. Rings of different elas-
spring, disengaging,
Cardan Friction
(damping coefficient ψ; DIN 740 /18/). Damping ticity are suitable for optimum dynamic tuning of
leads to heating of the coupling, and the heat loss drives. Torque transmitting thread inserts have
(*) In case of additional gearing, all clutches are disengageable when stationary. has to be dissipated via the surface. The been vulcanized into the rings out of high-quality
Figure 29 dynamic loading capacity of a coupling is natural rubber. Due to the symmetrical design
Overview of possible shaft coupling designs determined by the damping power and the
the coupling is free from axial and radial forces
restricted operating temperature of elastomers and allows large shaft misalignments even under
2.2 Rigid couplings 2.3 Torsionally flexible couplings of 80°C up to max. 100°C. torque loads. Typical applications for ELPEX
Rigid couplings connect two shaft ends and do Torsionally flexible couplings are offered in many When designing drives with torsionally flexible couplings which are available for torques up to
practically not allow any shaft misalignment. designs. Main functions are the reduction of couplings according to DIN 740 /18/, torsional 90,000 Nm are drives with periodically exciting
They are designed as clamp, flange and radial torque impulses by elastic reaction, damping of vibrations are taken into account by reducing the aggregates (internal combustion engines,
tooth couplings and allow the transmission of torsional vibrations by internal damping in case drive to a two-mass vibration generating system, reciprocating engines) or extremely shock-
high torques requiring only small space. The of couplings with flexible rubber elements, and or by using torsional vibration simulation pro- loaded drives with large shaft misalignments.
coupling halves are connected by means of bolts frictional damping in case of couplings with grams which can compute detailed vibration sys-
(close fitting bolts). In case of clamp and flange flexible metal elements, transfer of resonance Another highly flexible tyre coupling with a simple
tems for both steady and unsteady conditions. closed tyre as flexible element mounted between
couplings (with split spacer ring), radial disas- frequencies by variation of the torsional stiffness, Examples of couplings incorporating elastomer
sembly is possible. Radial tooth couplings are and compensation of shaft misalignments with two flanges is the ELPEX-B coupling. It is avai-
elements of average flexibility are claw-, pin-, lable in different sizes for torques up to 20,000
self-centering and transmit both high and alter- low restoring forces. and pin and bush couplings.
nating torques. Nm.
136 137
Shaft Couplings Shaft Couplings
Torsionally Flexible Couplings Synoptical Table of Torsionally Flexible and
Torsionally Rigid Couplings Torsionally Rigid Couplings
Positive and Friction Clutches
This coupling features high flexibility without The ARPEX coupling (figure 35) is a double-
torsional backlash, absorbs large shaft jointed, torsionally rigid plate coupling for the
misalignments, and permits easy assembly and absorption of shaft misalignments (angular up to
disassembly (radial). 1 degree). The coupling is maintenance-free (no
The ELPEX-S coupling (figure 33) is a highly lubrication) and wear-resistant and owing to its
flexible, fail-safe claw coupling absorbing large closed plate packs allows easy assembly. A wide
shaft misalignments. The large-volume cellular range of ARPEX couplings is available - from the
flexible elements show very good damping miniature coupling up to large-size couplings for
properties with low heating and thus allow high torques up to > 106 Nm. The coupling transmits
torques very uniformly, and owing to its all-steel
dynamic loads. The couplings have linear
design is suitable for high ambient temperatures
stiffness characteristics, and with the use of
(up to 280°C) and high speeds. Fields of
different flexible elements they are suitable for
application are, among others, paper machines,
optimum dynamic tuning of drives. The couplings
ventilators, pumps, drives for materials-handling
are of compact design and are suitable for
equipment as well as for control systems.
torques up to 80,000 Nm. Plug-in assembly is
possible. This universal coupling can be used in 2.5 Positive clutches Figure 30 Figure 33
drives with high dynamic loads which require low This type includes all clutches which can be Flexible pin coupling, Highly flexible claw coupling with
frequency with good damping. N-EUPEX, in three parts cellular flexible elements, ELPEX-S
actuated when stationary or during synchronous
operation in order to engage or disengage a
2.4 Torsionally rigid couplings
machine to or from a drive. Many claw, pin and
Torsionally rigid couplings are used where the
bush, or gear couplings can be used as clutches
torsional vibration behaviour should not be
by axially moving the driving member. With the
changed and exact angular rotation is required,
additional design element of interlocking teeth,
but shaft misalignment has to be absorbed at the
all flexible couplings can be used as clutches.
same time. With the use of long floating shafts
large radial misalignments can be allowed. 2.6 Friction clutches
Torsionally rigid couplings are very compact, In friction clutches, torques are generated by
however, they have to be greased with oil or friction, hydrodynamic or electrodynamic effect.
grease (exception: steel plate and membrane The clutch is actuated externally, even with the
couplings). Typical torsionally rigid couplings are shaft rotating (mechanically, hydraulically,
universal joint, gear, membrane and steel plate pneumatically, magnetical), speed-dependent
couplings, which always have to be designed as (centrifugal force, hydrodynamic), torque-
double-jointed couplings with floating shafts dependent (slip clutches, safety clutches), and
(spacers) of different lengths. dependent on the direction of rotation (overrun-
Universal joints allow large angular ning clutches).
misalignments (up to 40 degree), the dynamic
Of the different clutch types, friction clutches are Figure 31 Figure 34
load increasing with the diffraction angle. In order most commonly used which may contain either
to avoid pulsating angular rotation (2 times the Flexible pin and bush coupling, RUPEX Gear coupling, ZAPEX
dry- or wet- (oil-lubricated) friction elements.
torsional frequency), universal joints must Dependent on the friction element and the
always be arranged in pairs (same diffraction number of friction surface areas, a distinction is
angle, forks on the intermediate shaft in one
made between cylindrical, cone, flange and disk
plane, input and output shaft in one plane). clutches. The larger the number of friction
Constant velocity joints, however, always surface areas, the smaller the size of the clutch.
transmit uniformly and are very short. Further criteria are wear, service life, idle torque,
Gear couplings of the ZAPEX type (figure 34) cooling, cycle rate, and uniform friction effect
are double-jointed steel couplings with crowned (non-chattering).
gears which are capable of absorbing shaft The PLANOX clutch is a dry-friction multiple
misalignments (axial, radial and angular up to 1 disk clutch with one up to three disks, which has
degree) without generating large restoring been designed with overload protection for appli-
forces. The ZAPEX coupling is of compact cation in general mechanical engineering. It is
design, suitable for high speeds, and transmits actuated externally by mechanical, electrical,
very high torques (depending on the size up to > pneumatic or hydraulic force. Uniform transmis-
106 Nm), and in addition offers large safety sion of torque is guaranteed by spring pressure
reserves for the absorption of shock loads. It is
even after high cylce rates. The clutch is made in
lubricated with oil or grease. Fields of application
different types and sizes for torques up to 3 S 105
are, among others, rolling mills, cement mills, Nm. Figure 32 Figure 35
conveyor drives, turbines. Highly flexible ring coupling, ELPEX All-steel coupling, with plate packs, ARPEX
138 139
Shaft Couplings Table of Contents Section 12
Friction Clutches
Fluid Couplings
The AUTOGARD torque limiter is an automati- The FLUDEX coupling (figure 36) is a hydrody- Vibrations Page
cally actuating safety clutch which disconnects namic fluid coupling operating according to the
driving and driven side by means of a high-accu- Föttinger principle without mechanical friction. Symbols and Units 142
racy ball-operated mechanism and interrupts the The coupling parts on the input (pump) and out-
transmission of torque as soon as the set disen- put (turbine) side are not mechanically connect- General Fundamental Principles 143-145
gagement torque is exceeded. The torque limiter ed and thus wear-resistant.
is ready for operation again when the mechan- Solution Proposal for Simple Torsional Vibrators 145/146
Torque is transmitted by the rotating oil fluid in the
ism has been re-engaged during standstill. The
coupling accelerated by the radial blades (pulse
clutch is made in different sizes for disengage- Solution of the Differential Equation of Motion 146/147
exchange). Fluid couplings have the same char-
ment torques up to 56,500 Nm.
acteristics as turbines; torque increases with the
Formulae for the Calculation of Vibrations 147
Speed-controlled clutches allow soft starting of second power, and power capacity is proportion-
heavy-duty driven machines, the motor accel- al to the third power of the input speed. During
Mass 147
erating itself at first and then driving the machine. steady torque transmission little operating slip
This permits the use of smaller dimensioned mo- occurs which heats up the coupling. As safety
Mass Moment of Inertia 147
tors for high mass moments of inertia and a high elements for limiting the temperature, fusible
number of starts. Speed-controlled clutches are safety plugs and electronically or mechanically
Symbols and Units of Translational and Torsional Vibrations 148
designed as centrifugal clutches with segments, controlled temperature monitors are used.
e.g. retaining springs which transmit torques only Fluid couplings are mainly used for starting great
Determination of Stiffness 149
from a specified operating speed on, or with pel- masses, for separating torsional vibrations, and
lets (powder, balls, rollers). The torque which is for limiting overloads during starting and in case
Overlaying of Different Stiffnesses 150
generated by friction on the lateral area of the of blockages.
output part increases as the square of the input
Conversions 150
speed. After running up, the clutch operates
without slip.
Natural Frequencies 150/151
Figure 36
Basic design of a fluid coupling with and without delay chamber, FLUDEX type
140 141
Vibrations Vibrations
Symbols and Units General Fundamental Principles
a m Length of overhanging end t s Time 3. Vibrations and the spring as potential energy store, see
A m2 Cross-sectional area T s Period of a vibration figure 37. During vibration, a periodic conversion
3.1 General fundamental principles of potential energy to kinetic energy takes place,
A m, rad Amplitude of oscillation T Nm Torque Vibrations are more or less regularly occurring and vice versa, i.e. the kinetic energy of the mass
AD;
Damping energy; elastic energy V m3 Volume temporary variations of state variables. The state and the energy stored in the spring are converted
Ae of a vibrating system can be described by at certain intervals of time. Dependent on the
Magnification factor; Dynamic/
Nm/ V –
static load ratio
suitable variables, such as displacement, angle, mode of motion of the mass, a distinction is made
c Torsional stiffness
rad velocity, pressure, temperature, electric voltage/ between translational (bending) and torsional
Displacement co-ordinate current, and the like. vibrating systems as well as coupled vibrating
Translational stiffness; x m
c’ N/m (translational, bending) The simplest form of a mechanical vibrating systems in which translational and torsional
bending stiffnes
x^ m Displacement amplitude system consists of a mass and a spring with fixed vibrations occur at the same time, influencing
d m Diameter ends, the mass acting as kinetic energy store each other.
α rad Phase angle
di m Inside diameter
γ rad Phase angle with free vibration
da m Outside diameter
D – Attenuation ratio (Lehr’s damping) δ 1/s Damping constant
Phase displacement angle with
Dm m Mean coil diameter (coil spring) ε rad
forced vibration
e= 2.718 Natural number
Excitation frequency/natural
η –
E N/m2 Modulus of elasticity frequency ratio
f, fe Hz Frequency; natural frequency Inherent value factor for i-th
λi –
natural frequency
f m Deformation
Λ – Logarithmic decrement
F N Force
π= 3.142 Peripheral/diameter ratio
F (t) N Time-variable force Translational vibration Bending vibration Torsional vibration
kg/m3 Specific density generatig system generating system generating system
G N/m2 Shear modulus
ϕ, ϕi rad Angle of rotation
i – Transmission ratio Figure 37
^
iF – Number of windings (coil spring) rad Angular amplitude of a vibration Different vibrating systems with one degree of freedom
la m4 Axial moment of area
. Angular velocity (first time deri-
rad/s
vation of ) Further, a distinction is made between free of which is determined only by the characteristics
lp m4 Polar moment of area vibrations and externally forced vibrations, and of the spring/mass system (natural frequency),
.. Angular acceleration (second
rad/s2 whether the vibration takes place without energy figure 39a.
J, Ji kgm2 Mass moment of inertia time derivation of )
losses (undamped) or with energy losses The vibration variation with time x can be
Reduced mass moment of inertia Vibratory angle of the free vibra- (damped). described by the constant amplitude of
rad
J* kgm2 of a two-mass vibration generating h tion (homogeneous solution)
system A vibration is free and undamped if energy is oscillation A and a harmonic function (sine,
Vibratory angle of the forced neither supplied nor removed by internal friction cosine) the arguments of which contain natural
rad
radian frequency ω = 2π . f (f = natural frequency
p
Nms/ Viscous damping in case of vibration (particular solution) so that the existing energy content of the vibra-
k
rad torsional vibrations tion is maintained. In this case the system carries in Hertz) and time, see figure 38.
^ Angular amplitude of the forced
rad
k’ Ns/m
Viscous damping in case of trans- p vibration out steady-state natural vibrations the frequency
lational and bending vibrations
^ Angular amplitude of the forced
Length; rad
l m stat vibration under load ( = 0)
distance between bearings Amplitude Amplitude
Damping coefficient acc. to DIN
m, mi kg Mass ψ –
740 /18/
M (t) Nm Time-variable excitation moment Angular velocity, natural radian
Vibration
ω rad/s frequency of the damped
Mo Nm Amplitude of moment
vibration
Reduced amplitude of moment of
Mo* Nm a two-mass vibration generating Natural radian frequency of the
o rad/s
system undamped vibration
Radian frequency of the excitat-
ne 1/min
Natural frequency (vibrations per Ω rad/s Period
x = A . sin (ω . t + α)
ing vibration
A . sinω . t
minute)
x =
n1; n2 1/min Input speed; output speed Note: The unit “rad” may be replaced by “1”. A = Amplitude α = Phase angle
Influence factor for taking into ω = Radian frequency
account the mass of the shaft t = Time
q – Figure 38
when calculating the natural
bending frequency Mathematical description of an undamped vibration with and without phase angle
142 143
Vibrations Vibrations
General Fundamental Principles General Fundamental Principles
Solution Proposal for Simple Torsional Vibrators
A damped vibration exists, if during each period lead to high loads in the components and there- programmes, loads with steady as well as and periodically loaded drives are made, the
of oscillation a certain amount of vibrational fore are to be avoided or to be quickly traversed. unsteady excitation can be simulated for drive train having been reduced to a two-mass
energy is removed from the vibration generating (Example: natural bending frequency in high- complex vibrating systems (linear, non-linear, vibration generating system.
system by internal or external friction. If a con- speed gear units). parameter-excited) and the results be
stant viscous damping (Newton’s friction) exists, The range of the occurring amplitudes of oscilla- represented in the form of frequency analyses, 3.2 Solution proposal for simple torsional
the amplitudes of oscillation decrease in accord- tion is divided by the resonance point (natural load as a function of time, and overvoltages vibrators
ance with a geometric progression, figure 39b. frequency = excitation frequency, critical vibra- of resonance. Drive systems with torsionally Analytic solution for a periodically excited one-
All technical vibration generating systems are tions) into the subcritical and supercritical oscilla- flexible couplings can be designed dynamically (fixed) or two-mass vibration generating system,
subject to more or less strong damping effects. tion range. As a rule, for technical vibrating in accordance with DIN 740 /18/. In this standard, figure 40.
systems (e.g. drives), a minimum frequency simplified solution proposals for shock-loaded
distance of 15% or larger from a resonance point
Displacement x is required. Fixed one-mass vibration generating system Free two-mass vibration generating system
Technical vibrating systems often consist of
several masses which are connected with each
other by spring or damping elements. Such
a) systems have as many natural frequencies with
Undamped the corresponding natural vibration modes as
vibration (δ = 0) degrees of freedom of motion. A free, i.e. unfixed
torsional vibration system with n masses, for
instance, has n-1 natural frequencies. All these Figure 40
natural frequencies can be excited to vibrate by Torsional vibrators
periodic external or internal forces, where mostly
only the lower natural frequencies and especially J, J1, J2 = mass moment of inertia [kgm2]
the basic frequency (first harmonic) are of impor- c = torsional stiffness [Nm/rad]
b) tance.
Damped k = viscous damping [Nms/rad]
In technical drive systems, vibrations are excited M (t) = external excitation moment [Nm] , time-variable
vibration (δ > 0) by the following mechanisms: ö = angle of rotation [rad] , ( ϕ = ϕ1 – ϕ2 for 2-mass vibration generating systems as
a) From the input side: . relative angle)
Starting processes of electric motors, system ö.. = angular velocity [rad/s] (first time derivation of ö )
short circuits, Diesel Otto engines, turbines, ö = angular acceleration [rad/s2] (second time derivation of ö )
c) unsteady processes, starting shock im-
Stimulated pulses, control actions.
Differential equation of motion:
vibration ( δ < 0) b) From transmitting elements: J1 ) J2
Meshing, unbalance, universal-joint shaft, o c rad s (35)
One-mass vibration generating system: J1 J2
alignment error, influences from bearings.
Time t c) From the output side: M (t)
)k )c
.. .
Principle of the driven machine, uniform, non- (30)
J J J Natural frequency:
uniform, e.g. piston compressor, propeller.
(
(
2
Figure 39 2 o
Vibration variations with time (A = initial o
As a rule, periodic excitation functions can be fe [Hz] (36)
amplitude at time t = 0; δ = damping constant) described by means of sine or cosine functions Two-mass vibration generating system with
2
and the superpositions thereof. When analysing relative coordinate:
If the vibrating system is excited by a periodic ex- vibration processes, a Fourier analysis may o 30
ternal force F(t) or moment M(t), this is a forced or often be helpful where periodic excitation ne [1/min] (37)
M(t)
) k ) c
.. .
stimulated vibration, figure 39c. With the periodic processes are resolved into fundamental and (31)
external excitation force, energy can be supplied harmonic oscillations and thus in comparison J* J* J1 k damping constant [1/s] (38)
(
(
to or removed from the vibrating system. with the natural frequencies of a system show 2
2
o
J
After a building-up period, a damped vibrating possible resonance points.
system does no longer vibrate with its natural fre- In case of simple vibrating systems with one or with 1 + 2 (32)
quency but with the frequency of the external ex- few (maximum 4) masses, analytic solutions for ωo = natural radian frequency of the undamped
citation force. the natural frequencies and the vibration varia- J1 J2 vibration in rad/s
Resonance exists, when the applied frequency is tion with time can be given for steady excitation. J* (33) fe = natural frequency in Hertz
J1 ) J2 ne = natural frequency in 1/min
at the natural frequency of the system. Then, in For unsteady loaded vibrating systems with one
undamped systems the amplitudes of oscillation or more masses, however, solutions can be cal-
grow at an unlimited degree. In damped sys- culated only with the aid of numerical simulation Natural radian frequency (undamped): ωο
tems, the amplitude of oscillation grows until the programmes. This applies even more to vibrating Damped natural radian frequency:
energy supplied by the excitation force and the systems with non-linear or periodic variable pa-
energy converted into heat by the damping rameters (non-linear torsional stiffness of cou- c [ rad/s] (34) 2
+ 2
1 + D2 (39)
o o o
energy are in equilibrium. Resonance points may plings; periodic meshing stiffnesses). With EDP J
144 145
Vibrations Vibrations
Solution Proposal for Simple Torsional Vibrators Solution of the Differential Equation of Motion
Solution of the Differential Equation of Motion Formulae for the Calculation of Vibrations
k h A e {+ t}
cos ( t+ ) (43)
o
D (40)
o 2 c 4 Constants A and γ are determined by the starting
.
Magnification factor V
conditions, e.g. by h = 0 and h= 0 (initial-value
Phase displacement
ψ = damping coefficient on torsionally flexible
problem).
coupling, determined by a damping hystere-
In damped vibrating systems (δ > 0) the free com-
sis of a period of oscillation acc. to DIN 740
ponent of vibration disappears after a transient
/18/ and/or acc. to Flender brochure
period.
angle ε
damping energy AD
elastic deformation energy Ae
b) Forced vibration (particular solution p)
Reference values for some components:
M *o 1
p c
D = 0.001...0.01 shafts (material damping (1 + 2) 2 ) 4D 2 2
of steel) Frequency ratio
D = 0.04...0.08 gear teeth in gear units cos( t+ ) (44) o
D = 0.04...0.15 (0.2) torsionally flexible cou-
plings 2 D Figure 42
D = 0.01...0.04 gear couplings, all-steel Phase angle: tan (45) Magnification factors for forced, damped and undamped
couplings, universal joint 1+ 2
vibrations at periodic moment excitation (power excitation).
shafts
Magnification factors V and phase displacement angle ε.
Frequency ratio: (46)
o
Static spring characteristic
for one load cycle 3.4 Formulae for the calculation of vibra-
One-mass vibration generating system: tions
Mo * Mo (47) For the calculation of natural frequencies and
vibrational loads, a general vibration generating
system has to be converted to a calculable sub-
Two-mass vibration generating system: stitute system with point masses, spring and
J2 damping elements without mass.
Mo * Mo (48)
J1 ) J2
3.4.1 Mass
m = .V [kg]
c) Magnification factor V = volume [m3]
= specific density [kg/m3]
Mo *
Figure 41 p c V cos ( t+ ) (49)
Damping hysteresis of a torsionally 3.4.2 Mass moment of inertia
^
flexible component
V 1 p M (50)
^
M *o J = r 2 dm: general integral formula
(1 + 2) 2 ) 4D 2 2 stat
3.3 Solution of the differential equation of Circular cylinder:
motion 1
^ J d 4 l (kgm2
p = vibration amplitude of forced vibration 32
Periodic excitation moment
d = diameter [m]
^
M(t) Mo cos t (41) stat = vibration amplitude of forced vibration at l = length of cylinder m
a frequency ratio η = 0.
Mo = amplitude of moment [Nm]
Ω = exciting circuit frequency [rad/s] The magnification factor shows the ratio of the
dynamic and static load and is a measure for the
Total solution: additional load caused by vibrations (figure 42).
h ) p (42)
146 147
Vibrations Vibrations
Terms, Symbols and Units Formulae for the Calculation of Vibrations
Table 8 Symbols and units of translational and torsional vibrations 3.4.3 Determination of stiffness
Term Quantity Unit Explanation Table 9 Calculation of stiffness (examples)
Translatory vibrating mass m; Torsionally Example Stiffness Symbol
Mass, m kg
vibrating mass with mass moment of
Mass moment of inertia J kg . m2
inertia J Coil spring
Instantaneous value of iF = number of windings
x m Instantaneous, time-dependent value of
vibration (displacement,
ϕ rad*) vibration amplitude G d4 N G = shear modulus 1)
angle) c
8 D 3m if m d = diameter of wire
x max, x^ , A m Amplitude is the maximum instantaneous Dm = mean coil diameter
Amplitude ^
max, , A rad value (peak value) of a vibration.
. Oscillating velocity; Velocity is the
x m/s
Oscillating velocity . instantaneous value of the velocity of
rad/s
change in the direction of vibration. Torsion bar G Ip Nm
m x
.. The d’Alembert’s inertia force or the c
Inertia force, N I rad Ip = polar moment of
J
.. moment of inertia force acts in the oppo-
Moment of inertia forces NSm inertia
site direction of the positive acceleration.
d4 l = length
Spring rate, c’ Nm Shaft : I p d, di, da = diameters of
Linear springs 32
Torsional spring rate c N S m/rad shafts
Spring force, c’ . x N In case of linear springs, the spring recoil Hollow shaft : I p (d 4a + d 4i)
Spring moment c.ϕ N S m is proportional to deflection. 32
Attenuation constant
In case of Newton’s friction, the damping Tension bar
(Damping coefficient), k’ N S s/m
Attenuation constant for force is proportional to velocity and
k Nms/rad
rotary motion attenuation constant (linear damping).
E A N E = modulus of
c elasticity 1)
Damping factor δ = k’/(2 . m) 1/s The damping factor is the damping I m
(Decay coefficient) δ = k/(2 . J) 1/s coefficient referred to twice the mass. A = cross-sectional area
Attenuation ratio For D < 1, a damped vibration exists; for
D = δ/ωο –
(Lehr’s damping) D ≥ 1, an aperiodic case exists.
^ ^
xn x n)1 – The damping ratio is the relation between
Damping ratio ^ ^ Cantilever beam F 3 E Ia N
n n)1 – two amplitudes, one cycle apart. c
f l3 m F = force
Logarithmic damping 2 D ^ ^
In (x n x n)1)
– f = deformation at centre
decrement 1 + D2 In ( ^ n ^ n)1) d4 of mass under
Shaft : Ia force F
Time t s Coordinate of running time 64
Ia = axial moment of area
In case of a positive value, it is a lead
Phase angle α rad Hollow shaft : I a (d 4a + d 4i)
angle. 64
Difference between phase angles of two Transverse beam (single
Phase displacement
ε = α1 − α2 rad vibration processes with same radian load in middle)
angle
frequency.
Time during which a single vibration F 48 E Ia N
Period of a vibration T = 2 . π / ωο s c
occurs. f l3 m
Frequency of natural Frequency is the reciprocal value to a
f = 1/T = ωο/(2 . π) Hz
vibration period of vibrations; vibrations per sec.
Radian frequency of Radian frequency is the number of
ωο = 2 . π . f rad/s
natural vibration vibrations in 2 . π seconds.
Transverse beam
Natural radian frequency o c m rad/s Vibration frequency of the natural with overhanging
(Natural frequency) rad/s vibration (undamped) of the system end l = distance between
o c J bearings
F 3 E Ia N
c m a = length of overhang-
Natural radian frequency For a very small attenuation ratio f a2 (l ) a)
2
+ 2
when damped d o D < 1 becomes ωd ≈ ωo. ing end
Excitation frequency Ω rad/s Radian frequency of excitation
Radian frequency ratio η= Ω/ωο – Resonance exists at η= 1.
*) The unit “rad” may be replaced by “1”. 1) For steel: E = 21 S 1010 N/m2; G = 8.1 S 1010 N/m2
148 149
Vibrations Vibrations
Formulae for the Calculation of Vibrations Formulae for the Calculation of Vibrations
Evaluation of Vibrations
Measuring the stiffness: 3.4.4 Overlaying of different stiffnesses 3.4.6 Natural frequencies
In a test, stiffness can be determined by measur- To determine resulting stiffnesses, single stiff- a) Formulae for the calculation of the natural
ing the deformation. This is particularly helpful if nesses are to be added where arrangements in frequencies of a fixed one-mass vibration
the geometric structure is very complex and very series connection or parallel connection are pos- generating system and a free two-mass vibra-
difficult to acquire. sible. tion generating system.
Translation: Series connection: Natural frequency f in Hertz (1/s):
c F N m (51) Rule: The individual springs in a series connec-
f tion carry the same load, however, they are sub- One-mass vibration generating system: Two-mass vibration generating system:
jected to different deformations.
F = applied force [N] c J1 ) J2
1 1 1 1 1 Torsion : f e + 1 (58) fe + 1
c1 ) c2 ) c3 ) ) cn
f = measured deformation [m] (53) J c (59)
c ges 2 2 J1 J2
Torsion:
T Nm rad Parallel connection: c = torsional stiffness in [Nm/rad]
c (52) Rule: The individual springs in a parallel connec- J, Ji = mass moments of inertia in [kgm2]
tion are always subject to the same deformation.
T = applied torsion torque [Nm]
ϕ = measured torsion angle [rad] c1 ) c2 ) c3 ) ) cn c m1 ) m2
c ges (54) Translation, Bending : f e + 1 m (60) fe + 1 c m1 m2 (61)
2 2
Measurements of stiffness are furthermore re-
3.4.5 Conversions
quired if the material properties of the spring ma- c’ = translational stiffness (bending stiffness) in [N/m]
If drives with different speeds or shafts are com-
terial are very complex and it is difficult to rate m, mi = masses in [kg]
bined in one vibration generating system, the
them exactly. This applies, for instance, to rubber
stiffnesses and masses are to be converted to a
materials of which the resilient properties are de-
pendent on temperature, load frequency, load,
reference speed (input or output). b) Natural bending frequencies of shafts sup- Table 10 λ-values for the first three natural fre-
Conversion is carried out as a square of the ported at both ends with applied masses with quencies, dependent on mode of fixing
and mode of stress (tension, compression,
transmission ratio: known deformation f due to the dead weight
shearing). Examples of application are
torsionally flexible couplings and resilient buffers Bearing application λ1 λ2 λ3
Transmission ratio: q g
for vibration isolation of machines and internal fe + [Hz (62)
reference speed 2 f 1.875 4.694 7.855
combustion engines. n1
i n2 (55)
These components often have non-linear speed g = 9.81 m/s2gravity
progressive stiffness characteristics, dependent 4.730 7.853 10.966
on the direction of load of the rubber material. Conversion of stiffnesses cn2 and masses Jn2 f = deformation due to dead weight [m]
For couplings the dynamic stiffness is given, as a with speed n2 to the respective values cn1 and q = factor reflecting the effect of the shaft π 2π 3π
rule, which is measured at a vibrational Jn1 with reference speed n1: masses on the applied mass
frequency of 10 Hz (vibrational amplitude = 25% 3.927 7.069 10.210
C n1 c n2 i 2 (56) q = 1 shaft mass is neglected compared with the
of the nominal coupling torque). The dynamic applied mass
torsional stiffness is greater than the static q = 1.03 ... 1.09 common values when For the solid shaft with free bearing support on
torsional stiffness, see figure 43. J n1 J n2 i 2 (57) both sides, equation (63) is simplified to:
considering the shaft masses
Before combining stiffnesses and masses with q = 1.13 solid shaft without pulley 2
Dependent on the requirements, the amplitudes machine is judged to be “good”, “acceptable”, Page
of vibration displacement, velocity and accelera- “still permissible”, and “non-permissible”. If
tion can be recorded and evaluated in a sum vibration velocities are in the “non-permissible” Bibliography of Sections 10, 11, and 12 154/155
(effective vibration velocity) or frequency- range, measures to improve the vibrational state
selective. The structure-borne noise signal of the machine (balancing, improving the
reflects besides the torque load in the shafts also alignment, replacing defective machine parts,
unbalances, alignment errors, meshing displacing the resonance) are required, as a rule,
impulses, bearing noises, and possibly or it has to be verified in detail that the vibrational
developing machine damages. state does not impair the service life of the
To evaluate the actual state of a machine, VDI machine (experience, verification by
guideline 2056 1) or DIN ISO 10816-1 /19, 20/ is calculation). Structure-borne noise is emitted
consulted for the effective vibration velocity, as a from the machine surface in the form of airborne
rule, taking into account structure-borne noise in noise and has an impact on the environment by
the frequency range between 10 and 1,000 the generated noises. For the evaluation of
Hertz. Dependent on the machine support noise, sound pressure level and sound intensity
structure (resilient or rigid foundation) and power are measured. Gear unit noises are evaluated
transmitted, a distinction is made between four according to VDI guideline 2159 or DIN 45635
machine groups (table 11). Dependent on the /17, 16/, see subsection 1.5.
vibration velocity, the vibrational state of a
Table 11 Boundary limits acc. to VDI guideline 2056 1) for four machine groups
... up to approx. 15 kW
K up to 0.7 0.7 ... 1.8 1.8 ... 4.5 from 4.5 up
without special foundation.
152 153
Bibliography Bibliography
/1/ DIN 3960: Definitions, parameters and equations for involute cylindrical gears and gear pairs. /13/ FVA-Ritzelkorrekturprogramm: EDV-Programm zur Ermittlung der Zahnflankenkorrekturen
March 1987 edition. Beuth Verlag GmbH, Berlin zum Ausgleich der lastbedingten Zahnverformungen (jeweils neuester Programmstand). FVA-
Forschungsvorhaben Nr. 30.
/2/ DIN 3992: Addendum modification of external spur and helical gears. March 1964 edition. Forschungsvereinigung Antriebstechnik, Frankfurt am Main
Beuth Verlag GmbH, Berlin
/14/ Niemann, G.: Maschinenelemente 2. Bd., Springer Verlag Berlin, Heidelberg, New York (1965)
/3/ DIN 3993: Geometrical design of cylindrical internal involute gear pairs; Part 3. August 1981
edition. Beuth Verlag GmbH, Berlin /15/ Theissen, J.: Vergleichskriterien für Grossgetriebe mit Leistungsverzweigung. VDI-Bericht 488
“Zahnradgetriebe 1983 - mehr Know how für morgen”, VDI-Verlag, 1983
/4/ DIN 3994: Addendum modification of spur gears in the 05-system. August 1963 edition. Beuth
Verlag GmbH, Berlin /16/ DIN 45635: Measurement of noise emitted by machines.
Part 1: Airborne noise emission; Enveloping surface method; Basic method, divided into 3
/5/ Niemann, G. und Winter, H.: Maschinenelemente, Band II, Getriebe allgemein, Zahnradge- grades of accuracy; April 1984 edition
triebe-Grundlagen, Stirnradgetriebe. 3rd edition. Springer Verlag, Heidelberg, New York, Part 23: Measurement of airborne noise; Enveloping surface method; Gear transmission; July
Tokyo (1985) 1978 edition
Beuth Verlag GmbH, Berlin
/6/ Sigg, H.: Profile and longitudinal corrections on involute gears. Semi-Annual Meeting of the
AGMA 1965, Paper 109.16 /17/ VDI-Richtlinien 2159: Emissionskennwerte technischer Schallquellen; Getriebegeräusche;
Verein Deutscher Ingenieure, July 1985
/7/ Hösel, Th.: Ermittlung von Tragbild und Flankenrichtungskorrekturen für Evolventen-Stirn-
räder. Berechnungen mit dem FVA-Programm “Ritzelkorrektur”. Zeitschrift Antriebstechnik 22 /18/ DIN 740: Flexible shaft couplings. Part 2. Parameters and design principles. August 1986
(1983) Nr. 12 edition; Beuth Verlag GmbH, Berlin
/8/ DIN 3990: Calculation of load capacity of cylindrical gears. /19/ VDI-Richtlinien 2056: Beurteilungsmasstäbe für mechanische Schwingungen von Maschinen.
Part 1: Introduction and general influence factors VDI-Handbuch Schwingungstechnik; Verein Deutscher Ingenieure; October 1964; (08/97 with-
Part 2: Calculation of pitting resistance drawn without replacement)
Part 3: Calculation of tooth strength
Part 4: Calculation of scuffing load capacity /20/ DIN ISO 10816-1: Mechanical vibration - Evaluation of machine vibration by measurements on
Beuth Verlag GmbH, Berlin, December 1987 non-rotating parts. August 1997 edition; Beuth Verlag GmbH, 10772 Berlin
/10/ DIN 3990: Calculation of load capacity of cylindrical gears. Application standard for industrial
gears.
Part 11: Detailed method; February 1989 edition
Part 12: Simplified method; Draft May 1987
Beuth Verlag GmbH, Berlin
154 155